96 CAD /CAM

3) Models of complex shapes are

surface
difficult to interpret unless viewed with hidden
removed (which is computationally intensive).
4) These also produce ambiguous or erroneous models.
5) There are certain surface geometries that are difficult to represent, such as three or five
sided patch shapes. To represent such shapes, surface modeling software need to
rtorm large computations and requires more time.
3 sOLID MODELING

The solution to the drawbacks of wire frame models

orthographic drawings (2D),
surface models (3D), was found with the development of Solid Geometric Modeling. Ih
and
this technique, the models are displayed a_ solid images to the designer, with no room for
misinterpretation and ambiguity. When colouring/ lighting (shading/light projection) is ap
plied to the created image, the resulting picture will be strikingly realistic. With the
present
day high resolution Super Video Graphics Adapter (SVGA), & Accelerated Graphics Pon
(AGP) terminals the image can be produced.
Sokd modelers are used not only for CAD/CAM but also for creating
animations
colour illustrations for magazines, training simulators, video presentations,
etc
There are two major factors which are promoting
the widespread use of solid mode
ing in CAD systems. First one is the increasing awareness among users of the limitations of
wire-frame modeling like time, tediousness and not applicable for further processing and
analysis. The second factor is the dramatic development in hardware and software technol
ogy. Solid modeling systems require a large computational power, in terms of both
and memory which needs a powerful CPU, compatible advanced speed
software plus graphics
the
terminal. Compared to 1980's, now, the hardware technology has
improved tremendously
with great reduction in costs. Powerful CPUs are available from
Motorolla, Intel, Sun and
other manufacturers, at affordable prices. Both the software
technology and graphics tech
nology have improved considerably, which are taking the advantage
of the
offered by solid modelers. Thus, they provide highly automated model
opportunities
building, complete
3D engineering analysis of the models, checking for interference,
assembly of parts, auto
mated manufacturing planning, etc. Solid modeling technique has almost
bridged the gaP
between CAD and CAM, thereby making the data flow smooth for CAM
applications.
Solid Modeling Approaches
There are about half-a-dozen approaches to the problem of solid modeling. They are
1. Constructive solid geometry (CSG or C-Rep) also called Building Block Approach.
 COMPUTER GRAPHICS 97
2. Boundary Representation (B-Rep)
Sweep Representation (S-Rep)
3
4. Pure PrimitiveInstancing (PP1)
Spatial Occupancy Enumeration (SOE)
5.
6. Cell Decomposition Schemes (CDS)

approaches followed normally the first

However. the most basic and common are

and B-rep.
twO,i.e. CSG (C-rep)
Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
In
Constructive solid geometry (CSG) is the popular approach in solid modeling.
hence the name
CSG, a solid object is constructed using solid objects, like using blocks and
Building Block Approach. The simple solid objects are called primitives, entities,
or

bounded solid primitives.

The base primitives used in CSG cuboids (block), cylinders, spheres, cones,
are

wedges and the torus (shown in Fig. 3-26). These entities are not simply objects repre-
a cuboid is not a simple
sented by a few lines as in wireframe modeling. For example,
is an object that occupies space. Hence,
object consisting of 12 lines and 8 vertices, but it
is created due to intersection of
when two such primitives intersect, a more complex object
creates only 24 lines and a 16 vertex
linesand surfaces, whereas the wireframe model
object.

Cuboid Cylinder Sphere

(
Wedge Torus
Cone
Fig. 3-26. Solid primitives
98

The models created using solid modelers are often

CADICAN
compact, but can be stored in an
unevaluated form, in which the edges and faces due to combination of
be computed when primitives have to
required. For example, when a display of the model is being
on the
graphics terminal, computations are essential. To some extent, this leads togenerate
ance penalty,
but with advancement in CPU performance in the latest systems, this perfom
is not felt by the user. problem
CSG is also known by the
names, Set theoretic modeling or Boolean
names arise from the
way in which primitives are
method. These
combined using the union,
and difference
operators of set theory. For example, for two solids A and intersection
operator encompasses all points in space that are B, the union
contained in A OR B. This is
Boolean operation as A u B. The
intersection
expressed in
that are operator sirmilarly encompasses all
contained in A AND B, points
difference operators between theexpressed
as AnB or
(A*B). There are two resultss of
two
(AnB, also written as A-B) and those objects-
those points contained in A
AND NOT B
contained in B AND NOT A
(BnA, or B-A).

Primitives AUB
Union

AnB
Intersection
Difference A B
Fig. 3-27. Boolean
operations in CSG
Fig. 3-27 shows the effect
The results of the of Boolean
operations are operations on å cylinder and
composite solids, which may be
cuboid (block).
combined with other
 SRUNISN
Yte salkds t cteate additional slhapes. The basic primifives ate (ale
VS a i fhe mbinations of prinmitives ae called super priritives
Stoer CSG Data
t e s the nt as a binay tree, where the leaves are prirnitives and the
interi
s 3 mlean O}Wratos, which in turn are connected to a root node i e , the fina
aec A e mY have only one parent node and two child nodes. The rost node has
e and the nodes with no children are called leaf nodes. Fig. 3-28a shos the
aeme 130m ot a binany tmee and Fig. 3-28b shows the specific tree for a model
(A-B)--C
(A-B) C-D
K 3
OodoK Tree height
(9) General form (b) Specific mmode
Fig. 3-28. Binary troe
t e primitives themselves may be
considered as conmbinations o
esrlr unhounded half spces, which provkle a basis for
mathenmatiunl
G , anhjinv et ierations to cOnbine hnll apacex, various
a
111e diud) many he conslrucled
pmmitiv es thene
PRWes a Tall spaces ale uutaex, uucth as
mtante
i u s , tnt iidu odinale
a C ut1t sttt tur ry thu
apnee inly aolit and pace Foenample, a i
intersuetion
apav es, aiallel toof six lanar hall
6 -y,usntu thrnh-(), -1,y-0),I, the e
-)anla- espe tinl
Th tu nsir ulement f enlilies is Ilhe hall apare, uauallu
ks ky fhe jrl, yliruter, i e all
the stanland
buidR
aphoe ate
eomah lerel as he bask entities
if effi atnif half spiacd
 100
CAD ID
Boundary Representation (B-REP) Approach
This solid modeling approach involves entering all bounding edges or outline
surfaces of the object required. The designer has to sketch the various views of the
for
(ike the front, top, side, and more views if necessary), drawing interconnecting lines am
the views to establish valid relationships. This work amounts to copying an engineos
surface. Forexample, cube uwou
drawing into the computer, line by line and surface by
a
be entered one edge at a time, first outlining a face, then the adjoining taces, until a soli
created. The order of entry is important to avoid dangling edges and to ensure ohi
validity. Fig. 3-29a shows the input views required for the B-rep approach of solid mod
de
ing of object in Fig. 3-29b.
a) Input views for B-rep solid modeling b) The object required
Fig. 3-29.
Storage of B-Rep Data
Boundary representation models store the data about faces and edges of a
explicitly in an evaluated form. That means, while displaying, unlike in CSG, where aa
stored in an unevaluated form, no computations are required. This leads to performara
advantage, since the information for certain applications can be extracted directily from t
data structure, like for viewing purposes, calculation of the surface area of the models,
However, the B-Rep need to store large amount of data and hence requires large aala
handling of which may be difficult.
 GRAPHICS 101
TER
COMRCOMPU
Between
Cofhparison Bet
grison B-Rep and C-Rep Approaches
The B-Rep and C-Rep approaches can be compared under the following headings:
a
Ease of construction: The C-Rep approach is the easiest to construct an object,
ec a
no sing regular solid prinmitives by adding, subtracting and intersecting components.
line and
But. the construction using B-Rep involves a tedious job, entry of line by
surface by surtace data to create a solid model. B-Rep takes a longer time and effort
Create a given model compared to C-Rep.
Skill of the user: To use a C-Rep, the user need to have only the idea ofthe object.
e ot all the
However, tor a B-Rep solid modeling, the user should have the complete idea
into the
equired views to create an object. Itamounts to transferring a detailed drawing
Sstem. and this obviously requires higher skill of the user to reach the final image.
cConstruction of Complex Shapes: For the construction of complex and unusual
shapes. C-Rep approach is not feasible. It can construct objects which can only be
basic primitive elements. However, with B-Rep approach any complex
body, aircraft fuselage, wing shape, etc.) be easily con-
shape (ike automobile
can
structed.
dData Storage: In C-Rep the data storing is easier, which keeps the model information
in the form of a binary tree, which is in an. unevaluated conditions. Thus the data files
are simaller and can be handled easily. On the other hand, B-Rep approach stores the
data as an explicit definition of the model boundaries, in an evaluated condition. This
requires larger storage space and file handling.
ePerformance of the system: Since in C-Rep the data of the model is stored in an
unevaluated condition, it need to perform large computation while displaying, per-
torming calculations, etc. This slows down the system perfomance. Whereas, in
5-Hep, the data is in an evaluated condition and can be readily called for applications
like display, calculations, etc.
Decause of the relative merits and demerits of the two approaches, nowadays hybrid
e Sstems have been developed which combine both B-Rep and C-Rep techniques. This
ares the user to use an appropriate approach to construct the desired geometric model.
is
C
Other Solid Modeling Approaches
The other modelir techniques like sweeping, pure primitive instancing, spatial occu-
tc ueration and cell decomposition are also used for solid modeling in CAD sys-
5
a Ong with CSG and B-ReD. S-Rep (sweeping) is also considered as a significant
PaCh lhese are discussed briefly here.
 102 CADI
/Sweep Representation (S-Rep)
In sweep representation, a solid is defined in terms of volumes swept out by 2D
or
aminae, as they move along a path. These paths are three types- linear, non-linear
in extrusion. Most CAD systems h
hybrid. Sweeping along a straight path is linear, as ha
are used to gene.
the EXTRUDE feature for solid modeling. Curved paths (non-linear) nere
duct work and other complex shapes. Hybrid sweep is a combination of linear and non
on-i
ear sweeps.
Further, there are two kinds of sweep operations- translational aFd rotational
translational sweep., a planar 2D lamina is moved in a direction perpendicular (directrix.
the plane of lamina. In rotational sweep, the lamina is rotated about an axis of rotati
which becomes the axis of symmetry of the object created) at a given angle. Son
examples of generating solids by sweeping are illustrated in Fig. 3-30.
--
Rotation Linear Along a curve
Fig. 3-30. Sweep representation
Pufe Primitive Instancing (PPI)
It is the simplest of the solid modeling techniques. It involves
describing the modes
varying the dimensions of single primitive called from a library. The technique can
applied to shapes which are geometrically and topologically (but not dimensionally) simile ila
like for shafts, beams, etc. However, thris approach is limited in use as a design tool.