Engr.

Ghulam Abbas Lashari,

Lecturer

M.E, Southeast University, Nanjing, China

B.E, QUEST Nawabshah, Sindh, Pakistan
lashariabbas@gmail.com
Department of Electrical Engineering
MUET ZAB Campus, Khairpur
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~ Buddha
 Definitions and
Terminologies for AC signal

Electronic Devices & Circuits

Introduction
 There are several methods to represent the magnitude of an
Alternating waveforms.

➢ In case of an AC sinusoidal waveform, the magnitudes of

voltage and current can be represented by

 Average Value
 Peak value
 Peak – to – Peak value
 RMS value
 Instantaneous value

 Rectifier type multi-meters measure the average voltage of the

AC (alternating current) and then perform some calculations on
that and display the output as RMS value.
 Measuring a Sine Wave
Peak value
• The PEAK value of the wave is the highest value the wave
reaches above a reference value.

• In a voltage waveform the peak value may be labelled VPK or

VMAX ; (IPK or IMAX in a current waveform).

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 Measuring a Sine Wave
Peak to Peak value
• The PEAK TO PEAK value is the vertical distance between the
top and bottom of the wave.

• It is measured in volts on a
voltage waveform, and may be
labelled VPP orVPK−PK.

• In a current waveform it
would be labelled IPP or
IPK−PK as I is used to represent
current.

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 Measuring a Sine Wave
Amplitude
• The AMPLITUDE of a sine wave is the maximum vertical distance
reached, in either direction from the centre line of the wave.

• As a sine wave is symmetrical about its centre line, the amplitude of

the wave is half the peak to peak value.

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 Measuring a Sine Wave
Periodic Time & Frequency
• The PERIODIC TIME is the time, in seconds taken for one complete cycle
of the wave.
• Thus if the periodic time of a wave is 20ms then there must be 50
complete cycles of the wave in one second (50Hz).

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 Measuring a Sine Wave
AverageValue
• The average voltage (or current) of a periodic waveform whether it
is a sine wave, square wave or triangular waveform is defined as:

• “The quotient of the area under the waveform with respect to time”.

• In other words, the averaging of all the instantaneous values along

time axis with time being one full period,(T).

𝑉1+ 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + ⋯ + 𝑉11 +𝑉12

𝑉𝑎 =
12
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 Measuring a Sine Wave
AverageValue
• In a pure sine wave if the average value is calculated over the full
cycle, the average value would be equal to zero as the positive and
negative halves will cancel each other out.

• Then the averagevalue is obtained by adding the instantaneous

values of voltage over one half cycle only.

1
0
 Difference between Average value and the r.m.s value

 Average value of alternating current (a.c) is equivalent to the

steady current (d.c) which transfers the same amount of charge
in a given time as transfered by alternating current (a.c) across
the same circuit at the same time.

 The r.m.s value of alternating current (a.c) is the steady

current (d.c) which produces same amount of heat in a given
time as produced by alternating current (a.c) passing through the
same circuit element at the same time.
 Difference between Average value and the r.m.s value

▪ Average value of AC or alternating current is expressed by that

DC current which transfers across any point of circuit the same
charge as is transferred by the AC current for the same time.

▪ This means, if AC current I in a circuit flows for t sec and charge

Q is transferred across any point of circuit in this time t by this
AC current then the same charge Q will also be transferred by its
avg. current Iavg in the same time
 Measuring a Sine Wave
RMSValue
Effective DC Value:
RMS value gives the same heating effect as an equivalent DC power.

𝑉2 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉2 + ⋯ + 𝑉2 + 𝑉2
1 2 3 11 12
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 =
12

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 The RMS or ROOT MEAN SQUARED value is the value
of the equivalent direct (non-varying) voltage or current
which would provide the same energy to a circuit as the
sine wave measured.

 That is,if anAC sine wave has an RMS value of 240 volts,it
will provide the same energy to a circuit as a DC supply
of 240 volts.
Measuring RMS value of a Sine Wave

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 Measuring a Sine Wave
Form Factor
• The form factor of an alternating current (a.c) waveform is the
ratio of the RMS value to the average value .
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆
𝑉𝐹𝐹 =
𝑉𝑎𝑣

• For a pure sinusoidal waveform the Form Factor will always be

equal to 1.11.

0.707𝑉𝑝𝑘
𝑉𝐹𝐹 = = 1.11
0.637𝑉𝑝

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Ripple
▪ Ripple is the fluctuating AC component present in rectified
DC output.
▪ The output of a rectifier may either be DC current or voltage.
In view of this, AC fluctuating component present in DC
output voltage is called voltage ripple and that in DC
current output is called current ripple.

▪ Why Ripple is Present?

▪ Ripple is always present in the rectifier output. This is because
of the behaviour of circuit elements like diode or thyristor.
▪ Let us consider an example of single phase full wave rectifier to
better understand the reason for presence of ripple. The
output current waveform of single phase full wave rectifier is
shown below.

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The above figure is self-explanatory. The expected output from full wave rectifier
should be a pure DC but actually the output current is different.

Since the average value of output current is the pure, therefore the ripple present is
equal to the difference of output current or load current minus average current.

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Ripple factor
▪ Ripple Factor is the ratio of rms value of
ac component present in the rectified output to
the average value of rectified output.

▪ It is a dimensionless quantity and denoted by γ.

▪ Its value is always less than unity.

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Ripple factor

This is basically a measurement of ripple which denotes the purity of rectified

output. The more the ripple factor, the lesser will be the purity of rectifier DC
output. This means more will be fluctuating AC component. Thus every effort is
made to reduce the ripple factor. Here we will not discuss the ways to reduce the
ripple factor.
Ripple factor is generally denoted in percentage like 3 % or 4 %. Percentage
ripple factor is obtained by just multiplying γ by 100. 3 % ripple content in output
current means that 3 A rms alternating component of current is present against
the actual 100 A DC current output. Similarly, 3 % ripple content in output voltage
means that 3 V rms alternating component of voltage is present against the
actual 100 V DC voltage output.

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 Measuring a Sine Wave

Crest Factor
• Crest Factor is the ratio between the R.M.S. value and the Peak
value of the waveform.
𝑉𝑝𝑘
𝑉𝐶𝐹 =
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆
• For a pure sinusoidal waveform the Crest Factor will always be
equal to 1.414.

• Crest factor indicates how extreme the peaks are in a waveform.

• Both Form Factor and Crest Factor can be used to give

information about the actual shape of the AC waveform.

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Half Wave Rectifiers

Electronic Devices & Circuits

Introduction
 Because of their ability to conduct current in one
direction and block current in the other direction, diodes
are used in circuits called rectifiers that convert ac
voltage into dc voltage.

 Rectifiers are found in all dc power supplies that operate

from an ac voltage source.

 A power supply is an essential part of each electronic

system from the simplest to the most complex
The Basic DC Power Supply
 All active electronic devices require a source of constant
dc that can be supplied by a battery or a dc power supply.

 The dc power supply converts the standard 120V ,60Hz

or 220 V,50 Hz ac voltage available into a constant dc
voltage.

 The dc power supply is one of the most common circuits

you will find, so it is important to understand how it
works.
 The Basic DC Power Supply
 The voltage produced is used to power all types of
electronic circuits including consumer electronics
(televisions, DVDs, etc.), computers, industrial controllers,
and most laboratory instrumentation systems and
equipment.

 The dc voltage level required depends on the application,

but most applications require relatively low voltages.
 DC Power Supply
 DC Power Supply
 Generally the ac input line voltage is stepped down to a lower ac
voltage with a transformer.

 Transformer changes ac voltages based on the turns ratio

between the primary and secondary.

 If the secondary has more turns than the primary, the output
voltage across the secondary will be higher and the current will
be smaller.

 If the secondary has fewer turns than the primary, the output
voltage across the secondary will be lower and the current will be
higher
 DC Power Supply
 The rectifier can be either a half-wave rectifier or a full-wave
rectifier.

 The filter eliminates the fluctuations in the rectified voltage

and produces a relatively smooth dc voltage.

 The regulator is a circuit that maintains a constant dc voltage

for variations in the input line voltage or in the load.

 The load is a circuit or device connected to the output of the

power supply and operates from the power supply voltage and
current
Fields?
Points to note…
 The most important consideration in designing a
power supply is the DC voltage at the output
 It should be able to furnish the maximum current
needed ,maintaining the voltage at constatnt level
 The AC ripple should be low
 The power supply should be protected in the
event of short circuit on the load side
 The response of the power supply to temperature
changes should be minimum
TYPES OF RECTIFIERS

Rectifier

Half-wave Full-wave
Rectifier Rectifier

Centre-tape Full-wave
full-wave rec. Bridge rec.
Half wave rectifier Operation
 A diode is connected to an ac source and to a load resistor, RL,
forming a half-wave rectifier.

 When the sinusoidal input voltage (Vin) goes positive, the diode is
forward-biased and conducts current through the load resistor.

 The current produces an output voltage across the load RL, which
has the same shape as the positive half-cycle of the input voltage.
 When the input voltage goes negative during the second
half of its cycle, the diode is reverse-biased. There is no
current,so the voltage across the load resistor is 0V.

 The net result is that only the positive half-cycles of the

ac input voltage appear across the load.

Output of
Half wave
Rectifier
Waveforms

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Average Output voltage / dc output of
HWR
Vo = Vm Sin(wt) 0 ≤ 𝑤𝑡 ≤ 𝜋
Vo= 0 𝜋 ≤ 𝑤𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋

𝑉𝑚
∴ 𝐼𝑚 =
𝑅𝐿

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Average Value of the
Half-Wave Output
Voltage
 The average value of the half-wave rectified output
voltage is the value you would measure on a dc
voltmeter.

 Mathematically, it is determined by finding the area under

the curve over a full cycle

 Here Vp is the peak value.

Vavg= 0.318 Vp
Problem :What is the average value of the half-wave
rectified voltage
Effect of the Barrier Potential on
the Half-Wave Rectifier Output

 Practical diode model is used with the barrier potential

of 0.7 V taken into account.

 During the positive half-cycle, the input voltage must

overcome the barrier potential before the diode becomes
forward-biased.

 This results in a half-wave output with a peak value that is

0.7 V less than the peak value of theinput.
Problem: Draw the
output
voltages of
each rectifier as shown
in figure.
RMS value of HWR

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Form factor for HWR

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Ripple factor of HWR
▪ Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of ac component to the
dc component in the output.

▪ The ripple factor of half wave rectifier is 1.21

R.F = √ (Im /2 / Im / π)2 -1

π𝟐 𝟗.𝟖𝟔
= √( -1)=√ − 𝟏 = √1.46
𝟒 𝟒
= 1.21

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Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
 The peak inverse voltage (PIV) equals the peak value
of the input voltage, and the diode must be capable of
withstanding this amount of repetitive reverse voltage.

 PIV, occurs at the peak of each negative alternation of the

input voltage when the diode is reverse-biased.
 Transformer Coupling
 Transformer is often used to
couple the ac input voltage from
the source to the rectifier.

 Transformer coupling provides two

advantages.

i. it allows the source voltage

to be stepped down as
needed.

ii. The ac source is electrically

isolated from the rectifier, thus
preventing a shock hazard in the
secondary circuit.
 Transformer Coupling

 The amount that the voltage is stepped down is determined

by the turns ratio of the transformer.

 Turn ratio can be defined as the number of turns in the

secondary(Nsec) divided by the number of turns in the
primary (Npri).”i.e
 n=Nsec/Npri.

 Transformer with a turns ratio less than 1 is a step-down

type and one with a turns ratio greater than 1 is a step-up
type.
 Transformer Coupling

 The secondary voltage of a transformer equals the turns ratio(n) times the primary voltage.

 If n>1, secondary voltage is greater than the primary voltage.

 If n<1, secondary voltage is less than the primaryvoltage.

 If n=1 , then primary and secondary voltages are equal.

Half wave rectifier
circuit diagram with
transformer
Example: Determine the peak value of the output voltage
for the following figure . Assume turns ratio is 0.5
Efficiency and output frequency
 Output frequency: The output frequencyof
the rectifier is same as the frequency of the
input signal.
 fout = fin

 Efficiency,η
 η = Pdc/Pac
Merits and de-merits
 Advantages of Half Wave Rectifier
 Economical: It is low in cost.
 Simple Circuitry: The circuit of half wave
rectifier is simple to design.
 Merits and de-merits
 Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier

 Low rectification Efficiency: The rectification efficiency of Half

wave rectifier is quite low, i.e., 40.6%.
 The main reason behind this is power delivered by the circuit of half
wave rectifier is only for the duration of positive half of AC cycle.

 High Ripple factor: Ripple factor is given by the ratio of the value
of AC current present in the output current of the rectifier and the
output dc current of the rectifier.The ripple factor in the case of half
wave rectifier is quite high which is undesirable.
 Half Wave rectifiers convert only half wave of AC either positive or
negative half into DC. If we want to convert entire cycle of AC into
DC, then we need Full wave rectifier.
In a Nutshell
 The ripple factor is quite high(1.21)
 Rectifier efficiency is very low(40.6%)
 The half wave rectifier circuit is normally not
used as a power rectifier circuit
End of Lecture

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