This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020

research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 792059

Jun. 21st 2022

Solar PV Modules
Market Trends, Materials & Manufacturing Processes
Olatz Arriaga Arruti - EPFL
co-organized with

(11:30-12:30)
 PV Modules: Market Trends, Materials &
Manufacturing Processes
Session Contents
1. PV Module Fabrication Steps
2. PV Technology Market and Costs
3. Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells
4. Solar Cell Interconnections
5. Lamination Process & PV Module Materials
6. Some Degradation Mechanisms
7. Manufacturing of Reliable Silicon Heterojunction Glass/Glass Modules
GoPV Project | SUMMER SCHOOL
PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 1. PV Module Fabrication Steps

1. Single cells 2. Stringing 3. Lamination 4. Junction box

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*STC = Standard Test Conditions: 1000 W/m2 @ 25°C. PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 1. PV Module Fabrication Steps

1. Single cells 2. Stringing 3. Lamination 4. Junction box

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*STC = Standard Test Conditions: 1000 W/m2 @ 25°C. PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
2. PV Technology Market and Costs
PV Technology Trends
Market
Crystalline
Silicon
Thin Films III-V solar cells
3-5 % market share Space application
95% market share

R&D stages

Concentrator PV Other
Perovskites technologies
Failed market
entrance (+ tandems) Organic, DSSC,
quantum dots…

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PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 2. PV Technology Market and Costs
Crystalline Silicon (c-Si) Thin film III-V multi-junction

Wafer based (bulk semiconductor) • Deposition on large area substrate • Grown epitaxially on crystalline wafers
• Processing of wafers • “Monolithic series integration” of • Developed for space applications → very costly
• Series connection of individual solar the cells • Used in concentrated PV (CPV)
cells GoPV Project | SUMMER SCHOOL
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PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
2. PV Technology Market and Costs

Production costs [cts$/Wp]

2017 2020
Total 37 20
Polysilicon 8.7 3
Wafer 5.8 3
Cells 8.6 4
Module 13.8 10

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PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 3. Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells
What is a solar cell?

(n) c-Si
𝐩𝐩-𝐧𝐧 junction

c-Sic-Si
(p)

• Intrinsic (pure) semiconductor material (e.g. Si).

• Doped with impurities to become conductor → +(p) or – n charges
J. Hurni (2022)
transporting the current.
Metallic contacts extract the
• Under light → absorption of photons if hv > Eg (Eg : semiconductor
current
bandgap).
• Photogenerated carriers move towards the junction and cross it.
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PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 Low Temperature Process
3. Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells Silicon Heterojunction
(SHJ)
Front TCO Front metal grid

i/p a-Si:H

Passivated Emitter and Rear Contact (n) c-Si

(PERC)
i/n a-Si:H
Front metal grid
ARC (SiNx)
Rear TCO Rear metal grid
SiOx
n+ emitter

(p) c-Si
BSF High Temperature Process
SiO2 or Al2O3
Al
High Temperature Passivating Contact
SiNx
(HTPC)
Front metal grid
ARC (SiNx)
SiOx
n+ emitter

Aluminium Back Surface Field (p) c-Si

(Al-BSF)
SiO2
Front metal grid Al
ARC (SiNx) p+ polysilicon

SiOx
n+ emitter

(p) c-Si

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Al
BSF 9
PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
ITRPV (2022)
 Low Temperature Process
3. Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells Silicon Heterojunction
(SHJ)
Front TCO Front metal grid

i/p a-Si:H

Passivated Emitter and Rear Contact (n) c-Si

(PERC)
i/n a-Si:H
Front metal grid
• Better passivation (rear surface) ARC (SiNx)
Rear TCO Rear metal grid
• ↓ Optical losses SiOx
n+ emitter
• Similar manufacturing
• High temperature processing
(p) c-Si
BSF High Temperature Process
SiO2 or Al2O3
Al
High Temperature Passivating Contact
SiNx
(HTPC)
Front metal grid
ARC (SiNx)
SiOx
n+ emitter

Aluminium Back Surface Field Challenges: (p) c-Si

(Al-BSF) • Optical losses → reflection of SiO2
Front metal grid photons at rear surface Al
p+ polysilicon
ARC (SiNx)
• Recombination losses → at
SiOx
• Better passivation
n+ emitter metallic contact
• Simple manufacturing processes → no patterning
(p) c-Si • Ohmic losses → high series
resistance at interfaces GoPV Project | SUMMER SCHOOL
Al
BSF 10
PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 Low Temperature Process
3. Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells Silicon Heterojunction
(SHJ)
Front TCO Front metal grid

i/p a-Si:H

(n) c-Si

i/n a-Si:H

Rear TCO Rear metal grid

Advantages:
• Better passivation
• ↓ Processing temperature
• ↓ Thickness, ↓ cost
• ↑ Open-circuit voltage (VOC)
Aluminium Back Surface Field Challenges: • ↓ Temperature coefficient
(Al-BSF) • Optical losses → reflection of
Front metal grid photons at rear surface Challenges:
ARC (SiNx)
SiOx
• Recombination losses → at • Need of ECA for soldering
n+ emitter metallic contact • ↓ adhesion fingers/TCO
(p) c-Si • Ohmic losses → high series
resistance at interfaces GoPV Project | SUMMER SCHOOL
Al
BSF 11
PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN

ECA: electrically conductive adhesive TCO: transparent conductive oxide

 3. Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells

Potential for bifaciality

Aluminium Back Surface Field

(Al-BSF)
Front metal grid
ARC (SiNx)
SiOx
n+ emitter
Conventional Al-BSF cells do
(p) c-Si
not give option for bifaciality
BSF
Al

Passivated Emitter and Rear Contact Silicon Heterojunction

(PERC) (SHJ)
Front TCO Front metal grid
Front metal grid
ARC (SiNx)
SiOx
i/p a-Si:H ITRPV (2022)
n+ emitter

(p) c-Si
(n) c-Si Novel solar cell concepts promote the
BSF
i/n a-Si:H development of bifacial technology
SiO2 or Al2O3
Al GoPV Project | SUMMER SCHOOL
SiNx 12
Rear TCO Rear metal grid PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 1. PV Module Fabrication Steps

1. Single cells 2. Stringing 3. Lamination 4. Junction box

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*STC = Standard Test Conditions: 1000 W/m2 @ 25°C. PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
4. Solar Cell Interconnections

Frame

Glass

Encapsulant

Cells and Interconnections

Encapsulant

Backsheet

Junction Box

A. Shah, Solar cells and modules (2020)

Chapter 9, A. Virtuani

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PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 1. From solar cells to modules

Cell interconnections
Commercial c-Si modules have 60/72
series-connected solar cells

Series connection → to get high voltage

• Cells must be current-matched

Parallel connection → currents add up

• Voltages of cells/strings need to be balanced

A. Shah, Solar cells and modules (2020) GoPV Project | SUMMER SCHOOL
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Chapter 9, A. Virtuani PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 4. Solar Cell Interconnections

Busbar technology

ITRPV (2022)

Clear trend for a higher amount of busbars or none at all

A. Shah, Solar cells and modules (2020) GoPV Project | SUMMER SCHOOL
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Chapter 9, A. Virtuani PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 4. Solar Cell Interconnections

Interdigitated Back Contact (IBC) solar cells

No need of busbars

Advantages:
• More aesthetically appealing.
• Ideal candidate for Building Integrated PV (BIPV)

Challenges:
Y. Lee et al., Israel Journal of Chemistry (2015)
• Cost GoPV Project | SUMMER SCHOOL
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PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 4. Solar Cell Interconnections

Smart-wire technology (SWCT)

Multi-ribbon/multi-wire technology (MWT)
• Conventional ribbons and busbars replaced by round
wires with small diameter.
• Ribbons (3-6) replaced by 20+ wires.
• ↑ ribbons → ↓ current distribution → wires with lower
conductance
• ↓ silver consumption
• ↓ sensitivity of cell/module to cracks/breakages →
↑ durability
A. Shah, Solar cells and modules (2020)
Chapter 9, A. Virtuani

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PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 4. Solar Cell Interconnections

Silicon Heterojunction solar cells

Conventional soldering processes require high

temperatures → need to find a solution for SHJ

Low temperature process → ribbons are “soldered”

by using:
• Busbar technology → not mainstream
• Electrically Conductive Adhesives (ECA)
• MWT/SWCT. A. Shah, Solar cells and modules (2020)

Challenges:
• Use of more silver.
• More expensive.
• Need to adapt stringers in commercial manufacturing processes.

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PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 4. Solar Cell Interconnections

Why don’t we install bare cells in the field?

PV modules are exposed to external stressors: Solar cells and interconnections are
• Temperature variations due to performance encapsulated/packaged to:
and environment. 1. Protect electrical circuit from weathering.
• High humidity conditions → rain, dew… 2. Provide structural stability and protect mechanical
integrity.
• Mechanical stress → wind, snow, hail..
3. Isolate electrical circuit from environment (e.g.
• Irradiance → light, UV
protect operators from electrical shocks).

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PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 1. PV Module Fabrication Steps

1. Single cells 2. Stringing 3. Lamination 4. Junction box

GoPV Project | 1st TRAINING COURSES 21

*STC = Standard Test Conditions: 1000 W/m2 @ 25°C. TECHNICAL FOCUS ON FUTURE SOLAR PV SYSTEMS

October 26-29th 2020

 5. Lamination Process & PV Module Materials
Vacuum membrane laminator

How to we bring all together?

…bringing cohesion to the full module
sandwich?

The lamination process

Frame

Glass

Encapsulant

Cells and Interconnections

Encapsulant

Backsheet

Junction Box

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PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 5. Lamination Process & PV Module Materials
Flexible membrane Upper chamber (P)

Lamination parameters:
• Temperature (T)
• Pressure (P)
• Time (t)

Heating plate (T)

Module stack
• Lamination «recipe»: combination of steps in the process.
• Specific to a given encapsulant.
• Critical in ensuring the modules’ long-term performance.

• Poor lamination process → occurrence of failure modes in the field (e.g. delamination).

*In a good laminator the temperature uniformity of the heating plate is well controlled below ≤ 2°C.
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PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 5. Lamination Process & PV Module Materials
1. Pre-heating step (100s to 500s) → the upper and the
lower chambers are evacuated.
• Removal of the air (de-gas) to minimize the risk
of voids formation.
The softening encapsulant temperature (60-70 °C) is
reached.

2. Curing step (300s to 900s) → the module layups lie

on the heating plate directly. A
• Enhances the adhesion between the
encapsulant and neighboring components.
The gel content (crosslink degree) at the end of the
process must be >80%.

3. Cooling step → the encapsulated PV modules cool to

room temperature.
An encapsulation cycle can take 10-20 min.
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PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN

Open the Black Box: Understanding the Encapsulation Process of Photovoltaic Modules, 2013
 5. Lamination Process & PV Module Materials
Module structure
«Sandwich» or module stack: Fragile silicon solar cells need to be protected in
order to operate outdoors for 25 years (at least).

Front cover 3.2 mm-thick glass

Encapsulant

Stringed cells Provide the adhesion between components

Encapsulant

Backsheet (or polymeric foil) or

Rear cover
a second glass

Modules generally have 60 or 72 cells (depending on applications).

Can be smaller for specific apllications: boats, telcos, etc. GoPV Project | SUMMER SCHOOL
PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
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 5. Lamination Process & PV Module Materials
Glass

Tempered glass about 3.2 mm-thick is used as a front cover.

• Goal → provide mechanical strength.
• Optical improvements → texturized and/or with an antireflection coating.

1.50 100
3.2 mm glass
Front Glass
1.25 80

Transmittance (%)
Irradiance (W/m2)
1.00 60
Encapsulant
0.75
Stringed cells 40
0.50
Encapsulant Xenon lamp 20
0.25
0.00 0
Backsheet or Rear glass
300 320 340 360 380 400
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Wavelength (nm) 26
PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 5. Lamination Process & PV Module Materials
Encapsulant
Main functions:
• Provide adhesion between components (cells-front glass, cells-
backsheet, front glass-backsheet).

• Physical insulation – protect from weather (UV, rain, humidity,

etc.);
Front Glass

• Electrical insulation – keep high voltage away from people and

Encapsulant keep current from flowing out of the array circuit to ground;

Stringed cells • Good optical properties – couple as much incoming light as

Encapsulant
possible into the cells;

Backsheet or Rear glass

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PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 5. Lamination Process & PV Module Materials
Encapsulant
Ethylene Vinyl Acetate copolymer (EVA) has the best properties – cost ratio.

Front Glass

Encapsulant Multiple additives are present in the commercial EVA rolls:

Stringed cells  Curing agent → cross-linking reaction during lamination.

Encapsulant  UV absorbers.
 UV stabilizers/anti-oxidants → decompose curing agent residues;
Backsheet or Rear glass
 Adhesion promoters → increase adhesion between EVA and glass.
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PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 5. Lamination Process & PV Module Materials
Encapsulant alternatives to EVA

Encapsulants share market

100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
2021 2022 2024 2026 2029 2032

ITRPV (2022)

- Development of alternative polyolefines.

- EVA will still remain the dominant encapsulant (…for a while). GoPV Project | SUMMER SCHOOL
PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
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International Technology Roadmap for Photovoltaic – ITRPV 2018 and G. Oreski, “Encapsulant Innovations for replacement of EVA”, EUPVSEC 2019.
 5. Lamination Process & PV Module Materials
Polymeric Backsheet
Most PV modules → composite polymer sheet as backsheet.
• Multi-stack structure of three layers with an overall thickness of 280-400 µm.
T-P-T backsheet
PVF (polyvinyl-fluoride) - Tedlar®
Front Glass → protects the internal circuit
(and PET layer) from weathering
agents
Encapsulant
PET (Polyethylene terephthalate)
Stringed cells → isolates the module
electrically and provides
Encapsulant
mechanical stability.

Backsheet or Rear glass

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PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 5. Lamination Process & PV Module Materials

Modules – Innovative concepts

Innovative module concepts target:

Glass
1. Increased module performance by reducing
Encapsulant
Cell-to-Module losses.
Cells and Interconnections

Encapsulant 2. Increased energy-yield.

Backsheet 3. Increased reliability.
Junction Box

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PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 5. Lamination Process & PV Module Materials

Modules – Innovative concepts

1. Increased module performance

2. Increased energy-yield
3. Increased reliability

Half-cell modules → ↓ cell interconnection

losses

Shingled solar cells → ↓ inactive space

Light capturing ribbons → ↓ shadding losses ITRPV (2022)

A. Shah, Solar cells and modules (2020) GoPV Project | SUMMER SCHOOL
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Chapter 9, A. Virtuani PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 5. Lamination Process & PV Module Materials

Modules – Innovative concepts

1. Increased module performance

2. Increased energy-yield
3. Increased reliability

Anti-reflection coatings (ARC) on front surface of front

glass → ↓ reflection at front glass/air interface

Textured glass → ↑ collection of light at low angles

A. Shah, Solar cells and modules (2020)

Chapter 9, A. Virtuani
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PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 5. Lamination Process & PV Module Materials

Modules – Innovative concepts

1. Increased module performance

2. Increased energy-yield
3. Increased reliability

Anti-reflection coatings (ARC) on front surface of front

glass → ↓ reflection at front glass/air interface

Textured glass → ↑ collection of light at low angles

Bifacial cells/modules → collection of sunlight reflected

ITRPV (2022)
by ground
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PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 5. Lamination Process & PV Module Materials

Modules – Innovative concepts

1. Increased module performance

2. Increased energy-yield
3. Increased reliability

Glass/glass modules → additional protection in

harsh environments (snow, hail or wind loads).

SWCT and MWT → minimize the impact of cracks on

the performance.
ITRPV (2022)

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PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 5. Lamination Process & PV Module Materials
Backsheet vs. Rear-glass
G-BS advantages: G-G advantages:
• Cheaper. Module configuration share market • Possibility to use bifacial cells.
• Lighter. 100% • More rigidity (frameless).
• Possibility to modify the • High insulation.
80%
«breathability» of the BS. • 30 years performance warranty.
60%
40%
20%

0%
2021 2022 2024 2026 2029 2032

ITRPV (2022)

Bifacial modules (increase PV system’s energy-yield) – are starting

to enter the market.
GoPV Project | SUMMER SCHOOL
This is the main boost for the adoption of glass/glass structures. PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
36

International Technology Roadmap for Photovoltaic – ITRPV 2018.

 5. Lamination Process & PV Module Materials
Backsheet vs. Rear-glass

G-BS G-G

H2 O H2 O

AA

others
H2O, O2,

AA &
pollutants
Breathable
Back-sheet & others

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PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 1. PV Module Fabrication Steps

1. Single cells 2. Stringing 3. Lamination 4. Junction box

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*STC = Standard Test Conditions: 1000 W/m2 @ 25°C. PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 1. PV Module Fabrication Steps – Post Production

5. Module check 6. Product certification** 7. Marketing & Installation

Module power output:

• I-V curve @ STC.
Major defects: Pass a series of qualification tests**
• Visual inspection. (i.e. IEC61215).
• Electroluminescent images. GoPV Project | SUMMER SCHOOL
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** It is a liability of the manufacturer. PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 6. Some Degradation Mechanisms
Materials interactions under operating conditions

UV radiation
Metal ions
G-BS

O2, moisture, Additives,

pollutants By-products
Breathable
Back-sheet

Multiple interactions between different components and outdoor stresses may lead to unwanted degradation reactions.
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PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 6. Some Degradation Mechanisms
EVA degradation mechanism
• Temperature, UV radiation and humidity ⇒ acetic acid generation.

It reduces locally the pH inside the module  metallic corrosion.

The main consequeces on the module performance are:

- Incresase of the electrical resistance ↑ Rs;
- Reduction of the fill factor ↓ FF. GoPV Project | SUMMER SCHOOL
PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
41

De Oliveira, M.C.C., et al. in Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2017.

 6. Some Degradation Mechanisms
EVA degradation mechanism
• A non optimised lamination parameters
 residue of cross-linking precursor
 formation of chromophores.

• Additives degradation during exposure (i.e. UV

absorbers)
EVA YELLOWING

• Humidity ingress in the module causes a loss of adhesion 

DELAMINATION

The main consequeces on the module performance:

• Reduction of transmittance  ↓ Isc

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PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN

De Oliveira, M.C.C., et al. in Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2017.

 6. Some Degradation Mechanisms
Backsheet degradation mechanism

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PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN

J. Tracy, Durability of Packaging Material in Globally Fielded PV Modules, 2019 .

7. Manufacturing of Reliable Silicon Heterojunction
Glass/Glass Modules
Lessons learnt
Increased reliability when encapsulated in a good bill of materials (BOM).

Sensitivity to Prevention
Impermeable module structure →
Water ingress & diffusion
edge sealant (ES)
High voltages – Potential High-volume resistivity encapsulants →
Induced Degradation (PID) POEs, ionomer
Non UV-transparent encapsulants or
UV exposure
with cut-off > 353 nm

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PV SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGIES AND DESIGN
 This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020
research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 792059

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