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To prepare a temporary mount of a leaf peel to show stomata.

Theory
" Plants need oxygen for respiration and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
The exchange of gases in plants occurs through the surface of stens,
roots and leaves.
" On leaves there are plenty of small tiny pores called stomata.
" On the dorsal side of leaf more stomatal pores are present than the ventral
surface of leaf.
Through these pores, plants can also lose water by the process called
transpiration.
" To avoid excess loss of water, the stomata pores closes and when gases
are required, these pores open.
This opening and closing of pores is monitored by guard cells.
" The guard cells swell when water flows into them, causing the stomata
pore to open. When the guard cells shrink the stomata pores close.
" The guard cells contain chloroplast and nucleus in it. They are bean-shaped
in dicots and dumb-bellshaped in monocots.
Nucleus

Guard cells

Open stomata

Nucleus

Chloroplast

Open Stomata Closed Stomata

Materials Required
Freshly plucked leaf of Rheo or Tradescantia, petri dish, slide, coverslip, needle,
forceps, brash, dropper, watch glass, filter paper, glycerine, safranin solution and
microscope.
Procedure

1. Take a freshly plucked leaf (Rheo or Tradescantia).

2. Stretch the leaf with its dorsal (lower) part facing upwards.
3. Break the leaf by applying suitable pressure so that the epidermis projects
from the leaf.
4.Cut the epidermis and put it in a petri dish.
5.Take a watch glass, add few drops of water and a drop of stain in it.
6. Transfer the smal piece of epidermis from petri dish into the watch glass
with the help of brash.
7. Allow the peel to remain in the stain for2-3 minutes, so that it can take up
the stain.
8. With the help of brush transfer the stained peel into a petri dish with water
to remOve the extra stain.
9. Now take a clean slide and place it on a filter paper. In the centre of the
slide put a drop of glycerine and transfer the stained peel from petri dish
on the slide.
10. Gently hold the coverslip with the needle and place it on the peel. Avoid air
bubbles formation.
11. Use the filter paper to clean the excess stain, water or glycerine that comes
out from the coverslip sides.
12. Ensure that the slide is clean and place it under the microscope. First view
it under low power (10X) and then under high power(45X).
13. Record your observations.
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 Leaf peel

Glass slide Coverslip

Petiole Leaf peel

Nucleus (a) Mounting a leaf peel

(Epidermal cel)
Open stoma

Guard cel

Chioroplast
Epidermal cel

(b) Epidermal layer in the peel taken from (c) High power magnification of stomata
a dicot leaf showing open stomata

Observations

1. In an epidermal peel we see single layer of cells.

2. In between the epidermal layer small spots are seen.
3. When focused under powerful microscope the stomata pores are clearly
seen.

4. Each stomata pore has two kidney-shaped cells called guard cells.
5. Each guard cell has one nucleus and many chloroplasts.

Conclusion
Epidermal layer of leaf peel has many stomata pores. Each stomatal pore has
two kidney shaped guard cells, in dicots plants. Each guard cell has one nucleus
and many chloroplasts.
Precautions

1. While removing the epidermal peel, ensure that you pluck the thinner scrap
of leaf.

2. Do not overstain the peel.

3. Avoid air-bubbles formation while placing the coverslip.
4. The peel should not be folded.
5. The slide should be clean and dry before placing ít under microscope.
 Aim
To show experimentally that carbon dioxide is given out during respiration.
Theory
" All living things show respiration.
" It is a chemical process that occurs inside the cell, hence called cellular
respiration.
" It involves the breaking down of food to release energy and carbon dioxide.
" Its reaction is the reverse of photosynthesis.
CaH,0, + 60,
Glueose
- 6CO,+ 6H,0+ Energy

" There are two types of respiration in animals: Aerobic and anaerobic
respiration.
" Aerobic respiration needs Oxygen and anaerobic respiration occurs in the
absence of oxygen.
" There are three pathways of respiration as shown below:
no * CO, + Energy
Absence of molecule)
oxygen
(Yeast)
In Lactic acid + Energy
Glucose Pyruvate
(6-Carbon Cytoplasm (3-Carbon Lack of O, (3-Carbon molecule)
molecule) molecule) (Muscle cells)
+

Energy
cO, +H,0+Energy
Presence of O,
(Mitochondria)

" The energy released in cellular respiration is immediately used to

synthesise a molecule called ATP
" Plants also release CO2 during respiration.
" The exchange of gases during respiration takes place through small pores
on the leaf called stomata.
" Carbon dioxide can be tested by lime water test.
" Afreshly prepared lime water is Ca(OH)> When CO, is allowed to pass
through it an insoluble compound called CaCO3 is formed which makes the
lime water milky.
Ca(OH), +CO,
Lime water
CaCO, + H,0
(Milky ppt.

(A)Test for release of CO2 during respiration in animals.

Materials Required
Two test tubes, a cork with two holes, two glass tubes, syringe, lime water.
Procedure

1. Take some freshly prepared lime water in two test tubes.

2. Fit cork with two holes in test tubes A and B.
3. Fix twO glass tubes in this cork of test tube A
as shown in the fiqure.
4. Exhale air into the tube and record your observations.
5. In another test tube B, which has lime water, pass air through syringe and
record your observations.

Blowing Syringe
exhaled air

Cork Cork

Glasstube

Lime water Lime water

(A (B)
Air being exhaled into lime water. Air being passed into lime water with a syringe.

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Observation

" In test tube A, the lime water turns milky sooner than in test tube B.

Conclusion

1. The exhaled air Contains lot of CO2 which turns lime water milky.
2. This proves that during respiration we exhale C02 gas.

Precautions

1. The glass tube should be dipped in the lime water.

2. The lime water should be freshly prepared.

(B) To test release of C02 by plants during respiration.

Materials Required
A conical flask, small test tube, cork, thread, germinating seeds, a bent tube, a
beaker, water and freshly prepared lime water.
Procedure

1. Take two conical flasks, add germinating seeds with little water sprinkled
Over it.
2. Fix the mouth of conical flasks with cork in which a bent tube is fixed.
3. Suspend a small test tube containing KOH solution in it with the help of a
thread in conical flask A.
4.Allow the mouth of the bent tube to be immersed in water in set-up Aand in
lime water in set-up Bas shown below.
5. Record your observations after few hours.

Bent tube Bent tube

Conical flask
KOH
soln.
Lime
Water
Germinating Germinating water
seeds seeds

(Set-up A) (Set-up B)

Observations

1. In set-up A,the water level in the bent tube dipped in beaker increases after
few hours.
This is because the oxygen present in the conical flask is taken up by
germinating seeds and CO2 released due to respiration is absorbed by KOH
present in small tube. Hence, the air pressure in the flask reduces and
water level rises.
2. In set-up B, the freshly prepared lime water turns milky. This is due to
excess CO2 released into the test tube during respiration of germinating
seeds.

Concluslon
This shows that CO2 is given out during respiration.
Precautions

1. Lime water should be freshly prepared.

2. KOH solution should be freshly prepared.
3. Germinating seeds should have lot of moisture in them.
Aim

To study binary fission in amoeba and budding in yeast with the help of
prepared slides
(a) binary fission in Amoeba Experiment
(b) budding in yeast with the help of prepared slides.
Theory

" Reproduction: Plants and animals reproduces (i.e., create new individuals)
either by asexual method or by sexual method.
" Asexual reproduction: When an organism reproduces by single organism, it
is called asexual reproduction. The different ways of asexual reproduction
are fission, budding and regeneration in animals.

1. Binary Fission

This is commonly seen in single celled animals. There are no gametes or

fertilisation. The cells divide many times through mitosis. Animals like
Amoeba reproduce in this manner.
" Amoeba is a tiny unicellular organism that has a porous cell membrane,
changes its shape constantly and encloses the cellorganelles. The genetic
material replicate through amitotic division, the cell divides into two equal
s0zed daughter cells. The division of nucleus is called amitosis because the
stages of a typical mitotic division are not observed in Amoeba.
" Karyokinesis: The division begins with the nucleus dividing to form two
daughter nuclei by the process of karyokinesis.
" Cytokinesis: Karyokinesis is followed by cytokinesis which is the division of
cytoplasm in the mother cell. Two daughter Amoebae cell having a nucleus
and its own cell organelles are formed.

2. Budding

" In this type of reproduction an outgrowth develops due to repeated cell

division on the parent cell that grows to form a bud. The fully grown bud
detaches from the mother's body by forming a constriction at the base and
become new individual.
" Yeast are unicellular eukaryotic micro-organisms belonging to the kingdom
fungi (some are multicellular). They reproduce by budding. Sometimes
chain of cells remain attached to the parent cell. When these cells get
detached they form a new individual organism.

Materials Required

1. Prepared slides of Amoeba showing binary fission with different stages.

2. Prepared slides of yeast showing budding with different stages.
3. Compound microscopes 2-4.

(A)Binary Fission in Amoeba Procedure

1. Place the prepared slides of Amoeba showing different stages of
reproduction on the stage of the microscope.
2. Adjust the mirror of the microscope to focus maximum light on the slide.
Adjust the eye-piece of the microscope so that the slide is clearly focussed
and seen.
3. Draw diagrams of the stages of binary fission in Amoeba.

Fully grown Amoeba Nucleus lengthing Nucleus divides Cytoplasm divides Two smaller
into two parts Amoebae produced
Cytoplasm

Nucleus Constriction
(a) Parent cell (b) (c) (d (e) Two daughter cells

Amoeba reproducing by binary fission

Observations

1. Amoeba is a protozoa that lives in water and has irregular shape.

2. In the centre of Amoeba dense nucleus is seen.
3. In second stage, Amoeba shows the nucleus division, i.e., karyokinesis.
4. In third stage, we can see the cell body division, i.e., cytokinesis.
5. In the fourth stage, two daughter cells of Amoeba are formed.

Conclusion
The given slides showed the division of a single cell body into two equal halves.
The division of nucleus and cell body are seen which led to the formation of two
daughter cells. Hence, the kind of reproduction seen in Amoeba is binary
fission.
(B) Budding in Yeast
Procedure

1. Place the permanent/prepared slides of yeast showing different stages of

reproduction on the stage of microscope.
2. Make the adjustments in mirror of the microscope for focussing maximum
light on the slide.
3. Adjust the eye-piece so that the slide is clearly seen.
4. Draw diagrams of the stages of budding yeast cells.

Daughter Daughter
Bud with yeast
nuclei Bud
Nucleus nucleuS -Bud scar
-Birth scar
Movement of
Bud formation nucleus
Parent
Mitosis into the bud yeast
Vacuole

Budding in Yeast Cells

Observations

1. Yeast is oval or spherical in shape.

2. It is a unicellular organism.
3. In the second stage, yeast shows a small growth on it called bud'.
4. In the third stage, yeast shows that in some situations many such chain of
buds is seen on the parent cell. This process is called 'budding'.
5. On maturity the buds get separated from parent cell to form and grow' as a
new organism. This process is called budding.

Conclusion
The given slides showed the small growth (bud) on yeast. These buds on
maturity separates from parent celland grow as a new organism, hence, yeast
shows budding.
Precautions

1. Use microscope very carefully. Do not disturb its adjustments.

2. The slides shown under the microscope should not be disturbed.
3. Set the mirror of the microscope for better focus of light on the slide.
4. The slide can be seen under low power or high power of the microscope.
These adjustments should be done very carefully.
Aim
To identify the different parts of an embryo of a dicot seed (pea, gram or red
kidney bean).
Theory
" Seed: Seed is a small embryonic plant present in a safe coating of seed
coat, it stores food.
" Seed formation: The male gamete of plant, i.e., pollen grains and female
gamete of a plant, i.e., ovules fuse together to form seed. The seed
formation takes place due to fertilization, and it is the product of
reproduction in plants. The embryo of seed is formed from the zygote.
" Food in seed: The food is stored in the cotyledons of embryo in some
plants and in the endosperm, a special tissue outside the embryo in other
plants.
" Three basic parts of a seed:
1. An embryo
2. Nutrient for embryo
3. Seed coat.
" Embryo: The embryo of seed is an immature plant from which a new plant
can groW.
" The radicle that comes out of the embryo is the embryonic root. The
plumule is the embryonic shoot.
" Cotyledons: It is the seed leaf present in seed. If the embryo has one seed
leaf it is monocotyledon and if it has twO seed leaves it is dicotyledon.
"Eplcotyl: The part of the embryonic stem above the point of attachment of
the cotyledon is the epicotyl.
"Hypocotyl: The area between the radicle and the place of origin of
cotyledons is termed as hypocoty.
" Nutrients for the Embryo: Seed stores nutrients for the growth of an
embryo during germination. The nutrients/ stored food is in the form of oil,
fat and protein.
" Seed Coat: The seed coat protects the embryo from mechanical injury and
from drying out. It can be a paper thin as in case of peanut or may be very
thick e.g. coconut.

Dicot seed

Seed coat Embryo

Testa Tegmen Cotyledons Embryonal axis

(Outer and thick) (Inner and thin)

Plumule Epicotyl Point of Hypocotyl Radicle

attachment

Materials Required
Water soaked seeds of pea,gram or red kidney beans,petridish, forcep, needle,
brush and simple microscope and slide.
Procedure

1. Take 8-10 soaked seeds of pea/gram/red kidney beans, place themon wet
cotton in petridish overnight. The seed coat becomes soft which helps in
the opening of the seeds.
2. With the help of forcep, slowly remove the seed coat and study different
parts of seed embryo.
3. Now, slowly remove the embryo axis with needle and place it on the slide.
4. Observe these three parts of the seed obtained, record your observations
and dravw diagrams.
Observations

1. The seed has a small pore called micropyle.

2. It is a dicot seed, i.e., the seed has twO cotyledons.
3. The embryo axis shows radicle and plumule, (as shown in the figure), the
radicle is future root and the plumule is future shoot.
4. The food is stored in cotyledons.
Plumule (future shoot)

Micropyle

Cotyledons
(food store)

Radicle
(future root)

Conclusion
The different parts of an embryo of a dicot seed were identified as plumule
(future shoot), radicle (future root), seed coat (outer covering) and cotyledons
(food store)
Precautions

1. The best quality seeds should be used for study.

2. Soak the seeds overnight to make the seed coat soft.
3. Observe the parts under simple microscope/lens and record your
observations.
4. Remove the seed coat very gently.