GNS 102 COMPILED COURSE BOOK pdf.

Week 1:Writing as a skill of language

Site: KWASU-Virtual
Course: GNS102 - Use of English II
Book: Writing as a skill of language
Compiled by: ABDULATEEF Aderibigbe adegbenro (head admin of kwasu virtual
solution group)

Description
Writing is the last of the four skills of language. It involves representing our
thoughts, opinion, feelings using specific symbols, graphics using a particular
channel or medium.
Writing is scribal because we express ourselves by encoding our message using the
conventional symbols or code commonly shared by both the en coder (sender) and
the decoder (receiver).
As the last skill of language, it draws a great deal from the other skills of language-
listening, reading and speaking.
This is particularly true because as writers, we sometimes have to listen to people
before we write. This is particularly a common practice with lecture notes that we
take from our lecturers or when conducting formal interviews .In fact, all the four
language skills are interwoven as the success of one somehow depends on another.
This is owing to the fact that a good writer must necessarily be a good listener, a
good reader and to some extent a good speaker too.
Writing is significantly different from speaking because as writers, we often have
the privilege to plan well ahead before any writing task, we have the opportunity to
organize and reorganize our thoughts, we can correct all manners of grammatical,
tense and punctuation errors which is very rare if not impossible in speaking.

Table of contents
1. Types of writing
2. The Writing Process

3. Mind Mapping

4. Writing Processes (continuation)

5. Diagramatic representation of the writing process
 1. Types of writing
There are two basic types of writing which are:
Continuous and Creative Writing
Continuous writing is a type of writing in which the writer express their thoughts,
opinion, feelings in paragraphs that contain interrelated ideas. This is the kind of
writing we have in news reports, articles in journals, articles in chapters of books,
long essays as projects written by students, book reviews, essay exams and many
more.
Among the characteristics of continuous writing are: simplicity of language, less
use of imagery or symbolism, less use of gurative language, the use of well-
developed paragraphs, the use of correct grammatical expressions, sentence
variation and appropriate use of punctuations.
Creative writing on the other hand is a type of writing that is highly imaginative,
imagistic or symbolistic. It is the kind of writing that we nd particularly in such
literary expressions as poetry, prose and to some extent in drama.
Creative writing is characterised by the use of imagery or symbols, compactness or
loftiness of language, the use of gurative language particularly gures of speech, less
attention is paid to grammaticality and appropriateness in the use of punctuations.
The deliberate breaking of grammatical rules and inappropriate use of punctuations
is often considered as style in literary tradition. Many linguistic features are
foregrounded in literary or creative writing in the name of style. In poetry, for
instance, the poet has the right to break grammatical rules because they enjoy what
is commonly referred to as poetic license or liberty.
2. The Writing Process
The Writing Process
Writing as a process involves series of interrelated activities that involves
conscious planning. A good writer is always involved in series of activities taking
one at a time so much so that these activities show some measure of connectivity
that make each depend on another.
Part of the writing process include rst gathering necessary information from di
erent sources such as text books, journals, periodicals, newspapers, magazines
either from the library, e-library or elsewhere. Sometimes the writer may need to
interview knowledgeable people on the topic all in the name of sourcing relevant
information that are relevant to the topic and are capable of making the writing a
huge success.
The next stage is the drafting stage. The rst draft is called the initial draft. It
involves temporarily putting our ideas or thoughts on paper as they come to us in
the process of writing. The ideas are not organised in any particular order at this
stage of writing. At this stage, the writer does a good deal of mind mapping as
indicated in the next slide below.

3. Mind Mapping
 4. Writing Processes (continuation)
Next to drafting is the actual writing. At this stage of the writing process, the writer
organises their ideas or thoughts in a chronological order. The sentences are also
ordered in such a way that there is some measure of co-ordination such that the
reader is able to grasps the thoughts or ideas presented by the writer more readily.
This stage of the writing process is a tedious task as the writer occasionally has to
order and some times re-order their thoughts or ideas in order for them to avoid
ambiguity and ultimately make meaning to the reader.
Editing is next to the actual writing in the writing process. Like the actual writing,
editing is as well a herculean task as it requires careful or meticulous reading of the
entire essay in order to make it error free. Editing involves proof-reading the essay
for such likely errors as errors of tense, grammatical agreement, mechanics,
punctuation and the like. A good essay should be free of all these kinds of errors.
After editing and proof-reading what follows is the nal draft. The nal draft is the
edited and proof-read fashion of the essay. The nal draft is the corrected version of
the essay called the clean copy. It is called the clean copy because it is expected to
be free of all manners of errors. It is that copy that should be read and
comprehended by every reader. This next work of activities in the writing process
is indicated in the diagram below.
 5. Diagramatic representation of the writing process

SUB TOPIC :POWER OF WRITING

Description
Writing as a process concerns its consideration as a task involving some steps
which must be taken in order to achieve a good piece or product. The process
of writing essays thus involves the tripartite stages of pre-writing, writing and
post-writing/re-writing, a key component of which is editing. To go through
the process, you must have POWER. There is power in language and e ective
communication. The POWER of essay writing consists of ve strategies
contained in the word POWER as an acronym. These are Planning,
Organisation, Writing, Editing and Revision. These are examined as follows:
 Table of contents
1. Planning

2. Organisation

3. Writing (Essays)
4. Editing

5. Revision
Planning
The rest activity at this stage is brain-storming. The writer thinks here of what
to write by listing and clustering or asking relevant questions regarding an
idea. Like bush clearing, the writer prepares his head for an essay or paper and
puts bits and pieces together until he formulates a topic, usually a phrase. If
necessary, the topic can still be narrowed down until it becomes manageable
within a research context. For example, it would be too broad to write on
"Living Things" but writing on "The life Cycle of a Mosquito" is more
manageable in Biology.
With the focus now on a topic, the researcher gathers more materials that
relate to his subject of writing, mosquito, and studies them, making his notes.
Part of the planning process include rst gathering necessary information from
di erent sources such as text books, journals, periodicals, newspapers,
magazines either from the library, e-library or elsewhere. Sometimes the
writer may need to interview knowledgeable people on the topic all in the
name of sourcing relevant information that are relevant to the topic and are
capable of making the writing a huge success. With this, he prepares his mind
with relevant information that will bolster his ideas. He moves subsequently
to the fourth stage by which he formulates a thesis, a research/writing
statement. A sentence like "Mosquitoes are familiar insects that are known to
transmit such diseases as yellow fever, malaria and liriasis" can serve as the
thesis of an essay on the life cycle of mosquitoes.
As Hacker (2003, p. 10) notes, "It's a good idea to formulate a thesis early in
the writing process." With a thesis, a writer is able to make an outline of his
proposed essay or article, which can be formal or informal. An informal
outline is a list of items one would want one's writing (or speech) to cover. A
formal outline provides a basic overview, with important details, of a subject,
by giving main and subsidiary ideas. A formal outline is systematic and a
typical one looks like-this:
PTHESIS

I. MAIN IDEA

A. Subsidiary idea to I

B. Subsidiary idea to I

1. Subsidiary idea to B
2. Subsidiary idea to B

a) Subsidiary idea to 2

b) Subsidiary idea to 2

II. MAIN IDEA

A. Subsidiary idea to II

B. Subsidiary idea to II
Subsidiary idea to II

III. MAIN IDEA

In essence, planning your essay simply involves five things: 1. Selecting a

topic 2. Forming a point-of-view 3. Searching for facts 4. Analysing and
arranging the facts and 5. Drawing up an outline. Though all these are self-
explanatory, you can read more on them from Obah (1981, pp.232 -237).
Organisation
Organisation is the arrangement of information in a logical and readable
manner. The success of failure of an essay in achieving its purpose largely
depends on how words, sentences and paragraphs are combined together to
communicate meaning. Paragraphs especially have to be organically
structured in such a way that there is a ow of thought from one to the other.
There are three elements of good organisation, which are Unity (singleness of
purpose), Coherence (smooth progression of thought and logical presentation
of ideas) and Development (creation of basic information that supports a
central idea).
In other words, just as a sentence is made up of one or more clauses, which
are also developed from phrases, which are also made up of lower
constituents, the paragraph is a group of sentences focusing on a particular
idea. Sentences combine to form paragraphs and a paragraph is formally
marked by the indentation of ve spaces at the rst line. It is noteworthy that a
paragraph is a short composition that consists of a group of sentences dealing
with a single topic. Paragraphs combine to form essays and the most
important sentence in the paragraph is known as the topic sentence. A topic
sentence is the hub around which all other sentences revolve. Topic sentences
are usually at the beginning but they need not necessarily be. A topic
sentence may be at the beginning, middle or at the end of the paragraph,
depending on the type of writing and the e ect the writer wants to create.
Organising an essay essentially involves organising sentences and paragraphs.
Actual writing begins from having a main idea to developing it. The main
idea constitutes the topic, while development concerns providing supportive
ideas. The topic and what is said about it constitute the paragraph, which may
typologically be introductory, developing or concluding. But it is important
that whatever type a paragraph is, it has to obey four laws: unity, coherence,
completeness and emphasis.
 2. Writing (Essays)
While composition can be de ned as a piece of continuous writing on one
topic, an essay is a kind of composition in which a writer states his
knowledge or gives his opinion about a particular subject (Udofot &
Ekpenyong, 2008 p. 194). An essay generally enlightens a reader about a
particular issue or phenomenon. This is why an essayist will always bear in
my mind what he intends to achieve in the reader. In the writing stage, the rst
process is called the rst draft. The rst draft is called the initial draft. It
involves temporarily putting our ideas or thoughts on paper as they come to
us in the process of writing.
The ideas are not organised in any particular order at this stage of writing.

Writing an essay structurally consists of four distinct parts. These are the title
or heading, the introduction or the opening, the body or the middle and the
conclusion or the end.
Title or heading

This is always the rst recognisable element in the structure of every essay. It
is a summary of what the entire essay is all about. It gives the reader a clue of
what to expect in the body of the essay. It could be a word, a phrase or a
whole sentence. Whatever its form, we must necessarily give the reader an
idea of what the essay is all about e.g.
The Impact Of Democracy In Our Society

Introduction or Opening

The introduction states the purpose of writing or whets the appetite of the
reader. After reading an introduction, a reader makes up his mind on whether
the essay is worth reading or not. The introduction of your essay is like the
perfume that either attracts or repels. If the introduction states the aim of the
essay, gives a clue into what the reader is to expect or arouses the reader's
interest, it is successful. If it is drab and dull, clumsy or boring, a potential
reader would think of doing something better with his precious time.
Strategies of writing catchy introductions include (a) relating a pertinent and
interesting anecdote, (b) beginning with an arresting quotation (c) summarising
a commonly held view in the body of the essay (d) explaining the specific
occasion that gave rise to the essay and (e) emphasising the importance of the
subject matter of the essay (Eko, 1999, p.25).
The introductory part of the essay is very important as it is what sets the pace
for the remaining part. If it is not catchy, the reader would not be encouraged to
read the work. For example, can you identify the strategies used in the
beginnings of some essays I once presented thus?
Introduction 1
The story is told of a poor man who lived with his wife. One day, his wife,
who had very long hair, asked him to buy her a comb for her hair to grow
well and be well groomed. The man felt very sorry and said no, explaining
that he did not even have enough money to x the strap of his watch he had
just broken. She did not insist on her request.
The man went to work and passed by a watch-shop, sold his damaged watch at
a low price and went to buy a comb for his wife. He came home in the evening
with the comb in hand ready to give his wife. He was surprised when he saw
his wife with a very short hair-cut. She had sold her hair and was holding a
new watch band. Tears owed simultaneously from their eyes, not for the
futility of their actions but the reciprocity of their love. This is love.

To love is nothing extra-ordinary; to be loved is something but to love and be

loved by the one you love is everything, that is the lesson....

Introduction II

A few weeks before he was assassinated in 1947, the esteemed advocate of

non-violent opposition and resistance, Mahatma Gandhi, had a conversation
with his grandson in which he provided him the "seven blunders" that
accounted for the violence that ravaged the world.
These seven blunders, which he had earlier called "seven social sins" in an
article he published in his weekly newspaper "Young India" of October 22
1925, are: wealth without work, pleasure without conscience, knowledge
without character, commerce without morality, science without humanity,
worship without sacri ce and politics without principle. His grandson, Arun
Gandhi, added the eighth later, which he called "rights without
responsibilities".
Now, if being an ardent fan of Gandhi entitles me to anything, I would add
two blunders of our modern age, which account for both passive and active
violence, to the list to make them ten altogether. These are democracy without
decorum and courts without justice.

Introduction III

When the German philosopher, Georg Wilherm Hegel, wrote that "nothing
great in the world has been accomplished without passion" or when Anthony
Robins said that "passion is the genesis of genius", they could have both had
the Oloyede administration in mind because it is passion personi ed.
Right from the beginning of the administration, the commitment with which
the principal o cers and other key o cials of the administration do their work
is legendary and infectious. In the wee hours of the day and into the late hours
of the night, the University of Ilorin is the institution that works with
extraordinary zeal.
Now if you do not feel like reading the rest of the essays, the writer should
either stop writing or you stop reading.

Body or Middle of the Essay

The body or the middle of the essay contains the main points that the writer
wants to pass across. The body is developed through devoting a paragraph to
a point and making a good use of transition devices or paragraph linkers to
make the points cohere. Apart from grammatical correctness, all essays
should persuade the reader that they are worth every minute spent on them
and the content and manner of presenting the points go a long way in
determining whether the readers should continue or not. In terms of length, it
is the most extensive part of the essay and as such, paragraphs must be
arranged in a systematic manner such that each paragraph connects with the
one that follows it. More importantly, each paragraph should discuss a
specific point that will ultimately justify the thesis statement or persuade the
reader to identify with the writer's point of view.

Consider the body of the following essay and determine the strategies the
writer used to develop it:

One of the most exciting and thought-provoking definitions of the media is

the one ordered by Littlejohn and Foss in their book, "Theories of Human
Communication" (2005) in which they order eight metaphors to deconstruct
the concept.

According to them, "Media are windows that enable us to see beyond our
immediate surroundings, interpreters that help us make sense of experience,
platforms or carriers that convey information, interactive communication that
includes audience feedback, signposts that provide us with instructions and
directions, lters that screen out parts of experience and focus on others,
mirrors that re ect ourselves back to us, and barriers that block the truth."

I think the authors ended the definition with "barriers that block the truth" to
draw attention to the predilection of the media, on many occasions, to stand
between their audience and the truth of matters arising. Perhaps, nothing
demonstrates this barrier perspective recently in Nigeria better than the
brouhaha of the highest order that has greeted the child marriage discourse
and coverage.

It all started on Tuesday, 16 July 2013 when the Senate voted to delete Section 29
(4) (b) of the Nigerian Constitution which considers a married woman to be of
full age with the rights to renounce her citizenship. Senator Ahmed Sani
Yerima then raised a constitutional order against the vote while invoking Item
611 of Part I Second Schedule (Exclusive Legislative List) which empowers the
National Assembly to legislate on "the formation, annulment and dissolution of
marriages other than marriages under Islamic law and Customary law including
matrimonial causes relating thereto". It was a simple legislative process.
However, the reportage of this ordinary development was slant and the
Nigerian Feminists Forum, without digesting the issue at stake, issued a
statement to the effect that it "was greatly concerned about the resolution of
the Senate to alter section 29 (a) of the Constitution which stipulates that a
woman shall not be qualified for marriage until she attains 18 years of age."

Now, when I checked my mobile edition of the Constitution, I found that Section
29 (of Chapter 3 - Citizenship) addresses the issue of "renunciation of
citizenship". Then, Sub-section 4 (a) provides that '"full age' means the age of
eighteen years and above" and 4 (b) provides that "any woman who is married
shall be deemed to be of full age". It is therefore glaring that the Nigerian
Feminists Forum misconstrued the Constitution and the Senate. The subject
matter originally is on the renunciation of citizenship, not child marriage.

However, as Thakeray once observed, "a lie once set agoing, having the breath
of life breathed into it by the father of lying, and ordered to run its diabolical
little course, lives with a prodigious vitality," the old and the new media soon
became awash with diabolical analyses and pontiftcations.

Based on classical "groupthink", religious hatred and plain mischief, many

people, including those that should be informed and respectable, began to
exert themselves calling Yerima all sorts of names, as if he wrote the
Constitution, making false generalizations, peddling half-truths and ooding
the media and blogosphere with arguments that generate more heat than light.
In the wake of the ruckus and attacks on his personality, Sani Yarima issued a
statement that should be food for thought for all right-thinking Nigerians.
According to the vili ed Senator, whose "crime" was delivering to his people
his electoral promise of Shariah in 1999, "Nigeria has many uncountable
problems and none of them is early marriage So what can anyone tell me?
I live in a city where young girls at the
age of 12 have already become serial fomicators and cannot count the number
of men they've had sex with. I live in a city where primary school children
disvirgin (sic) themselves behind toilets on Valentine's Day. I live in a city
where young girls ood the street at night looking for men that would give
them N500 to have sex with them. I live in a city where parents send their
daughters out overseas to prostitute and send dollars down. I live in a city
where Government o cials pick undergraduates from University car parks
with Coaster buses to wild sex parties. I live in a city where abortion is so
common that even a Chemist store owner can perform abortion with just
N2,500. These are your daughters and this should worry you and not Yerima's
private matters."
Nevertheless, the facts of the matter are clear. There are many myths
surrounding child marriage just as there are myths surrounding HIV/AIDS.
One of them is that 18 is the minimum age of marriage. This is not true
culturally and biologically. Culturally, attaining puberty is the determinant of
"coming of age" in many cultures and a Professor of Child Health and
Pediatrics at the University of Ilorin, Olugbenga Mokuolu, said recently on a
radio programme that the average age of puberty, medically, is 12 years,
though he
di erentiated between maturity and puberty.

In the United States, as the insightful contribution of Dr. Peregrino Brimah

shows, there is actually no legal minimum age of marriage in many states
while some set as minimum as 13 or 14 years. None of the Abrahamic
religions, Judaism, Christianity and Islam, the last two of which several
millions of Nigerians claim to practise, prescribes 18 years as the minimum
age of marriage for girls. If the United Nations stipulates 18 as the age of
maturity (i:e. a child is "a human being below the age of 18 years unless
under the law applicable to the child...") it is not a divine injunction and the
UN itself even adds a caveat, which means it is not absolute.

Another myth is that early marriage causes Vesico-Vaginal Fistulae (VVF). If

this were to be true, the United States would have been a world leader in
VVF with about half a million annual teen pregnancies and over 4,000
pregnancies yearly at age 12. However, this is not the case in the U.S. as it is
poor nutrition and poor medical facilities that account for the prevalence of
VVF in Africa.

It is also a myth that early marriage impedes education. Contrary to what our
"hacktivists" would like to force down our throats, two of the factors that
impede education are unwanted pregnancies and poverty. If their claim were to
be true, many celebrities here and elsewhere that we all know would not have
been educated. I see many pregnant women on our campuses.
No one is advocating child marriage as it is not compulsory. The point is that
we need to get our facts right to get our bearing right in politics and public
discourse, instead of "overheating the polity", to use the popular Nigerian
phrase, with emotions based on sheer arrogance and stark ignorance. Fellow
Nigerians, facts are sacred; comments are free; missiles are welcome!

Conclusion

The conclusion or the last part of an essay is the climax or summation of the
ideas discussed. It indicates the last impression a reader would have about the
composition. Eko (1999 p.25) further suggests the strategies of concluding
essays as (a) summary of basic points (b) ending with the last and climatic
point without a formal conclusion (c) pointing out the implications that grow
out of the body of the essay (d) leaving the reader with a point to ponder (e)
providing an interesting anecdote (f) ending with a relevant and e ective
anecdote and (g) a paragraph that incorporates a number of techniques.
Can you identify and explain the similarities and di erences in the strategies
used in the following conclusions of some published essays?
Conclusion I

Quite imperceptibly but nevertheless objectionably, we lie we are held up in

tra c when we have not actually left home; we lie on the cell phone we are in
Ilorin when we are in Iwo; we lie of poor network signals when we don't
attempt making a phone call at all or we don't want to answer some questions;
we lie we love whereas we only lust after people and we lie about many small
and big things.

Notwithstanding the prevalence of lies in our country and world, the

generalisation of Ericsson that we all lie does not hold water as there are still
some people, they may be minute in number, who tell the truth always
without minding whose ox is gored. It is always better to be part of a sensible,
responsible, though insigni cant, minority than be part of the lousy, lying
majority, if we must let the truth be told.
Conclusion II

I do not know whether culinary skills are hard or soft but Mrs. Oyeyemi still
has them because I can still remember the delicious meals she prepared
whenever the University delegation was at her house during Christmas in the
last ve years. Many standard students of the University will miss her sorely
as the beautiful, brilliant, elegant, suave, elective and efficient Registrar
during whose tenure the University was ranked best in Nigeria. As Mrs.
Olufolake Oladunni Oyeyemi gracefully steps out of the University, like
Napoleon Bonaparte, she can as well justi ably proclaim, "Veni Vedi Vici" or
"I came, I saw and I conquered"!
Conclusion III

Many sta also expect that with a football a cionado like Mr. Obafemi in the
saddle, the Registrar's Cup will be brought back while others expect him to
take the fight against indecent dressing ably championed by the former
Registrar a notch higher. It is the African practice to do so. Sample: according
to the Ugandan Minister for Ethics and Integrity, Simon Lokodo, recently,
"Any attire which exposes intimate parts of the human body, especially areas
that are of erotic function, is outlawed. Anything above the knee is outlawed.
If a woman wears a miniskirt, we will arrest her." Well, that's in Uganda!
Nevertheless, no country should be a country of anything goes.
Conclusion IV

Generally, the lessons of Ramadhan that should be imbibed after it lie in

piety, humility, discipline, obedience, contentment, unity, brotherhood,
patience and goodness. Ramadhan is a training period and the training is to
last one the whole year and lifetime. One does not go for a medical training
for instance and abandon the gains after the period. If one trains for six years
to be a medical doctor, the training is meant to serve one throughout one's
life.
So when the question of what is next after Ramadhan is raised, to me as an
average Muslim, the answer lies in the lessons of Ramadhan. Besides after
EID, we should also appreciate that taken as an acronym too, we should
always embrace people with open hearts, inspire others with impressive
attitude and distribute good to all.

In essence, writing involves combining a sequence or series of ideas sewn

together till they form a cohesive whole. Some strategies are involved in
developing paragraphs, which all become essays when organised properly.
What is written constitutes the draft and the draft can be improved upon
through editing and revision.
 3. Editing
Editing ensures that all areas of grammatical errors and structural problems
are addressed. CAR formula is used in any writing you engage in and this
means you have to be Creative, Accurate and Result-oriented. In essence,
good editing ensures that you KISS: Keep It Short and Simple (Adedimeji,
2013) and that special attention is paid to grammatical issues especially
aspects of diction, punctuation, concord and spelling.
Related to editing is proof-reading, a slow and methodical reading with a
view to checking spellings, typographical errors and omitted letters during
typing. As Hacker (2003, p.22) notes, "although proofreading is dull, it is
crucial. Errors strewn throughout an essay are distracting and annoying".
 4. Revision
Revision involves revisiting the essay or piece of writing and
appraising it. Global matters receive attention through assessing
the focus, organisation, paragraphing, content and point of view.
In the revision process, a whole paragraph may be deleted and a
paragraph positioned in the middle may be found to be more
suitable at the beginning. According to Hacker (2003 p. 17),
"Material once stressed over two or three paragraphs might be
condensed into one. Entire sections might be rearranged. Even the
content may change dramatically, for the purpose of revising
stimulates thought." Listing all the sources or references
consulted is also part of the post-writing activities especially in
research writing. All reference information should be provided
accordingly by painstakingly cross-checking all the cited authors
and works. In all parts of an essay or any type of writing, a writer
is guided by the six questions of George Orwell (cited in Kennedy
et al., 1997, p.534): What am I trying to say? What words will
express it? What image or idiom will make it clearer? Is this
image fresh enough to have an elect? Could 1 put it more shortly?
Have I said anything that is avoidably ugly?
 SUBTOPIC: THE ESSAY

Description
The essay or composition as it is sometimes called is any piece of
writing on a particular topic which may be what is happening in our
society or what is bothering the writer. An essay is, therefore, any
piece of organised work written in a particular style in order to
communicate a particular idea or the feelings of the essayist on the
chosen topic.
Writers write for different reasons. Some times we write to inform, to
persuade people to either do certain things or share in our feelings, we
may also write to dissuade people from indulging in particular acts or
behaviour. Yet, there are occasions when we write strictly to
entertain. This type of writing however considerably di ers from other
types of writing.
 Table of contents
1. The parts or structure of an essay
2. Methods of writing Introductory paragraphs
3. The Main body
4. The Concluding Paragraph
 The parts or structure of an essay
Every essay is organised in a particular order called its parts or
structure. It is the structure of the essay that is most often associated
with the style of writing even though we can conveniently draw a line
between the two.
A typical essay must have the following
elements in its structure. The title or
heading
This is always the rest recognisable element in the structure of every
essay. It is a summary of what the entire essay is all about. It gives the
reader a clue of what to expect in the body of the essay. It could be a
word, a phrase or a whole sentence. Whatever its form, we must
necessarily give the reader an idea of what the essay is all about e.g.

The title may be written either in lower or upper case. As indicated in

the three examples above, if the title is written in lower case, the
initial letters of all the content words must be capitalised. For stylistic
e ect however, writers some times decide to capitalise the initial
letters of every word irrespective of their forms e.g.
The Impact Of Democracy In Our Society
The introductory paragraph
This marks the beginning of the main body of the essay. It contains
the general background of the essay, de nition or explanation of key
concepts in the topic and it ends with a transition sentence which
indicates that the writer is moving to the main body of the essay
where the essayist will discuss their points paragraph by paragraph as
indicated in the diagram below.
Methods of writing Introductory paragraphs
There are several methods of writing introductory paragraphs of
typical essays. There is no xed method of doing this, this implies that
the writer may apply a particular method suitable for the essay or use
a combination of methods. The choice is always that of the writer.
Some common methods of writing introductory paragraphs include:
Use a general broad statement and develop it to a thesis statement e.g.
Election is an inevitable social practice in every democratic setting,
this implies that…
You may use quotation from a known or credible source such as the
Bible, the Quran, the encyclopedia or the dictionary. The quotation
may be a motto, a slogan, an idiom or a proverb. Quotations leave
strong memories in the mind of the reader and are, therefore, very
good methods of writing introductory paragraphs e.g. ``there is no
smoke without a re’’. When I saw Tomi at my door post as early as
5.30 am this morning, I don’t need a soothe seer to tell me that there
is re on the mountain…
You may use a rhetorical question or series of rhetorical questions.
Questions linger in the mind of a reader for a long time and may,
therefore, be used in writing an introduction e.g. ``what is love, is it a
deep feeling of a ection or a mere infatuation, is it giving and taking
from another person, love is…
 The Main body
This is the part of the essay where the writer develops their points
paragraph by paragraph. Each point raised is devoted to a paragraph.
Each point in a paragraph is considered as a topic sentence which
must be supported with either copious examples or incidents,
illustrations, anecdotes etc. This continues from paragraph to
paragraph until we get to the concluding paragraph.
 The Concluding Paragraph
Every essay begins with an introductory paragraph and ends with a
concluding paragraph. The concluding paragraph is that part of the
essay where the writer has the chance to reiterate the points earlier
discussed in the main body of the essay without necessarily
explaining them again. It is this paragraph that brings the essay to a
natural conclusion.
We may give recommendations or suggestions especially if the
question we are responding to requires such. The concluding
paragraph begins with such words or expressions as; nally, in
conclusion, as a summary, on a nal note, after all said and done, su ce
it to say that. . .this is then followed by the concluding sentence or
sentences. We may decide to conclude the essay with a rhetorical
question e.g. ``do you call that true love?’’

Week 2: ESSAY

Description
An essay is any piece of writing on a particular topic based on the
happenings around us in the contemporary society. Essays come into
being as a result of our daily experiences. Sometimes, essayists write
about themselves, their personal experiences and those of others. The
topics of essays change with new experiences. This, perhaps, informs
why we have di erent types of essays.
 Table of contents
1. Types of Essays
1.1. Narrative Essay

1.2. Descriptive essay

1.3. Argumentative essay

1.4. Expository essay

 Types of Essays
Essays exist in different forms or types based on their content or the
preoccupation of the writer. Basically, we have four di erent types of
essays which include; narrative essay or narration, descriptive essay
or description, argumentative essay or argumentation, and expository
essay or exposition.
 Narrative Essay
A narrative essay tells a story which may be true or frictional. The
story may be about the author or some character or characters known
or unknown to the narrator. The story develops as interrelated
episodes written in the form of a prose. A narrative essay is written in
interconnected paragraphs in chronological form. A narrative relates a
series of events, real or imaginary, in an organised sequence. It is a
story, but it is story that makes a point (Mcwhorter2003, p.208).
McWhorter observes further that narratives provide human interest,
spark our curiosity, and draw us close to the story teller. Commenting
on the functions of narratives, she added that narratives can:
• create a sense of shared history, linking people together. The
members of a culture share certain stories and events, true or
untrue that unite them.
• provide entertainment. Most people enjoy chilling movie or an
intriguing book.
• o er instructions. Children particularly learn good and bad
behaviour and moral immoral actions through stories.
• provide insight through stories which help you discover values,
explore options, and examine motives.
Shedding light on the nature of narratives, Adegija (2004) states that
"you encounter narratives on a daily basis - in conversations, written
reports, in diaries, in interpersonal communication" (p.278).
Reinking, Hart and Osten (1993) observe that "a narrative relates a
series of events. The events may be real - as in histories, biographies,
or news stories - or imaginary, as in short stories or novels. They add
further that "the narrative urge stirs in all of us, and like everyone
else, you have responded almost from the time you began to talk.
Going by the submission of the trio, it is obvious that narratives come
in different forms and shapes. For example, verbal reports,
conversations and even our responses as students to the questions of
our lecturers in class are also narratives of some sort. By implication,
we produce one kind of narrative or another as we engage in
interpersonal communication with other people in different
communicative domains in our daily lives. Most narratives, if not all,
are often characterised by purpose, action and conflict. Reinking, Hart
and Osten explain further that:
A narrative, like any other kind of writing, makes a point or
has a purpose. The point can either be stated or left unstated,
but it always shapes the writing. Some narratives simply tell
what happened or establish an interesting or useful fact (p, 58).
Apart from purpose, there are other features that are always associated
with narratives and they are explained below.
Characteristics of narrative essays
Narratives make a point: a narrative makes a point or supports a
thesis by telling readers about an event or a series of events. The
point may be to describe the significance of the event or events,
make an observation, or present new information. Often a writer
will state the point directly, using an explicit thesis statement.
Other times a writer may leave the main point unstated, using an
implied thesis.
Either way, the point should always be clear to your readers. The
point also determines the details the writer selects and the way they
are presented.
Narratives convey action and detail: a narrative presents a detailed
account of events. In other words, a narrative is like a camera lens
that zooms in on an event and makes readers feel like they can see the
details and experience the action. Writers of narratives can involve
readers in several ways – through
dialogue, with physical description, and by recounting action.
Narratives present a conflict and create tension: An effective
narrative presents a conflict – such as a struggle, question, or
problem – and works towards its resolution. The conflict can be
between participants or between a participant and some external
force, such as law, value, moral, or act of nature. Tension is the
suspense created as the story unfolds and as the reader wonders how
the convict will be resolved. The point at which the con ict is
resolved is called a climax.
Narratives sequence events: the events in a narrative must be arranged
in an order that is easy for readers to follow. Often but not always, a
narrative presents events in chronological order – the order in which
they happened. At other times writers may use the techniques of
flashback and
foreshadowing to make their point more effectively. A flashback
returns the reader to events that took place in the past, while
foreshadowing jumps ahead of time to the future. Both of these
techniques are used frequently in drama, action, and lm. A soap
opera, for instance, might open with a scene showing a woman
lying in a hospital bed, flashback to a scene showing the
accident that put her there, and then return to the scene in the
hospital. A television show might foreshadow what is to come by
beginning with a wedding that is the result of events and convicts
that the program then proceeds to dramatize. When used sparingly,
these techniques can build interest and add variety to a narrative,
especially a lengthy chronological account.
Setting: the setting, which can be natural or symbolic, places a story
in a proper context by revealing where and when the events occurred.
Elements of setting include the actual geographical location, its
topography, scenery, appearance, etc.; the occupation and modes of
day to day lives of the characters; the time in which the action occurs;
and the religious and moral, intellectual, emotional, cultural and
social states and environment of the characters. In a natural setting,
the events occur in a place or places that may be known to your
readers or in a created place. In such settings, you describe the natural
vegetation, ora and fauna, as they are known in real life. In a
symbolic setting, values are embodied in a physical or natural setting.
Abuja, for instance, may be used to represent beauty, joy and peace.
Your setting should be vivid, dynamic and appropriate to the story
you are telling. Narratives use dialogue: good dialogue is the life of
any story. Dialogue provides information about characters, events,
places, and people. Just as people reveal much about themselves with
what they say and how they say it, dialogue can reveal much about
the characters in a narrative. Dialogue is often used to dramatize the
action, emphasize the con ict, and reveal the personalities or motives
of the key participants in a narrative.
Narratives are told from a point of view: the point of view of a
story deals with how the author chooses to tell/narrative his/her story.
That is, the narrative technique employed. There are di erent types of
narrative techniques.
First person narrative technique or point of view is a method of
telling a story or writing an essay that involves the writer of the
story. The story or essay is often about the writer alone and
sometimes it may include other people or characters. The story or
essay resolves around the narrator or writer. The writer or narrator
therefore uses such personal pronouns as I, we, me, us, and our to
show their personal involvement in the story. E.g.
As I moved close to the door, I heard a strange noise and I
took a step backward. Who could that be? I asked myself
immediately. As I stood some distance away from the door,
I began to tremble. It immediately dawn on me that a
horrible thing is about to happen!
Second person narrative technique or point of view is a technique
of telling a story that is equally possible but it is not very
common. In this method of telling a story, the story teller tells
their story to other people without necessarily revealing their
identity. The story unfolds from an anonymous source. This
method or technique of telling a story is sometimes called eye-of-
God method.
In the third person narrative technique or point of view the story
teller is not part of the story that they tell as such the story teller is
distanced from the story. The writer or story teller is merely
telling a story of other people whom they know. In this case, the
writer or story teller uses such third person personal pronouns as
he, she, they, them, their or it as the case may be. E.g.
What is this society turning into? Kimberley asked herself
angrily as she reads the story about the recent kidnap of
three-hundred students from a secondary school in Katsina
state. This is all crazy! She exclaimed. Her looks continued
to change as she reads the story.
(McWhorter, 2003, pp 212-214)
 Descriptive essay
A descriptive essay or writing describes persons, things, objects,
places or processes using the appropriate descriptive words or
phrases. The purpose of descriptive writing is to express exactly what
a person, place, process or procedure is like and so make the reader
feel, taste, see and hear what the writer is describing (Adegija 2004,
p.281). Adegbija explains further that a description can be mechanical
or technical. It can also be impressionistic or notional. According to
him, the former is objective while the latter is subjective. He explains
further that most descriptions combine both types of perspectives. In
his di erentiation of the two concepts, he states that "in an objective
description, you provide factual details and detach your emotions
from the description and give facts based on what you have keenly
observed. In subjective descriptions, your emotions are injected into
the text" (p.282).
Commenting on what a good description should look it, Adegbija also
submits that:
A good description should leave the reader with a prevailing
impression and dominant feeling or mood. It should be such
that what has been described can be easily identi ed when
encountered in real life. A good description should also be
coherently and logically organised.
Explaining the nature of a description writing or essay, McWhorter
(2003, p.250) asserts that:
description presents information in a way that appeals to one
or more of the ve senses, usually with the purpose of creating
an overall impression or feeling. She adds that descriptive
writing makes your ideas vivid for your audience - so they can
almost see, hear, smell, taste, or touch what you are writing
about.
McWhorter adds that writers rely on description to create visual
images and present detailed information about people, places, and
things. Writers also use description to grasp and sustain their readers’
interest. In her opinion, when you write vivid description, you not
only make your writing more lively and interesting, but you also
indicate your attitude toward the subject through your choice of
words and details.
When you describe someone or something, you give a picture in
words to your readers. To make your word picture as vivid and real as
possible, you must observe and record speci c details that appeal to
your reader's senses (sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch) (Langan
1988, p.178). He observes further that "more than any other type of
essay, a descriptive essay needs sharp, colourful details. The
vividness and sharpness provided by the sensory details will give the
reader a clear picture of the person, object or process being
described".
Commenting on the standards and principle of modern approach to
description and the expectation of readers, West (1966, p.68) submits
that;
First of all, most readers refuse to accept long blocks of
description. They want it worked into the story naturally so
that narration, exposition, description and argumentation
become intermingled and inseparable. Secondly, they want all
descriptions to be functional; that is, it must contribute
something to the atmosphere or mood, to the development of
character, or to the main idea. . . Third, readers want the
description to be selective; they want the writer to include only
the details which support his idea... . Finally, readers want the
writer to choose crisp, vivid, memorable, sensory impressions
so only a minimum number of words will be needed to
recreate them. It is obvious from the above quotation that
modern approach to writing a description is multidimensional
and requires the interplay of other forms of writing in order to
make the description not only descriptive but also functional.
Characteristics of descriptive writing
Successful descriptions o er readers more than just a list of sensory
details or a catalog of characteristics. In a good description, the details
work together to recreate a single e ect or impression. Some of the
many characteristics of descriptive writing include the following.
a. The use of sensory details
Sensory details appeal to one or more of the ve senses - sight, sound,
smell, taste, and touch. By appealing to the senses in your writing,
you too can help your readers to experience the object, sensation,
event, or person you aim to describe.
b. The use of active verbs and varied sentences
Sensory details are best presented by using active, vivid verbs and by
varying your sentences. Using varied sentences also contributes to the
e ective expression of sensory details.
c. The creation of dominant impression
An e ective description leaves the reader with dominant impression -
an overall attitude, mood, or feeling about the subject. The impression
may be awe, inspiration, anger, or distaste. To write an e ective
description, you need to select details carefully, including only those
that contribute to the dominant impression you are trying to create.
d. The dominant use of connotative language effectively
Most words have two levels of meaning - denotative and connotative
meaning. The denotation of a word is its precise dictionary meaning.
However, sometimes, feelings and attitudes are also associated with a
word - emotional colourings or shades of meaning. These are the
word's connotations. As you write, be careful about the connotations
of the words you choose. Select words that help to strengthen the
dominant impression you are creating.
e. The use of comparisons
When describing a person or an object, you can help your readers by
comparing it to something with which they are familiar. Several types
of comparisons use deployed in descriptive writing. Some notable
examples are similes, metaphors, personification and analogies.
f. The assumption of a vantage point
A vantage point is a point or position from which you write a
description. You can use asked or a moving vantage point. With as
advantage point, you describe what you see from a particular position.
With a moving vantage point, you describe your subject from a
number of different positions.
g. Description follows a method of organisation
Effective description, like other kinds of writing, must follow a clear
method of organisation to be easy to read. Three common methods of
organisation used in description writing are spatial order,
chronological order, and most-to-least or least-to-most order.
When you use spatial order, you systematically describe a subject
from top to bottom, from inside to outside, or from near to far away.
Or you may start from a central focal point and then describe the
objects that surround it. Chronological order works well when you
need to describe events or changes that occur in objects or places over
a period of time. You might use least-to-most or most-to-least order
to describe the different smells in a owner garden or the sounds of an
orchestra running up for a concert (McWhorter 2003, p.258).
Argumentative essay
According to Adegbija (2004, p. 285), an argument is a debate or a
reasoned discussion on any controversial topic. We argue on topics
relating to politics, food, religion, legislation, education, etc. The
purpose of an argumentative essay is to persuade addressees or
convince them that our viewpoint is superior to other viewpoints.
Arguments are made in order to decide issues. Arguments may also
be intended to shift opinions. Many political, social, and economic
issues, for instance, are resolved through public and private debate. A
sound argument makes a claim and o ers reasons and evidence in
support of that claim. A sound argument also anticipates opposing
viewpoints and acknowledges, accommodates, and/or refutes them.
To argue, one needs to have a proposition, statement or claim to argue
about. There should be points to support your proposition in form of
facts, testimonials, etc. (Adegbija, 2004, p. 285).
Characteristics of an argumentative writing
The writer of an argumentative essay uses any effective means such
as logic, emotions, facts or propaganda to change the position of their
readers on the subject. Reinking, Hart & Von der Osten opines that:
The most successful arguments rest on a rm foundation of
solid, logical support. In addition, many arguments include
emotion because it can play an important part in swaying
reader opinion. Furthermore, writers often make ethical
appeals by projecting favourable images of themselves since
readers form conclusions based on their judgements of the
writer (1993, p.
141).
This takes us to some of the many characteristics of an argumentative
essay.
i. An argument focuses on a narrowed issue
In the words of McWhorter (2003, p. 605), an issue is a controversy,
problem, or idea about which people disagree. In choosing an issue,
therefore, be sure it is arguable, that is, one that people have di ering
opinions on. Depending on the issue you choose and the audience, a
clear de nition of the issue may be required. In addition, the issue
you choose should be narrow enough to deal with adequately in an
essaylength argument. When you narrow your issue, your thesis will
be more precise and your evidence more speci c.
ii. An argument states a speci c claim in a thesis
To build a convincing argument, you need to make a clear and speci c
claim, one that tells readers your position on the issue. However, you
need to be careful about the way you state your claim. Avoid a
general or absolute statement. Your claim will be more convincing if
you limit it and not use generalisations because the use of
generalisations opens the window for your opponent and they could
easily cite exceptions to your claim and thereby show weakness in the
argument.
iii. An argument depends on careful audience analysis
To build a convincing argument, you need to know your audience.
Since the aim of an argument is to in uence the readers’ thinking,
begin by anticipating your readers’ views. First determine how
familiar your audience is with the issue. Then decide whether your
audience agrees with your claim, is neutral about or wavering on the
claim, or disagrees with the claim.
Agreeing audiences
When you write for an audience that agrees with your claim, the focus
is usually on urging readers to take a speci c action. Agreeing
audiences are the easiest to write for because they are already likely to
accept your claim. You can concentrate on reinforcing your shared
viewpoint and building emotional ties with your audience. By doing
so, you encourage readers to act on their beliefs.
Neutral or wavering audiences
Audiences are neutral or wavering when they have not made up their
minds about or given much thought to an issue. Although they may be
somewhat familiar with the issue, they usually do not have strong
feelings about it. In fact, they may have questions about,
misunderstandings about, or no interest in the issue. In writing for
such readers, be straightforward and emphasise the importance of the
issue and o er explanations that clear up misunderstandings readers
may have about it.
Disagreeing audiences
The most challenging type of audience is the disagreeing audience –
one that holds viewpoints in opposition to yours. Such an audience
may also be hostile to your claim and have strong feelings about the
issue. Disagreeing audiences believe their position is correct and are
not eager to accept your views. They may also distrust you because
you don’t share their views on something they care deeply about.
However, in writing for such audience, your goal is to persuade them
to accept your claim. First, establish a common ground – a basis of
trust and goodwill – with your readers. Mentioning shared interests,
concerns, experiences, and points in your argument can help establish
a common ground. Then, when you state your claim, the audience
may be more open to considering your argument.
iv. An argument presents reasons supported by convincing evidence
In writing an argumentative essay, you need to have reasons for
making claims. A reason is a general statement that backs up a claim;
it answers the question, “Why do I have this opinion about the issue?”
You also need to support each reason with evidence. Each of your
reasons would need to be supported by evidence, facts, statistics,
examples, personal experience, or expert testimony. Carefully linking
your evidence to reasons helps readers to see how the evidence
supports your claim.
v. An argument follows a logical line of reasoning
The reasons and evidence in an argument should follow a logical line
of reasoning. The most common types of reasoning are induction and
deduction. They both use evidence in di erent ways to arrive at a
conclusion. Inductive reasoning begins with evidence and moves to a
conclusion. It is a process of coming to a conclusion about something
after observing a number of cases or examples while deductive
reasoning begins with a commonly accepted statement or premise and
shows how a conclusion follows from it. Once the premises are
accepted as true, then the conclusion must also be true.
vi. An argument appeals to readers’ needs and values
Although an e ective argument relies mainly on credible evidence and
logical reasoning, emotional appeals can help support and enhance a
sound argument. Emotional appeals are directed toward readers’
needs and values.
vii. An argument recognises opposing views

Recognising or countering opposing arguments forces you to think

hard about your own claims. When you listen to readers’ objections,
you may nd reasons to adjust your own reasoning and develop a
stronger argument. In addition, readers who disagree with your claim
may reconsider their position in light of your arguments. At the very
least, readers will be more willing to consider your claim if you take
their point of view into account. You may acknowledge,
accommodate or refute an opposing viewpoint. When you
acknowledge an opposing viewpoint, you admit that it exists and that
you have given it serious consideration. When you accommodate an
opposing viewpoint, you acknowledge readers’ concerns, accept some
of them, and incorporate them into your own argument. When you
refute an opposing viewpoint, you demonstrate the weakness of the
opponent’s argument.
From the on-going discussion, it is evident that the writers of
argumentation make use of logic, persuasion, illustration, and
examples to substantiate their points or argument. Sometimes, there
may be need for the writer to make use of description and narration in
the course of writing an argumentative essay.
Expository essay
An exposition or expository essay make known what is shrouded in
mystery. It explains, informs or makes open what remains a secret to
the readers. In an expository writing, you state facts, explain issues or
make on a particular topic (Adegbija 2004, p.283). He adds that
"expositions frequently occurs in the relaying of news on television,
in newspapers, in manuals on how to do things, in recipe books, in
giving directions, and in giving notices". According Adegbija,
expositions can also be found in students' tests, examination answers,
essays and reports. Commenting on the purpose of expositions,
Adegbija states that;
Overall, the purpose of exposition is to inform, or express an
idea or view on a topic or an issue. It also often involves
interpretation. It enlightens, instructs, informs, explains, and
clari es an idea or viewpoint, with the goal of assisting the
reader to know what was not known before or getting a better
understanding on a topic not previously known well.
He explains further that the three functions of expository writing are
informing, explaining and de ning.
These functions according to him are not mutually exclusive, as all
three could be used in an exposition.
Explaining the meaning and nature of an exposition, (west 1966)
observes that:
Because this kind of writing "exposes" or explain, a subject it
is called exposition. Exposition informs the reader about an
object . . . an idea, a word, or a situation. It is probably the
most common form of writing, and it is certainly the kind of
writing you are most often required to do in school (p.42).
An exposition like others kinds of essays has speci c features or
characteristics that is peculiar to it. Some of these characteristics are
explained below.
The characteristics of an exposition
(i) The use of examples to support generalisations Examples are very

e ective ways to support generalisations. Generalisation is a broad

statement about the topic which needs to be supported with
enough examples in order to clarify issues that appear vague.
(ii) The use of illustrations

Illustrations are common features of expositions. In expositions,

illustrations are often required to explain certain concepts that are
either abstract or unfamiliar to readers.
(iii) It organises details e ectively

When examples are used to support a thesis, there is need to decide

how to organise both the examples and the details that accompany
them. Therefore either most-to-least or least-to-most, chronology or
spatial order will be appropriate in organising details for the bene t of
the reader in an exposition.