Definition of a polynomial

A polynomial of degree n is a function of the form

f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ...a2 x2 + a1 x + a0

Elementary Functions
Part 2, Polynomials where n is a nonnegative integer and the elements an , an−1 , ..., a2 , a1 , a0
Lecture 2.2a, Polynomials & Their Graphs are real numbers.

The integer n (the highest exponent on x) is the degree of the polynomial.

Dr. Ken W. Smith
The real numbers an , an−1 , ..., a2 , a1 , a0 are called coefficients of the
Sam Houston State University polynomial.

2013 The real number an is the leading coefficient of the polynomial.

The constant term is a0 ; it corresponds to the y-intercept of f (x).

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Definition of a polynomial Polynomials are continuous and smooth

Example. The polynomial Since f (x) does not involve square roots of the variable x, nor does it
√ 13 have denominators involving the variable x, then the domain of a
f (x) = 2x5 + πx3 + 3x2 −
x + 23 polynomial is the entire real line: (−∞, ∞).
7
has degree five, with leading coefficient 2 and constant term 23. Graphs of polynomials are particularly nice.

The simplest polynomials are the constant functions. They are continuous, without holes or gaps.

f (x) = a0

(whose graphs are straight lines) and the linear functions

f (x) = a1 x + a0 .

We have already looked at these, along with the functions of degree two,
the quadratics

f (x) = a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 .

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Polynomials are continuous and smooth Polynomials are continuous and smooth
Continuous functions such as polynomials cover all y-values intermediate”
to f (a) and f (b).
Because the graph of a polynomial is continuous, it obeys the
Here is a picture (from Wikipedia) displaying this relationship.
Intermediate Value Theorem

This means that if the function takes on a particular y-value in one place
and a different y-value in another place, then the function takes on all
possible y-values between the two.

More explicitly, suppose a and b are two real numbers with f (a) < f (b).
Then given any real number u between f (a) and f (b), there is an x-value
c between a and b such that f (c) = u.

Continuous functions such as polynomials cover all y-values between f (a)

and f (b) (“intermediate” to f (a) and f (b).)

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Polynomials are continuous and smooth Summary

Graphs of polynomials are also “smooth”. They have no sharp corners or
cusps.
In the picture below, the graph on the left has a sharp corner at (1, 1).
The graph on the right has a cusp at the origin.
Neither of these graphs could be the graph of a polynomial.
The following properties of a polynomial f (x) should be visible in the
The
graphhorizontal green lines represent the y-values f (a) and f (b) and the
of y = f (x):
graph in blue covers all the y-values between f (a) and f (b), such as the
1 The domain is all real numbers, (−∞, ∞).
y-value u = f (c).
2 The function is continuous.

3 The function is “smooth.”

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End-behavior of the graphs of polynomials End-behavior
Consider the simplest polynomials, the so-called power functions like If the degree of the polynomial is even but the leading coefficient is
f (x) = x, f (x) = x2 , f (x) = x3 , f (x) = x4 , f (x) = x5 , ... negative then the end-behavior mimics that of a power function reflected
All of these function have a form like that of f (x) = x3 or f (x) = x4 . across the x-axis. The end behavior should look like the reflection, that is,
it will be
If the exponent on a power function is even, then the y-values go to +∞
.&
whether x is going to −∞ or ∞.
On the other hand, if the graph is y = x3 or a similar graph where the
exponent on x is to an odd power, such as

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End-behavior Turning points of a polynomial of degree n

For a general polynomial, the leading term will begin to dominate the
graph as x grows in absolute value (as x moves far away from the y-axis).

So, ultimately the graph of y = 2x5 + 23x4 − 77x3 + 2x2 − 100x + 40 A polynomial of even degree and positive leading coefficient (such as
will lookthe
We say likebehavior
the graph 5.
of y = x(or
at infinity the “end behavior”) of the polynomial is f (x) = 3x6 + 2x − 7) has end behavior - % .
The end behavior of the fifth degree polynomial
-% Since it drops from theisleft as we get close to the y-axis and then rises far
f (x) = 2x5 + 23x4 − 77x3 + 2x2 − 100x + 40 is the end behavior of x5 : then the end behavior
mimicking
. %. the action of the graph away from the x-axis. off to the right, it must turn around.an %odd number of times.
mimicking the action of the graph far away from the y-axis.
But if the leading coefficient is negative then the end behavior of a The local maximums and minimums, where the graph changes direction,
polynomial of odd degree is flipped over: - &. are called turning points and the number of turning points gives us some
clue to the degree of the polynomial.
For example, the graph of y = −2x5 + 23x4 − 77x3 + 2x2 − 100x + 40
rises off to the left of the y-axis and will drop off to the right of the y-axis. In particular, the number of turning points is always less than the degree.

When x is large in absolute value, the polynomial

f (x) = −2x5 + 23x4 − 77x3 + 2x2 − 100x + 40 begins to look a lot like
−2x5 .
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Turning points of a polynomial of degree n Turning points of a polynomial
The number of turning points is always less than the degree.
For example, the graph of the degree four polynomial Sometimes a pair of turning points can merge and disappear.
f (x) = x4 − 3x2 + x + 1 (below) crosses the x-axis four times (near If we take the coefficient of x2 in the previous example
x = −1.7, x = −0.4, x = 1, x = 1.25) and has three obvious turning
points, around x = −1.3, x = 0.2, and x = 1.1. f (x) = x4 −3x2 + x + 1

and change −3 to −2

f (x) = x4 −2x2 + x + 1

or even change it to −1

f (x) = x4 −x2 + x + 1

a pair of turning points eventually disappear.

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Turning points of a polynomial Turning points of a polynomial

Watch two turning points disappear. Watch two turning points disappear.
The graph of The graph of
f (x) = x4 −3x2 +x+1 f (x) = x4 −2x2 + x + 1
has three clear turning points (around x = −1.5, x = 0.25, x = 1.2) has three turning points (around x = −1, x = 0.25, x = 0.8)

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Turning points of a polynomial Turning points of a polynomial
Watch two turning points disappear. One more change, removing x2 all together...
The graph of The graph of
f (x) = x4 −x2 + x + 1 f (x) = x4 +0x2 + x + 1
has one turning point (around x = −1) has one turning point (around x = −0.75)

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Turning points of a polynomial Polynomials

Let’s see these again, three turning points of a degree 4 polynomial Exercise. Consider the graph of a polynomial, below.
softening into just one turning point. How many turning points does it have? 5
What do you think is the degree of this polynomial? 6

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f (x) = x4 −3x2 + x + 1
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Polynomials

Elementary Functions
In the next lesson, we explore the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra and Part 2, Polynomials
also look at “sign diagrams.” Lecture 2.2b, The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra & Sign Diagrams

(END)
Dr. Ken W. Smith

Sam Houston State University

2013

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A first look at the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

The x-intercepts of the graph of a polynomial f (x) are called the “zeroes”
(or “roots”) of the polynomial. They are the x-values for which f (x) = 0. One might observe that if we wanted four different zeroes (such as
x = −2, 1, 3 and 4 in this case) then the polynomial should have degree 4.
It is easy to create a polynomial with prescribed zeroes.
Suppose we wanted a polynomial with zeroes at x = −2, x = 1, x = 3 and There is a vague sense in which the number of zeroes is the meaning of
x = 4. degree.
Just multiply x + 2 times x − 1 times x − 3 times x − 4.
f (x) = (x + 2)(x − 1)(x − 3)(x − 4) We might hope that a polynomial of degree n has n zeroes.
This is almost true. We will elaborate on this more in a later lesson. Here
If we evaluate this function at x = −2 then the first term is zero and so is a first draft of the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra.
f (−2) is zero. If we evaluate this function at x = 1 then the second term
is zero. And so on. Here is the graph of y = f (x).
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra (first version):

A polynomial of degree n has at most n zeroes.

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Fundamental Theorem of Algebra Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
We can often find n zeroes if we are willing to count some zeroes more Here are the graphs of
than once. √ √
x4 − 4x2 + 3 = (x − 1)(x + 1)(x − 3)(x − 3)
The polynomial x4 − 4x2 + 3 = (x√2 − 1)(x2 − 3) has four zeroes,
√
&
occurring at x = −1, x = 1, x = − 3 and x = 3. x4 − 4x2 = (x − 0)(x − 0)(x − 2)(x + 2).
But if we alter the polynomial a little, dropping the constant term, we have
x4 − 4x2 = x2 (x2 − 4) = x2 (x − 2)(x + 2) = (x − 0)(x − 0)(x − 2)(x + 2).

This has zeroes at x = 2, −2 and 0. The zero at x = 0 occurs because of

the factor x2 ; we should count that zero twice.

We will say that f (x) = x4 − 4x2 = (x − 0)(x − 0)(x − 2)(x + 2) has

zeroes −2, 0, 0, 2.

If we count the zero x = 0 twice the number of zeroes is equal to the

degree.
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Two worked problems The sign diagram for a polynomial

1 Give a polynomial of degree 3 with roots (zeroes) x = 0, x = 1, x = 3.
A convenient aid to graphing a polynomial is to locate the zeroes of the
Solution. All solutions will have the form a x(x − 1)(x − 3) where polynomial and then draw a “sign diagram.” A sign diagram keeps up with
a is some real number. the sign (+/-) of the polynomial in the regions between the zeroes.
One answer is simply x(x − 1)(x − 3).
Consider the polynomial
2 Give the polynomial of degree 3 with roots x = 0, x = 1, x = 3
passing through the point (−1, 16). g(x) = −2(x − 1)2 (x + 3)(x − 4).
Solution Polynomials with roots x = 0, x = 1, x = 3 will have the This polynomial has zeroes at x = 1, x = −3 and x = 4. In order, from
form ax(x − 1)(x − 3) where a is some real number. We need to find smallest to largest, these zeroes are −3, 1, and 4.
a.
The IVT assures us that the only way the graph of the polynomial g(x)
Substitute x = −1 into the expression f (x) = ax(x − 1)(x − 3) to
crosses the x-axis is at a zero, so in each region between the zeroes,
see that f (−1) = −8a.
(−∞, −3), (−3, 1), (1, 4), and (4, ∞),
The polynomial we are after has f (−1) = 16 so a = −2.
the polynomial has a particular sign; positive or negative.
Answer: −2x(x − 1)(x − 3)
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The sign diagram for a polynomial The sign diagram for a polynomial
Let’s do the sign diagram again, a little faster.... Again, our function is
g(x) = −2(x − 1)2 (x + 3)(x − 4).
g(x) = −2(x − 1)2 (x + 3)(x − 4).
Visualize the zeroes x = −3, 1, 4 as fences, separating the regions
Visualize the zeroes x = −3, 1, 4 as fences, separating the regions
(−∞, −3), (−3, 1), (1, 4), (4, ∞).
(−∞, −3), (−3, 1), (1, 4), (4, ∞).
The sign diagram gives a sign, positive or negative, to each of these
regions. The sign diagram gives a sign, positive or negative, to each of these
regions.
(−) | (+) | (+) | (−)
−3 1 4 (−) | (+) | (+) | (−)
−3 1 4
To the left of x = −3 we test x = −4 find the sign of g(−4).
g(−4) = −2(−5)2 (−1)(−8) is the product of five negative numbers. If x is less than −3 then g(x) is negative.
Minus signs cancel in pairs to give a negative number. If x is between −3 and 1 then g(x) is positive.
Between x = −3 and x = 1, pick a nice number: x = 0 is the best! If x is between 1 and 4 then g(x) is positive.
Compute the sign of g(0). g(0) = −2(−1)2 (3)(−4) is positive.
If x is greater than 4 then g(x) is negative.
Between x = 1 and x = 4, pick a number like x = 2 and compute the sign
of g(2). Here g(2) = −2(1)2 (5)(−2)
Smith (SHSU)
is positive.
Elementary Functions 2013 29 / 33
The sign diagram is a nice aid Elementary
Smith (SHSU)
to graphing.
Functions
(Next slide.) 2013 30 / 33

To the right of x = 4 pick a number, say x = 5 and find the sign of g(x).
The sign diagram for a polynomial
It is negative in this case, due to the leading coefficient −2.
A worked problem.
(−) | (+) | (+) | (−) Let’s finish our analysis of the polynomial
−3 1 4 g(x) = −2(x − 1)2 (x + 3)(x − 4), above. Here are some typical questions
one might be asked about g(x).
From this diagram, we know that as x approaches −3 from the left, the
graph of g(x) rises to the x-axis and passes through the x-axis at x = −3, 1 Describe the end behavior of the graph of y = g(x).
then stays above the x-axis until x = 1 when it drops back to the axis, Solution. This is a fourth degree polynomial with leading coefficient
kisses the x-axis and bounces back up, staying above the x-axis until negative. So the end behavior is . & .
x = 4 when it passes through the x-axis and drops below it as x continues 2 Find the real zeroes of g(x).
to the right. Solution. x = 1 (twice), x = −3, x = 4.
Below, is the true graph of y = g(x). 3 Find the y-intercepts of g(x).
Solution. (0, 24).
4 Determine the maximal number of turning points of the graph of
y = g(x).
Solution. Since the polynomial has degree four then it has at most
three turning points.

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A worked problem.
5 Draw the sign diagram of y = g(x) and then sketch the graph.
Solution. The sign diagram is

(−) | (+) | (+) | (−)

−3 1 4

The graph is

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In the next presentation, we explore the zeroes of polynomials.

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