MODULE -2

What is an ideal diode?

An ideal diode is one which offers zero resistance when forward biased and infinite resistance when
reverse biased.

Compare ideal diode as a switch.

An ideal diode when forward biased is equivalent a closed (ON) switch and when reverse biased, it is
equivalent to an open (OFF) switch.

State the mathematical equation which relates voltage applied across the PN junction diode and
current flowing through it.

Define knee/cut-in/threshold voltage of a PN diode.

It is the forward voltage applied across the PN diode below which practically no current flows.

What is the effect of junction temperature on cut-in voltage of a PN diode?

Cut-in voltage of a PN diode decreases as junction temperature increases.

What is the effect of junction temperature on forward current and reverse current of a PN diode?
For the same forward voltage, the forward current of a PN diode increases and reverse saturation current
increases with increase in junction temperature.

Differentiate between breakdown voltage and PIV of a PN diode.

The breakdown voltage of a PN diode is the reverse voltage applied to it at which the PN junction breaks
down with sudden rise in reverse current. Whereas, the peak inverse voltage (PIV) is the maximum
reverse voltage that can be applied to the PN junction without damage to the junction.

Differentiate avalanche and zener breakdowns.

Avalanche Breakdown
1. Breakdown occurs due to heavily doped junction and applied strong electric field.
2. Doping level is high.
3. Breakdown occurs at lower voltage compared to avalanche breakdown Zener
Breakdown
1. Breakdown occurs due to avalanche multiplication between thermally generated ions.
2. Doping level is low.
3. Breakdown occurs at higher voltage.
 Draw the V-I characteristics of an ideal diode.

Differentiate between drift and diffusion currents.

Drift Current
1. It is developed due to potential gradient.
2. This phenomenon is found both in metals and semiconductors
Diffusion Current
1. It is developed to charge concentration gradient.
2. It is found only in semiconductors.

Draw the V-I characteristics of a practical PN diode.

List the PN diode parameters.

1. Bulk Resistance.
2. Static Resistance/Junction Resistance (or) DC Forward Resistance
3. Dynamic Resistance (or) AC Forward Resistance
4. Reverse Resistance
5. Knee Voltage
6. Breakdown Voltage
7. Reverse Current (or) Leakage Current
State the PN diode ratings.
Even PN-Junction has limiting values of maximum forward current, peak inverse voltage and maximum
power rating.
List the PN diode switching times.
1. Recovery Time
2. Forward Recovery Time
3. Reverse Recovery Time
4. Reverse recovery time,
5. Storage and Transition Times

Define transition capacitance of a diode.

Transition Capacitance (C T) or Space-charge Capacitance: When a PN-junction is reverse-biased, the
depletion region acts like an insulator or as a dielectric.
The P- and N-regions on either side have low resistance and act as the plates. Hence it is similar to a
parallel-plate capacitor. This junction capacitance is called transition or space-charge capacitance (C T).
It is given by

Where, A = Cross-sectional area of depletion region. D = Width

(or) thickness of depletion region.
Its typical value is 40 pF.
Since the thickness of depletion layer depends on the amount of reverse bias, C T can be controlled with the
help of applied bias.
This property of variable capacitance is used in varicap or varactor diode. This capacitance is is
voltage dependent and is given by

Where, VK= Knee voltage, VR =

Applied reverse voltage,
K = Constant depending on semiconductor material, n =1/2 for
alloy junction,
= 1/3 for diffused junction.

Define diffusion capacitance of a diode.

Diffusion or Storage Capacitance (CD): This capacitive effect is present when the junction is forward-
biased.
It is called diffusion capacitance due to the time delay in minority charges across the junction by diffusion
process. Due to this fact, this capacitance cannot be identified in terms of a dielectric and plates. It varies
directly with forward current. When a forward-biased PN-junction is suddenly reverse biased, a reverse
current flows which is large initially, but gradually decreases to the level of saturation current, I0.
This effect can be likened to the discharging, of a capacitor and is, therefore called diffusion capacitance,
CD. Its typical value is 0.02 F
It is given by:
 Where, ‫ = ح‬Mean life time of carrier η=
Constant =2 for Si and 1 forGe I = Forward
current
I0 = Reverse saturation current
VT = Volt equivalent of temperature

Draw the V-I characteristics of a zener diode.

List some applications of zener diode.

Zener diode find wide commercial and industrial applications. Some of their common applications are:
 As voltage regulators.
 As peak clippers or voltage limiters.
 For wave shaping.
 For meter protection against damage from accidental application of excessive voltage.
 As a fixed reference voltage in a network for biasing and comparison purposes and for calibrating
voltmeters.

State the ratings of zener diode.

Zener voltage (Vz): The voltage at which a zener diode breaks in the reverse bias condition is called zener
voltage. In fact, it is the voltage at which a zener diode is to
Define rectifier. Mention the types.

Rectifier: A rectifier is a circuit that converts AC into pulsing DC. It uses

unidirectional conducting devices like PN diodes.
Rectifiers are classified into two types based on the conduction of AC input. They are:
 Half wave rectifier (HWR).
 Full wave rectifier (FWR).

Half Wave Rectifier (HWR): The HWR uses the property of diode that conducts current in one direction
only. It uses only one diode as in Fig.1.12.
During the positive half-cycles of the input AC voltage, the diode D is forward biased (ON) and conducts.
While conducting, the diode acts as a short-circuit so that the circuit current flows and hence the positive
half cycles of input AC voltage are dropped across the load RL.

During the negative input half cycles, the diode D is reverse biased (OFF) and so, does not conduct, i.e.,
there is no current flow. Hence there is no voltage drop across RL. Thus, the negative half cycles are
suppressed, i.e., they are not utilized for delivering power to the load.

Hence, the HWR uses only positive half-cycles of the input AC supply. However the output is not steady
DC, but only a pulsating DC with ripple frequency equal to that of the input voltage frequency.
i.e., fr = fin

Also, PIV = Vm, where Vm is the maximum secondary voltage.

Full Wave Rectifier (FWR): In a FWR, both the half-cycles of the input AC supply are utilized. Alternate
half-cycles are inverted to give a unidirectional load current.
 There are two types of FWRs.
 Centre-tapped FWR.
 Bridge rectifier.

Define rectifier efficiency.

It is defined as the ratio of DC power output to the applied AC power in put Rectifier efficiency.

Define ripple factor of a rectifier.

The purpose of a rectifier is to convert AC into DC. But the pulsating output of a rectifier contains a DC
component and an AC component, called ripple.
The ratio of RMS value of AC components to the DC component in the rectifier output is called ‘ripple
factor’.
The ripple factor is very important in deciding the effectiveness of a rectifier. It indicates the purity of the
DC power output. The smaller the ripple factor, the lesser the effective AC component and hence more
effective is the rectifier.

Define TUF of a rectifier.

Most of the rectifier circuits make use of transformer whose secondary feeds the AC power. The transformer
rating is necessary to design a power supply.
Transformer utilization factor (TF) id defined as the ratio of DC power delivered to the load to the AC
power rating of transformer secondary.

Give the advantages and disadvantages of HWR and FWR. Half Wave Rectifier
(HWR)
Advantages
 Simple circuit.
 Low cost.
Disadvantages.
 Rectification efficiency is low (40.6%).
 Very high amount of ripple (γ = 1.21)
 Low TUF (0.287)
Saturation of transformer core occurs.

Determine the diode current at 200C for a silicon diode with reverse saturation current of 50nA and an
applied forward bias of 0.6V.

Given:

Current = 50 × 10⁻⁹ A,Temperature = 20°C or 293 K,Voltage = 0.6 Volt,Silicon Diode so n = 2

Solution:

Shockley equation is for P-N junction or diode.

Id = Is ( ( e ^ (qVd/nKT) ) - 1 )

Where Is is the reverse saturation current,q is charge on electron,Vd is applied voltage

n is ideality factor,K is Boltzmann's constant,T is temperature in kelvin,for silicon diode ideality factor (n) = 2

charge on electron = 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ coulombs ,Boltzmann's constant = 1.38 × 10⁻²³ m² kg s⁻² K⁻¹

Id = 7.15 × 10⁻³ Ampere (approximately) or 7.15 mA (approximately)

 What is the need for a filter in rectifier?
The output of a rectifier is pulsating and contains a steady DC component with undesirable ripples. If such
pulsating DC is given to the electronic circuits, it produces disturbances and other interferences. Hence
ripples have to be kept far from the load. This is achieved by use of a filter circuit in between the rectifier
and load as shown below.

What is a rectifier-filter? List the different types of filters.

A filter circuit is a device which removes the AC component but allows the DC components of the
rectifier to reach the load.
Ripples can be removed by one of the following filtering methods.
(i) A capacitor, in parallel to the load, provides a easier bypass for the ripples due to low impedance to
AC at ripple frequency and leave the DC appear across the load.
(ii) An inductor, in series with the load, prevents the passage of ripples due to high impedance at ripple
frequency, while allowing the DC due to low resistance to DC.
(iii) Various combinations of capacitor and inductor, such has L-section filter, π- section filter, etc.,
which make use of both the properties depicted above.
Types of filter circuits: Depending upon the components used in the filter circuits and the way they are
connected, the filter circuits are classified as:
(i) Shunt capacitor filter
(ii) Series inductor filter
(iii) Choke-input (LC) filter
(iv) Capacitor-input (π) filter.

List some advantages and disadvantages of CLC filters.

 It can be used with both HWRs and FWRs.
 More output voltage is obtained.
 Output is almost pure DC.

What is the need for voltage regulators? What are the drawbacks of unregulated power supply?
An ordinary (unregulated) power supply from the following drawbacks: Poor regulation
 The DC output voltage varies with the AC supply voltage which fluctuates at different times of
the day and is different at different locations.
 The DC output voltage varies with temperature, in case semiconductors are used.
 For certain applications the output of the filter even with small amount of ripples is not
acceptable.

What is voltage regulator? List some types.

A voltage regulator is a circuit which makes the rectifier-filter output voltage constant regardless of
the variations in the input voltage or load.
Types of regulators: There are three principal types of regulators, viz.,
  Shunt regulator
 Series regulators
 Switch-mode regulators or switched mode power supply(SMPS)

Define (i) Voltage regulation (ii) Minimum load resistance.

The variation of output voltage with respect to the amount of load current drawn from the power supply
is called voltage regulation.
The change in DC output voltage from no load to full load with respect to full load voltage of a power
supply is called its voltage regulatin.

Where , VNL = DC output voltage at no load VFL = DC

output voltage at full load
Smaller the percentage regulation better is the power supply.
For a well-designed power supply, the percentage regulation should be less than 1%.
List the elements used in linear and non-linear wave shaping circuits.
The elements used in linear and non-linear wave shaping circuits include resistors, capacitors, diodes,
transistors, and more:

 Linear wave shaping circuits: Use resistors and capacitors

Non-linear wave shaping circuits: Use diodes, transistors, and other components:

 Clampers: Establish the maximum or minimum level of a signal excursion at a reference level
 Clippers: Remove parts of a signal that are above or below a reference level
 Series diode clippers: A type of non-linear wave shaping circuit
 Parallel or shunt diode clippers: A type of non-linear wave shaping circuit
 Multi-diode clippers: A type of non-linear wave shaping circuit
 Transistor clippers: A type of non-linear wave shaping circuit

Drift Current And Diffusion Current:

Drift current density for hole and electrons are given by where n,p are the electron and hole densities.

Diffusion current density for electrons

Unregulated supply is not good enough for specific applications.

 Fluctuating output voltage: The output voltage of unregulated power supplies can vary depending on
input voltage and load conditions, which may cause issues for sensitive electronics.
 Not suitable for sensitive electronics: Devices that require a stable voltage may be impaired or even
damaged when using an unregulated power supply.
 Can be affected by changes in input voltage: Unregulated power supplies are more susceptible to
variations in the source voltage, leading to instability in the output voltage.