Modules, Systems, and Reliability

Lecture 17
MIT Fundamentals of Photovoltaics
2.626/2.627 – 11/10/2011
Prof. Tonio Buonassisi

Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

Learning Objectives: Modules, Systems, Reliability
1. Describe how PV modules are manufactured.
2. Describe how PV module power output is affected by cell
mismatch losses
3. Describe how microinverters and microelectronics can
improve module performance output.
4. List the necessary tests a PV module must pass to ensure
reliable multi-decade service life in the field, as well as the
shortcomings of these tests.
5. Describe the differences between various types of PV
systems: Grid-tied and stand-alone, tracking and non-
tracking.
6. List major balance of system components.
7. Describe current consensus of life cycle analysis studies,
and recycling of modules.
2 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011
Definitions

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Creative Commons license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/.

3 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

Solar Modules

• Modules require little

maintenance
•Water rinse 2-3 time/year
• Typically no moving parts
• Typical 20-30 year manufacturer
warranty
SunPower Modules

© SunPower. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from

our Creative Commons license. For more information, see
http://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/.

Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

 Solar PV Module DNA

Source: PVCDROM
Courtesy of PVCDROM. Used with permission.

• Low-iron glass ensures good transmission of light.

• Ethyl Vinyl Acetate (EVA) flows at intermediate EVA
temperatures, encapsulating the cells. Thin film
modules often use polyvinyl butyral (PVB), which is
less reactive and has lower permeability than EVA.
• Tedlar forms an impenetrable back layer.
• Aluminum frame provides rigidity.
• Junction box provides electrical connections.
5 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011
Module Circuit Design

Courtesy of PVCDROM. Used with permission.

Source: PVCDROM

• For historical reasons, typical c-Si modules have strings of

36 cells connected in series, yielding a Vmp under
operating conditions of 17-18V. This enables charging of a
typical battery (≥15V). As grid-tied systems become more
common, this voltage constraint is reduced.
6 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011
 Packing Fraction in Modules
Light Concentration in Modules
with Low Packing Fraction

Circular Octahedral Rectilinear

Courtesy of PVCDROM. Used with permission.

Source: PVCDROM

• Higher packing fraction lowers glass, encapsulant costs per watt

peak.
• Lower packing fraction increases optical concentration.

Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

Solar Module Technology Trends: Cheaper, Better Materials

Transparent Front Surface (Glass

Replacement)

Encapsulant (EVA replacement)

Cells

Encapsulant

Backskin (Tedlar replacement)

© ECN. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons
license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/. Frame (Al replacement)
8 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011
© Wikimedia User: Nosferatu it. License CC BY-SA. This content is excluded from our Creative
Commons license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/.

9 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

Solar Module Technology Outlook: Back-Contacted Cells

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license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/.
10 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011
Sample PV
Module Spec
Sheet

Spec sheet samples removed due to copyright restrictions.

See lecture 17 video for discussion.
• Sharp Electronics ND-187U1
• Evergreen Solar ES-A
• First Solar FS Series 3

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Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

Learning Objectives: Modules, Systems, Reliability
1. Describe how PV modules are manufactured.
2. Describe how PV module power output is affected by cell
mismatch losses
3. Describe how microinverters and microelectronics can
improve module performance output.
4. List the necessary tests a PV module must pass to ensure
reliable multi-decade service life in the field, as well as the
shortcomings of these tests.
5. Describe the differences between various types of PV
systems: Grid-tied and stand-alone, tracking and non-
tracking.
6. List major balance of system components.
7. Describe current consensus of life cycle analysis studies,
and recycling of modules.
12 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011
Ideal Equivalent Circuit for Solar Module

Courtesy of PVCDROM. Used with permission.

M = cells in parallel Source: PVCDROM

N = cells in series

In practice, current and voltage output reduced by mismatch losses.

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Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

Parallel Mismatch

Images removed due to copyright restrictions. See Lecture 17 video.

Figures 5.2 (schematic) and 5.3 (graph) from Wenham, S. R., et al. Applied Photovoltaics.
2nd edition. Routledge, 2007. [Preview with Google Books]

14

Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

Series Mismatch

Images removed due to copyright restrictions. See Lecture 17 video.

Figures 5.5 (schematic) and 5.6 (graph) from Wenham, S. R., et al. Applied Photovoltaics.
2nd edition. Routledge, 2007. [Preview with Google Books]

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Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

Shaded Cells

Courtesy of PVCDROM. Used with permission.

http://pveducation.org/pvcdrom/modules/hot-spot-heating

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Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

Images removed due to copyright restrictions. See Lecture 17 video.

Figures 5.8 (schematic) and 5.9 (graph) from Wenham, S. R., et al. Applied Photovoltaics.
2nd edition. Routledge, 2007.

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Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

 Example from PVCDROM

Courtesy of PVCDROM. Used with permission.

http://pveducation.org/pvcdrom/modules/mismatch-for-cells-connected-in-series 18 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

Mismatch Losses and Breakdown

Courtesy of PVCDROM. Used with permission.

http://pveducation.org/pvcdrom/modules/mismatch-effects
19 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011
Underperforming Cells & Hotspots

Image depicting Lock-In Thermography removed due to copyright restrictions.

See Lecture 17 video.

http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/images/lock-in-thermography-enables-solar-cell-development/51184

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Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

Learning Objectives: Modules, Systems, Reliability
1. Describe how PV modules are manufactured.
2. Describe how PV module power output is affected by cell
mismatch losses
3. Describe how microinverters and microelectronics can
improve module performance output.
4. List the necessary tests a PV module must pass to ensure
reliable multi-decade service life in the field, as well as the
shortcomings of these tests.
5. Describe the differences between various types of PV
systems: Grid-tied and stand-alone, tracking and non-
tracking.
6. List major balance of system components.
7. Describe current consensus of life cycle analysis studies,
and recycling of modules.
21 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011
Bypass Diodes

Images removed due to copyright restrictions. See Lecture 17 video.

Figures 5.12 and 5.13 from Wenham, S. R., et al. Applied Photovoltaics.
2nd edition. Routledge, 2007.

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Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

Bypass Diodes

Courtesy of PVCDROM. Used with permission.

http://pveducation.org/pvcdrom/modules/bypass-diodes
23 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011
Bypass Diodes

Courtesy of PVCDROM. Used with permission.

http://pveducation.org/pvcdrom/modules/mismatch-effects-in-arrays
24 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011
Blocking Diodes

Courtesy of PVCDROM. Used with permission.

http://pveducation.org/pvcdrom/modules/mismatch-effects-in-arrays
25
Buonassisi (MIT) 2011
 Power Optimizers and Microinverters
• Power optimizers are DC-to-DC electronics that optimize each
module at the maximum power point.
• DC-to-AC microinverters transform DC electricity directly to AC at
the module.
• Advantages of integrated power electronics include: Maximum
power point tracking to increase system performance, ability to
integrate several modules with different power outputs (e.g.,
shading, angle on roof).
• Disadvantages of integrated power electronics include: Decreased
mean time between failure, more difficult to replace distributed
components when failure occurs, greater expense per peak watt.
• “Hot” topic in PV. Podcast debate:
ŚƚƚƉ͗ͬͬǁǁǁ͘ƌĞŶĞǁĂďůĞĞŶĞƌŐLJǁŽƌůĚ͘ĐŽŵͬƌĞĂͬŶĞǁƐͬĂƌƚŝĐůĞͬϮϬϭϬͬϬϮͬŵŝĐƌŽͲŝŶǀĞƌƚĞƌƐͲ
central-inverters-is-there-a-clear-winner
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Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

Solar Module Technology Trends: BIPV Modules

Photos removed due to copyright restrictions. See Lecture 17 video.

Four photos of Building-Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) modules.

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Towards Facile Installation

© Andalay Solar. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from

our Creative Commons license. For more information, see Courtesy of Greentech Media. Used with permission.
http://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/.
http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/do-it-yourself-solar-at-lowes/

28 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

Learning Objectives: Modules, Systems, Reliability
1. Describe how PV modules are manufactured.
2. Describe how PV module power output is affected by cell
mismatch losses
3. Describe how microinverters and microelectronics can
improve module performance output.
4. List the necessary tests a PV module must pass to ensure
reliable multi-decade service life in the field, as well as the
shortcomings of these tests.
5. Describe the differences between various types of PV
systems: Grid-tied and stand-alone, tracking and non-
tracking.
6. List major balance of system components.
7. Describe current consensus of life cycle analysis studies,
and recycling of modules.
29
Buonassisi (MIT) 2011
Why Module Testing?

Value
- Ensure customer gets what
(s)he pays for.

Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., http://www.sciencedirect.com.

Used with permission.

A. Jacobson and D. Kammen, “Engineering, institutions, and the public interest: Evaluating
product quality in the Kenyan solar photovoltaics industry,” Energy Policy 35, 2960 (2007).
30 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011
 Why Module Testing?

Safety
- Poorly made modules can have electrical arcs in their
junction boxes or hotspots on the module itself, which can
cause fires.

Hotspot on solar module

imaged by thermography:
http://www.chemeng.ntua.gr/solar
lab/Research_Photovoltaic.html

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from our Creative Commons license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/.

31 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

 How Module Testing?
Standard IEC Tests for crystalline silicon and thin film modules:
http://www.iecee.org/ctl/equipment/pdf/pv/EL_IEC61646_Ed1_final.pdf
http://www.iecee.org/ctl/equipment/pdf/pv/EL_IEC61730-2_approved.pdf
http://www.iecee.org/ctl/equipment/pdf/pv/EL_IEC61215_Ed1_final.pdf

Photos of PV module testing removed due to copyright restrictions.

See Lecture 17 video.

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Reliability & Safety

http://www.firstsolar.com/

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license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/.

33

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Learning Objectives: Modules, Systems, Reliability
1. Describe how PV modules are manufactured.
2. Describe how PV module power output is affected by cell
mismatch losses
3. Describe how microinverters and microelectronics can
improve module performance output.
4. List the necessary tests a PV module must pass to ensure
reliable multi-decade service life in the field, as well as the
shortcomings of these tests.
5. Describe the differences between various types of PV
systems: Grid-tied and stand-alone, tracking and non-
tracking.
6. List major balance of system components.
7. Describe current consensus of life cycle analysis studies,
and recycling of modules.
34 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011
Systems: Grid-tied and stand-
alone.

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Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

 System Design
(Infrastructure Beyond Conversion Devices)

Systems
Energy Production Centralized Energy Production Distributed

36

Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

 Systems
Energy Production Centralized Energy Production Distributed

User User

Solar
User Power User
Generation

User User

Today’s typical centralized installation typically exceeds 500 kWp.

37 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

 Systems
Energy Production Centralized Energy Production Distributed

Please see the Lecture 17 video for these three examples.

20 MWp plant in Spain. 11 MWp plant in Portugal Bavaria, Germany

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Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

 Systems
Energy Production Centralized Energy Production Distributed

User User

User User

User User

Today’s typical distributed installation is typically less than 10 kWp, but

can 675 kWp or larger.
39 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011
 Systems
Energy Production Centralized Energy Production Distributed

Please see the Lecture 17 video for these three examples.

675 kWp system, Moscone Center, SF.

Amersfoort, Netherlands House in Rochester, NY

40

Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

Learning Objectives: Modules, Systems, Reliability
1. Describe how PV modules are manufactured.
2. Describe how PV module power output is affected by cell
mismatch losses
3. Describe how microinverters and microelectronics can
improve module performance output.
4. List the necessary tests a PV module must pass to ensure
reliable multi-decade service life in the field, as well as the
shortcomings of these tests.
5. Describe the differences between various types of PV
systems: Grid-tied and stand-alone, tracking and non-
tracking.
6. List major balance of system components.
7. Describe current consensus of life cycle analysis studies,
and recycling of modules.
41 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011
Grid-Tied PV Systems

• PV array connected to
utility grid via an inverter
• Excess power sent to grid
(e.g., meter spins
backwards)
• Relies on utility grid as
“energy storage device” (no
batteries required)
• Mounted on roof or ground
Picture credit: Borrego Solar
• Any business or residence © Borrego Solar. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative
Commons license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/.
can use grid tied solar

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Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

Grid-Tied PV Systems

Solar Panels

Inverter

Existing Circuit Breaker Utility meter

Panel
© source unknown. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative
Commons license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/fairuse.

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Inverters
• Typically use higher voltage
string inverters
• Battery backup is exception
• Sizes range from 700-6000W
• Modern efficiencies range
from 94-99%
• All have maximum power
point tracking (MPPT)
• 5 Year manufacturer © (clockwise from upper left) SMA America LLC; Sharp Electronics; Outback Power,
Inc; Fronius USA LLC. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative
warranty Commons license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/.

• Usually governed by array

considerations
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Mounting Methods
•Roof Mount or Stand Off
•Least expensive
•Usually require penetrations
•Ground Mount
•More expensive
•Usually only option for large
arrays
•Pole Mount
•Can be more expensive
•Adjustable height, and flexible © Borrego Solar. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative
Commons license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/.
orientation
Slide content courtesy of Borrego Solar

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Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

Grid-Tied PV Systems

• Under “net metering” (i.e.,

same price for all electrons):
When panels produce excess Meter Spins Backwards!
power meter spins
backwards. Only pay utility for
distance meter spins
forwards. Only pay once a
year.
• Under “feed-in tariff” or
“time-of-use” (i.e., price for Photo courtesy of coldtaxi on Flickr.
electrons varies depending on
time of day, value of source):
Separate meters, for energy
consumed and produced.
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Prof. Buonassisi’s Electricity Bill

47 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

Off-Grid PV Systems

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48 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011
Life is Good as an Installer…

Module prices ~$1/Wp… …but installations ~$5.20/Wp!

Source: www.greentechmedia.com

Courtesy of Greentech Media. Used with permission. 49 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

Learning Objectives: Modules, Systems, Reliability
1. Describe how PV modules are manufactured.
2. Describe how PV module power output is affected by cell
mismatch losses
3. Describe how microinverters and microelectronics can
improve module performance output.
4. List the necessary tests a PV module must pass to ensure
reliable multi-decade service life in the field, as well as the
shortcomings of these tests.
5. Describe the differences between various types of PV
systems: Grid-tied and stand-alone, tracking and non-
tracking.
6. List major balance of system components.
7. Describe current consensus of life cycle analysis studies,
and recycling of modules.
50 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011
Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) of PV Technologies

Key Factors:
• Boundary Conditions
• Inputs
• Outputs

Notable Groups:
• Vasilis M. Fthenakis (Brookhaven National Laboratory)
• Energy Center of the Netherlands

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LCA Boundary Conditions

Boundary conditions define the scope. Limited boundary conditions may

compromise validity of the study!

© ECN. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons
license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/.

“State-of-the-art photovoltaic systems have Energy Pay Back Times as low as 1.7 years.” ECN News, 15 May 2006.
52 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011
LCA Boundary Conditions

© ACS. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons
license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/.

Fthenakis, V. M., et al. “Emissions from Photovoltaic Life Cycles.” Environ. Sci. Technol. 42, no. 6 (2008): 2168-2174.
See also “Photovoltaic Cells Are Still Very Green, Comparative Test Shows.” The New York Times, Feb. 26, 2008.
53 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011
LCA Inputs

Some Key Inputs (Assumptions!) into LCA Models:

• Module lifetime
• Wafer thickness
• Cell / module efficiency
• Manufacturing yield
• Energy mix

Nota bene:
The outputs of comparative LCA studies are extremely
sensitive to these key inputs.

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LCA Outputs

Some Key LCA Outputs:

• Energy payback time
• CO2 emissions per unit energy produced
• Toxic releases

Nota bene:
The outputs of comparative LCA studies are extremely
sensitive to key inputs and to the boundary conditions.
Hence, variations of a few percent – even a few tens of
percent – are not generally considered significant. These
studies are helpful when comparing orders of magnitude.

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LCA Outputs: Life Cycle CO2 Emissions

© ECN. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons
license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/.
“State-of-the-art photovoltaic systems have Energy Pay Back Times as low as 1.7 years.” ECN News, 15 May 2006.
56 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011
LCA Outputs: Life
Cycle CO2 Emissions

Fthenakis, V. M., et al. “Emissions from

Photovoltaic Life Cycles.” Environ. Sci.
Technol. 42, no. 6 (2008): 2168-2174.

© ACS. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons
license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/.

57 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

LCA Outputs: Sensitivity to Energy Inputs

Fthenakis, V. M., et al. “Emissions from

Photovoltaic Life Cycles.” Environ. Sci.
Technol. 42, no. 6 (2008): 2168-2174.

© ACS. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons
license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/.

58 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

LCA Outputs: Energy Payback

© ECN. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons
license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/.
“State-of-the-art photovoltaic systems have Energy Pay Back Times as low as 1.7 years.” ECN News, 15 May 2006.

59 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

LCA Outputs: Energy Payback
Great study, but
old data (2000).

© L. Frisson et al. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative
Commons license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/.

L. Frisson et al. “Recent Improvements in Industrial PV Module Recycling.”

16th European PV Solar Energy Conference, Glasgow, UK (2000)
60 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011
LCA Outputs: Toxic Releases
Batteries: Add financial cost, environmental impact.

Technology Choices for the PV Industry: A Comparative Life Cycle Environmental

Impact Perspective.
T. Williams, S. Boyd, T. Buonassisi, Proc. 21st EU-PVSEC (Barcelona, Spain, 2005)
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LCA Outputs: Toxic Releases
Cadmium: Topic of controversy!

© ACS. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons
license. For more information, see http://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/.

Fthenakis, V. M., et al. “Emissions from Photovoltaic Life Cycles.” Environ. Sci. Technol. 42, no. 6 (2008): 2168-2174.

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LCA Bottom Line

LCAs indicate that current PV technology:

• Emits 90-96% less CO2/kWh than coal.
• Has a 1-5 year energy payback.
• Has little differences between PV technologies.

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PV Module Recycling
• Required by law in some places for
certain types of modules (e.g., First
Solar modules in Germany).
• Industry-wide groups promote best
practices.
• Necessary to develop for when the
industry reaches steady-state (while
growth rate is positive, the volume of
new panels swamps out those being
recycled).

Visual presentation by First Solar at the 2009 EU-PVSEC

64 Buonassisi (MIT) 2011

MIT OpenCourseWare
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2.627 / 2.626 Fundamentals of Photovoltaics

Fall 2013

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