6.

EXTENSION (STRAIGHTENING) - is movement in the opposite direction of flexion which causes

an increase in the angle at the joint, such as straightening the elbow or the knee.
7. HORIZONTAL EXTENSION (HORIZONTAL ABDUCTION) - occurs when the body segment
extends through the horizontal plane. In putting the shot, the opposite arms move through the
horizontal extension.
8. HYPEREXTENSION - is extension of a body segment to a position beyond its normal extended
position, such as arching the back or extending the leg at the hip beyond its vertical position.
(Movement is limited by the strong anterior cruciate ligament.)
9. ABDUCTION - is movement of a body segment in the lateral plane away from the midline of
the body, such as raising the leg or the arm sideways.
10. ADDUCTION - is movement of a body segment toward the midline, as moving the arm from
the outward horizontal position downward to the vertical position.
11. ROTATION - is movement of a segment around its own longitudinal axis. A body segment
may be rotated inward (medially) or outward (laterally). The scapula may be rotated upward
or downward and the spine may rotate to the right or the left.
12. PRONATION - is rotation of the hand and forearm downward, resulting in a "palm-down"
position.
13. SUPINATION - is rotation of the hand and forearm upward, resulting in a "palm-up" position.
14. INVERSION - is rotating of the foot turning the sole inward.
15. EVERSION - is rotation of the foot turning the sole outward.
16. CIRCUMDUCTION - is a circular or cone-like movement of a body segment, such as
swinging the arm in a circular movement about the shoulder joint. The kind of movement is
also possible in the wrist, trunk, neck, hip, shoulder girdle, and ankle joints.
17. ELEVATION - is when the shoulder is lifted upward as in shrugging the shoulders.
18. DEPRESSION - is when lowering of the shoulder girdle.
19. PROTRACTION (ABDUCTION) - is movement of the shoulder girdle away from the midline of
the body, resulting in broadening of the shoulder.
20. RETRACTION (ADDUCTION) - is movement of the shoulder girdle toward the midline of the
body, resulting in narrowing of the shoulders. The clavicle is capable of some rotation at the
sternum and accompanies scapular upward and downward rotation.

SKELETAL SYSTEM AND SPORTS

The whole skeletal system (including bones, joints, ligaments, cartilage and tendons)
contributed to sports performance. Bones protect the body's organs which may have
otherwise been damaged, due to contact and force which is involved in most sport. The
function of the skeleton in sport is also to provide rigidity and structure to the body, as well as
providing strength to the body.
MOVEMENT - is completely necessary in sport, as well as daily life. The skeletal systems
contribution in sport includes the allowance of movement in many different directions,
involving different groups of bones to do so. Bones also provide leverage which is essential in
sport, and they also act as a structure for muscles. Joints aid in movement as well as
contributing to sport, as joints allow for movement and the range of flexibility between bones.
Mostly, sport and exercise which is practiced at a young age, aids in the prevention of
osteoporosis (a condition where bones become less dense, and frail) at a later stage in life.
This condition puts people at a greater risk of breaks and fractures to bones, as weakening of
the bones makes them more susceptible to damage.
 Exercise not only strengthens your muscular system but it also helps to maintain bone
strength and density. This process happens as bones detect the forces which come about
during sport and exercise. Because they are living organs, they respond to this stimulus by
adapting and creating more cells.
Exercise can benefit the growth of the skeleton in young people. Exercise can increase
bone width, bone density and therefore bone strength. But it has no effect on bone length.
Though participating in sport and exercise, ligaments may also benefit. Ligaments will
stretch more than they would when remaining inactive when exercising. They become slightly
stretched which enables more extension and increased flexibility in sport and everyday life in
over time.
But over-training or over-exercising can often have negative
impacts on the skeletal system. If your vitamin D and calcium levels
do not serve the amount of work your skeletal system is managing, it is likely to lose bone
density, and therefore make the bones more prone to breaks.

The Muscular System

All our movements happen as a result of the shortening (contracting) and lengthering
(extending) of muscles. Our muscles cart
1. Enable us to move our body parts
2. Give us our own individual shape
3. Protext and keep in place our abdominal organs
4. Enable us to maintain a good posture
5. Help in the circulation of our blood
Generate body heat when they contract.
There are over 600 skeletal muscles in the body-150 in the head and neck

What are the types of muscle tissue?

MUSCLE - is the tissue that allows us for active movement of our body or materials within our
body. There are three types of muscle tissue: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth
muscle. Most of our body's skeletal muscle produces movement by acting on the skeleton.

3 TYPES OF MUSCLES TISSUE

1. SKELETAL MUSCLES
Skeletal - or voluntary muscles work as we instruct them. They are under our control. They make
our bodies move. We use them for everyday and sporting activities such as walking, running
and jumping.
2. SMOOTH MUSCLES
Smooth - or involuntary muscles work automatically. They are not under our conscious control.
They work our internal organs such as the stomach, gut and bladder.
3. CARDIAC MUSCLE
Cardiac - or heart muscle is a very special type of involuntary muscle. It is found only in the
heart. It contracts regularly, continuously and without tiring. It works automatically but is under
constant nervous and chemical control.
The term “Muscle Contraction” - refers to the development of tension within the muscle. There
are three main types:
1. In ISOMETRIC or STATIC CONTRACTION - the muscle develops tension with no change in
overall muscle length, as when holding a dumbbell stationary in a biceps curl.
2. In CONCENTRIC CONTRACTION - the muscle shortens as tension is
developed, as when a dumbbell is raised in a biceps curl.
3. In ECCENTRIC CONTRACTION - the muscle develops tension while it lengthens, as in the
lowering movement in a biceps curl.

ISOMETRIC CONTRACTION
Muscle contracts but does not shorten

Both concentric and eccentric contractions can, theoretically, be at constant tension

(isotonic) or constant speed (isokinetic). However, most contractions normally involve neither
constant tension nor constant speed.

WHAT HAPPENS TO OUR MUSCULAR SYSTEM AS WE EXERCISE?

1. There is an increased flow of blood to the working muscles
2. Muscles take up more of the oxygen from the blood.
3. The muscles contract more often and more quickly.
5. There is a rise in temperature in the muscles.
4. More of the muscle fibers contract.
6. Our stores of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and creatine
(muscle fatigue).
phosphate (CP) in the muscles is used up. 7. Waste products such as carbon dioxide and lactic
acid build up in the muscles.
8. These waste products may lead to tiredness and cramp
9. Our stores of muscle glucose are used up.
10. Overuse of muscles can lead to soreness and strains.
Roles of Muscles
Our muscle can only contract or relax, and under normal conditions contraction results
only from a series of nerve impulses. Our muscle may contract fully or partially, with maximum
force or less. Our muscle may contract isometrically or isotonically, singly (in rare instances) or
as a member of a group. Because muscles can contract in these different ways, they have
the ability to act in different roles and to change quickly from one role to another.
AGONIST (primary mover) - A muscle is a mover when its concentric concentration contributes
to the desired movement of a segment of the body. For instance, in flexion at the elbow, the
biceps brachii is a mover.
ANTAGONIST - A muscle is antagonistic to a movement when it
must relax to allow the movement to occur. Antagonist muscles cause actions opposite those
caused by the agonist muscles. For instance, in performing triceps extension exercise, the
antagonist muscle is the biceps.

Agonist and Antagonist Skeletal Muscle Pairs

AGONIST ANTAGONIST MOVEMENT
Biceps brachii: in the anterior Triceps brachii: The biceps brachii flexes the
compartment of the arm in the posterior compartment forearm, whereas the triceps
of the arm brachii extends it.
Hamstrings: group of three Quadriceps femoris: group of The hamstrings flex the leg,
muscles in the posterior four muscles in the anterior whereas the quadriceps
compartment of the thigh compartment of the thigh femoris extend it
Flexor digitorum superficialis Extensor digitorum: in the The flexor digitorum
and flexor digitorum posterior compartment of superficialis and flexor
profundus: in the anterior the forearm digitorum profundus flex the
compartment of the forearm fingers and the hand at the
wrist, whereas the extensor
digitorum extends the fingers
and the hand at the wrist

STABILIZER (FIXATOR) - In order for a segment of the body to move, the body part on which
the segment moves must possess the right amount of stability. For instance, when the arm
moves at the shoulder joint, the shoulder girdle must be held firm by the contraction of certain
muscles which are attached to it.
NEUTRALIZER - A muscle plays the role of neutralizer when it equalizes or nullifies one or more
actions of another muscle. To neutralize each other, two muscles must cause opposite
movements. For instance, the pectoralis major and the latissimus dorsi muscles are both
movers in adduction of the humerus; in addition, the pectoralis major flexes the humerus while
the latissimus dorsi extends it. When the two muscles neutralize each other's functions of flexion
and extension, the result is pure adduction.
MAIN PARTS OF OUR MUSCLES
• DELTOID
• TRICEPS
• HAMSTRINGS
• TRAPEZIUS
• LATISSIMUS DORSI
• GLUTEALS
• BICEPS
• ABDOMINALS
• PECTORALS
• QUADRICEPS

WHAT ARE THE MAIN PARTS OF OUR MUSCLES?

DELTOID:
1. Move the arm in all directions at the shoulder.
2. Example: bowling in cricket.
TRICEPS:
1. Extends the forearm at the elbow
2. Extends the arm at the shoulder
3. Example: a smash in badminton
HAMSTRINGS:
1. Extend the hip joint
2. Flex the knee joint
3. Example: drawing the leg back before kicking a ball
TRAPEZIUS:
1. Helps to control the shoulder girdle
2. Example: a player holding his head up in a rugby scrum
LATISSIMUS DORSI:
1. Adducts and extends the arm at the shoulder
2. Example: swimming the butterfly stroke
GLUTEALS:
1. Abduct and extend the hip joint
2. Example: stepping up during rock climbing
BICEPS:
1. Flex the forearm at the elbow
2. Example: drawing a bow in archery
ABDOMINALS:
1. Rotate and raise the trunk
2. Strengthen the abdominal wall
3. Help with breathing
4. Example: performing upward circles on the bar in gymnastics
PECTORALS:
1. Adduct the arm and shoulder
2. Used for deep breathing
3. Example: playing a forehand drive in tennis
QUADRICEPS:
1. Flex the hip joints
2. Extend the knee joint
3. Example: taking off in high jump
 MAJOR MUSCLES GROUP OF THE HUMAN BODY

HOW DO OUR MUSCLES WORK?

Our muscles can work in different ways. There are three main types of muscular contraction:
1. ISOTONIC AND CONCENTRIC
2. ISOTONIC AND ECCENTRIC
3. ISOMETRIC