Module 2

• Alternating voltages and currents, AC values

• Single Phase RL, RC, RLC Series circuits
• Power in AC circuits-Power Factor
• Three Phase Systems – Star and Delta Connection
• Three Phase Power Measurement
• Electrical Safety –Fuses and Earthing, Residential wiring

Dr. KARTHIK KIRAN S, CO2 RESEARCH, VIT 2

• Alternating Current: When the current varies in magnitude and direction periodically it is called an alternating current.

Alternating Voltages and Currents

• A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function.
• Angular velocity(ω ): It is an angle turn by one cycle during the time
period. Unit is radians/second. Each repetition consisting of one positive
and one identical negative part is one cycle of the waveform. 1 cycle=2π
radians = 360°

• Wave Form : The shape of the curve drawn between instantaneous

voltage or current on Y- axis and time on X – axis is known as wave form.
• Defining the alternating quantities:
• The instantaneous value of an ac quantity is defined as the value of that
• Instantaneous value quantity at particular instant of time
• Maximum value
• Frequency • A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as alternating current (ac).
• Time period
• Average value Such a current reverses at regular time intervals and has alternately
• RMS value positive and negative values. Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or
• Form factor voltage sources are called ac circuits. Sinusoidal signal is easy to
• Peak factor generate and transmit

• The basic circuit laws, Kirchhoff’s and Ohm’s, introduced for dc circuits
(Module 1) will be applied to ac circuits

Dr. KARTHIK KIRAN S, CO2 RESEARCH, VIT 3

 Production Of A.C Voltage
Requires the knowledge of Faraday’s first law of electromagnetic induction
principle. When ever a conductor cuts the magnetic field, an e.m.f is induced in it.

A single-phase AC voltage induced by a coil when rotated in a

uniform magnetic field is shown in Figure

Most consumers are fed by means of a single-phase a.c. supply.

Two wires are used, one called the live conductor (usually colored
red) and the other is called the neutral conductor (usually colored
black).

The e.m.f thus generated will depend The neutral is usually connected via protective gear to earth, the
upon: earth wire
• The strength of the magnetic field being colored green.
• The number of turns in the conductor
• The speed at which the conductor The standard voltage for a single-phase a.c. supply is 240 V. The
rotates in the magnetic field majority of single-phase supplies are obtained by connection to a
three-phase supply

Dr. KARTHIK KIRAN S, CO2 RESEARCH, VIT 4

• Time Period or Periodic Time (T)
Time period (T) is defined as the time taken in seconds by the waveform of an ac quantity to complete one cycle
• Frequency
Number of cycles per second. Inverse to the time period ie., (1/T)Hz
• Amplitude:
The maximum value or peak value of an ac quantity is called as its amplitude

Average value:
It is defined as the steady (dc) current when
flowing through a given circuit for a given time
produces the same amount of charge as
produced by an alternating current
Root Mean Square (R.M.S) Value:
It is defined as the steady (dc) current which when flowing
through given circuit for a given time produces the same
amount of heat as produced by an alternating current
when flowing through the same circuit for the same time.
It is also called as an Effective or Virtual value
Form Factor:
It is the ratio of RMS value to average value of an
alternating quantity.
Peak Factor:
It is the ratio of maximum value to the RMS value of an
alternating quantity.

Dr. KARTHIK KIRAN S, CO2 RESEARCH, VIT 5

• According to Faraday’s second law of electro magnetic induction
- d ( N) When  = 900 , ‘e’ has maximum value and Em = Nm
e = −−−−−− =2πfNBmA
Where
dt f is the frequency
N is the speed in r.p.m
- N d (mcost)
Bm is the maximum flux density
= −−−−−− in wb / m2
dt A is the area of the coil in m2

= Nmsin Hence, the e.m.f equation, e = Em sin 

(Where  =wt)

The amplitude can be represented by Vm for max voltage, Im for max current waveform etc.
6
Dr. KARTHIK KIRAN S, CO2 RESEARCH, VIT
Find the amplitude, phase, period, and frequency of the sinusoid, v(t)=12 cos (50t+10°).
The amplitude is =12V
The phase is, ϕ = 10°
The angular frequency is ω =50 rad/s
The period, T= 2π/ ω = 0.1257 s
The frequency is f, 1/T= 7.958 Hz

Dr. KARTHIK KIRAN S, CO2 RESEARCH, VIT 7

 Polar to rectangular conversions:
40 ∠ 50 = 40(cos50+jsin50)
=25.71+j30.64
Sinusoids to phasors:
i=6 cos(50t-40)
I= 6 ∠ -40

Addition and subtraction of complex numbers are better performed in rectangular form; multiplication and division
are better done in polar form

Pb1:

Dr. KARTHIK KIRAN S, CO2 RESEARCH, VIT 8

Dr. KARTHIK KIRAN S, CO2 RESEARCH, VIT 9
Dr. KARTHIK KIRAN S, CO2 RESEARCH, VIT 10
Draw the phasor diagram to represent the two sine waves shown.

Dr. KARTHIK KIRAN S, CO2 RESEARCH, VIT 11

 Instantaneous Value Peak Value
It is the maximum value of the wave during
• Consider the sine wave shown. At any given time, it positive half cycle, or maximum value of wave
has some instantaneous value during negative half cycle.
• This value is different at different points along the • Since the value of these two are equal in
waveform magnitude, a sine wave is characterized by
• During the positive cycle, the instantaneous values a single peak value
are positive and during the negative cycle, the • The peak value of the sine wave is shown
instantaneous values are negative and here the peak value of the sine wave is
• At time 1 ms, the value is 4.2 V; the value is 10 V at 4V
2.5ms, – 2 V at 6 ms and – 10 V at 7.5 and so on

Dr. KARTHIK KIRAN S, CO2 RESEARCH, VIT 12

 Average Value
Average value of any function v(t), with period T is given by

• Average value of a curve in the X-Y plane is the total area under the complete curve divided by the
distance of the curve
• The average value of a sine wave over one complete cycle is always zero
• So the average value of a sine wave is defined over a half cycle, and not a full cycle period
• The average value of the sine wave is the total area under the half-cycle curve divided by the
distance of the curve

Dr. KARTHIK KIRAN S, CO2 RESEARCH, VIT

13
Root Mean Square Value

RMS value of a sine wave is equal to the dc voltage that produces the same heating effect
RMS value of any function with period T has an effective value given by,

Dr. KARTHIK KIRAN S, CO2 RESEARCH, VIT

14
 i1 +i2 + .... + in
I avg =
n

I rms = (i1 + i2 + ....... + in ) / n

2 2 2

Dr. KARTHIK KIRAN S, CO2 RESEARCH, VIT 15

Dr. KARTHIK KIRAN S, CO2 RESEARCH, VIT 16
Dr. KARTHIK KIRAN S, CO2 RESEARCH, VIT 17
Determine the instantaneous value at the 90° point on the X-axis for each sine wave shown.

Sine wave A: v(t) = 10 sin ωt

The value at π/2 in this wave is, v(t) = 10 sin (π/2) = 10V
Sine wave B: v(t) = 8 sin (ω t - π/4)
At ω t = π /2
v(t) = 8 sin (π /2- π /4)
8 sin 45° = 8 (0.707) = 5.66 V

Dr. KARTHIK KIRAN S, CO2 RESEARCH, VIT 18

Thank you