COMMUNICATION MODELS

“a model is a selective representation in verbal or diagrammatic form of some aspect of the

dynamic process of mass communication.” -According to Denis McQuail’s book Mass
Communication Theory,

In other words, models of communication provide us with a visual representation of the

different aspects of a communication situation.

8 Major communication models

There are 8 major models of communication, which can be divided into 3 categories:

. Linear models of communication — They only look at one-way communication. The most
prominent linear models of communication are:
. Aristotle’s communication model,
. Lasswell’s communication model,
. The Shannon-Weaver communication model, and
. Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model.
. Interactive models of communication — They analyze two-way communication. These
are the following:

. The Osgood-Schramm communication model, and

. The Westley and Maclean communication model.

. Transactional models of communication — They illustrate two-way communication

where the message gets more complex as the communication event progresses. These
include:

. Barnlund’s transactional communication model, and

. Dance’s Helical communication model.

Linear models of communication

The linear communication model is straightforward and used mainly in marketing, sales, and PR, in
communication with customers.

What is a linear model of communication?

Linear communication models suggest that communication takes place only in one direction.

The main elements in these models are:

 The channel,

 The sender, and

 The receiver.

Some linear models of communication also mention noise as one of the factors that have a role in
the communication process. Noise acts as the added (background) element that usually distracts
from the original message.
1. Aristotle’s model of communication

The oldest communication model that dates back to 300 BC, Aristotle’s model was designed to
examine how to become a better and more persuasive communicator.

Aristotle’s model of communication primarily focuses on the sender (public speaker, professor,
etc.) who passes on their message to the receiver (the audience).

The sender is also the only active member in this model, whereas the audience is passive. This
makes Aristotle’s communication model a foolproof way to excel in public speaking, seminars, and
lectures.

What are the main elements of Aristotle’s communication model?

Aristotle identified 3 elements that improve communication within this model:

. Ethos — Defines the credibility of the speaker. Speaker gains credibility, authority, and
power by being an expert in a field of their choice.
. Pathos — Connects the speaker with the audience through different emotions (anger,
sadness, happiness, etc.)
. Logos — Signifies logic. Namely, it is not enough for the speech to be interesting — it needs
to follow the rules of logic.

As shown in Aristotle’s communication model diagram below, Aristotle also suggested that we look
at 5 components of a communication situation to analyze the best way to communicate:

 Speaker,

 Speech,

 Occasion,

 Target audience, and

 Effect.
2. Lasswell’s model of communication

The next linear model on our list is Lasswell’s Model of mass communication.

What is Lasswell’s model of communication?

Lasswell’s communication model views communication as the transmission of a message with the
effect as the result.

The effect in this case is the measurable and obvious change in the receiver of the message that is
caused by the elements of communication.

If any of the elements change, the effect also changes.

What are the main elements of Lasswell’s communication model?

Lasswell’s model aims to answer the following 5 questions regarding its elements:
 . Who created the message?
. What did they say?
. What channel did they use (TV, radio, blog)?
. To whom did they say it?
. What effect did it have on the receiver?

The answers to these questions offer us the main components of this model:

 Communicator,

 Message,

 Medium,

 Audience/Receiver, and

 Effect.

3. The Shannon-Weaver model of communication

Maybe the most popular model of communication is the Shannon-Weaver model.

Strangely enough, Shannon and Weaver were mathematicians, who developed their work during
the Second World War in the Bell Telephone Laboratories. They aimed to discover which channels
are most effective for communicating.

So, although they were doing research as part of their engineering endeavors, they claimed that
their theory is applicable to human communication as well.

And, they were right.

What is the Shannon-Weaver model of communication?

The Shannon-Weaver communication model, therefore, is a mathematical communication concept

that proposes that communication is a linear, one-way process that can be broken down into 5 key
concepts.

What are the main elements of the Shannon-Weaver communication model?

As the Shanon-Weaver communication model diagram below shows, the main components of this
model are:

 Sender,

 Encoder,

 Channel,

 Decoder, and

 Receiver.

Shannon and Weaver were also the first to introduce the role of noise in the communication
process. In his book Introduction to Communication Studies, John Fiske defines noise as:

“Anything that is added to the signal between its transmission and reception that is
not intended by the source.”
The noise appears in the form of mishearing a conversation, misspelling an email, or static on a
radio broadcast.
The Shannon-Weaver communication model example

Paula, a VP of Marketing in a multinational company, is briefing Julian on new marketing strategies

they are about to introduce next month.

She wants a detailed study of the competitor’s activity by the end of the week.

Unfortunately, while she was speaking, her assistant Peter interrupted her, and she forgot to tell
Julian about the most important issue.

At the end of the week, Julian did finish the report, but there were some mistakes, which had to be
corrected later on.

Let’s take a moment to briefly analyze this example.

Paula is the sender, her mouth being the encoder.

The meeting she held was the channel.

Julian’s ears and brain were decoders, and Julian was the receiver.

Can you guess Peter’s role?

Yes, he was the noise.

The trouble in this process was the lack of feedback. Had Julian asked Paula for clarification after
Peter interrupted her, the whole communication process would have been more effective, and there
would have been no mistakes.

Updated version of the Shannon-Weaver communication model

Since the original version didn’t include it, the principle of feedback was added to the updated
version, so the model provided a more truthful representation of human interaction.

The concept of feedback was derived from the studies of Norbert Wiener, the so-called father of
cybernetics.

Simply put, feedback is the transfer of the receiver’s reaction back to the sender.

It allows the speaker to modify their performance according to the reaction of the audience.

Maybe the most important function of feedback is the fact that it helps the receiver feel involved in
the communication process.

That makes the receiver more receptive to the message because they feel their opinion is being
taken into account.

4. Berlo’s S-M-C-R model of communication

Berlo’s model of communication was first defined by David Berlo in his 1960 book The Process of
Communication.

This communication model is unique in the sense that it gives a detailed account of the key
elements in each step.
What is Berlo’s S-M-C-R model of communication?

Simply put, Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model is a linear model of communication that
suggests communication is the transfer of information between 4 basic steps or key elements.

What are the main elements of Berlo’s Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model?

As shown in Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model diagram below, these steps are the following:

. Source,
. Message,
. Channel, and
. Receiver.

Let’s consider the key elements that affect how well the message is communicated, starting with
the source.

Step #1: The source

The source or the sender carefully puts their thoughts into words and transfers the message to the
receiver.

So, how does the sender transfer the information to the receiver according to Berlo’s S-M-C-R
communication model?

With the help of:

 Communication skills — First and foremost, the source needs good communication skills to
ensure the communication will be effective. The speaker should know when to pause, what
to repeat, how to pronounce a word, etc.
  Attitude — Secondly, the source needs the right attitude. Without it, not even a great
speaker would ever emerge as a winner. The source needs to make a lasting impression on
the receiver(s).

 Knowledge — Here, knowledge does not refer to educational qualifications but to the clarity
of the information that the source wants to transfer to the receiver.

 Social system — The source should be familiar with the social system in which the
communication process takes place. That would help the source not to offend anyone.

 Culture — Last but not least, to achieve effective communication, the source needs to be
acquainted with the culture in which the communication encounter is taking place. This is
especially important for cross-cultural communication.

Step #2: The message

The speaker creates the message when they transform their thoughts into words.

Here are the key factors of the message:

 Content — Simply put, this is the script of the conversation.

 Elements — Speech alone is not enough for the message to be fully understood. That is why
other elements have to be taken into account: gestures, body language, facial expressions,
etc.

 Treatment — The way the source treats the message. They have to be aware of the
importance of the message so that they can convey it appropriately.

 Structure — The source has to properly structure the message to ensure the receiver will
understand it correctly.

 Code — All the elements, verbal and nonverbal, need to be accurate if you do not want your
message to get distorted and misinterpreted.

Step #3: The channel

To get from the source to the receiver, the message goes through the channel.

Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model identifies all our senses are the channels that help us
communicate with one another.

Our sense of hearing lets us know that someone is speaking to us.

Through our sense of taste, we gather information about the spiciness of a sauce we are eating.

Our sense of sight allows us to decipher traffic signs while driving.

We decide whether we like a certain perfume or not by smelling it.

By touching the water we feel whether it is too cold for a swim.

Step #4: The receiver

A receiver is a person the source is speaking to — the destination of the conveyed message.
To understand the message, the receiver should involve the same elements as the source. They
should have similar communication skills, attitudes, and knowledge, and be acquainted with the
social system and culture in which they communicate.

Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model example

Watching the news on television is the perfect example of Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model of
communication.

In this case, the news presenter is the source of the news and they convey the message to the
audience.

The news is the message, the television is the channel, and the audience are the receivers of the
message.

Interactive models of communication

Interactive models are used in internet-based and mediated communication such as telephone
conversations, letters, etc.

What is an interactive model of communication?

As more dynamic models, interactive communication models refer to two-way communication with
feedback.

However, feedback within interactive communication models is not simultaneous, but rather slow
and indirect.

What are the main elements of interactive communication models?

The main elements of these models, illustrated in the interactive communication model diagram,
include the following:

 Sender,

 Message,

 Receiver,

 Feedback, and

 Field of experience.
You probably noticed the new, previously not seen element — field of experience.

The field of experience represents a person’s culture, past experiences, and personal history.

All of these factors influence how the sender constructs a message, as well as how the receiver
interprets it. Every one of us brings a unique field of experience into communication situations.

We have already mentioned the most noteworthy interactive models of communication.

Now it is time for us to consider them in greater detail.

5. The Osgood-Schramm model of communication

In their book Communication Models for the Study of Mass Communications, Denis Mcquail and
Sven Windahl say that the emergence of this model “meant a clear break with the traditional
linear/one-way picture of communication.”

What is the Osgood-Schramm model of communication?

The Osgood-Schramm model is a circular model of communication, in which messages go in two

directions between encoding and decoding.

As such, this model is useful for describing synchronous, interpersonal communication, but less
suitable for cases with little or no feedback.

Interestingly, in the Osgood-Schramm communication model, there is no difference between a

sender and a receiver. Both parties are equally encoding and decoding the messages. The
interpreter is the person trying to understand the message at that moment.

Furthermore, the Osgood-Schramm communication model shows that information is of no use until
it is put into words and conveyed to other people.

What are the main principles and steps in the communication process according to this
model?

The Osgood-Schramm communication model proposes 4 main principles of communication:

. Communication is circular. — Individuals involved in the communication process are

changing their roles as encoders and decoders.
. Communication is equal and reciprocal. — Both parties are equally engaged as encoders
and decoders.
. The message requires interpretation. — The information needs to be properly interpreted
to be understood.
. As shown in the Osgood-Schramm communication model diagram below, this model
proposes 3 steps in the process of communication:
  Encoding,

 Decoding, and

 Interpreting.

The Osgood-Schramm communication model example

Imagine you have not heard from your college friend for 15 years. Suddenly, they call you, and you
start updating each other about what happened during the time you have not seen each other.

In this example, you and your friend are equally encoding and decoding messages, and your
communication is synchronous. You are both interpreting each other’s messages.

In Information Theory and Mass Communication, Schramm even says:

“It is misleading to think of the communication process as starting somewhere and

ending somewhere. It is really endless. We are really switchboard centers handling
and re-routing the great endless current of information.”

6. The Westley and Maclean model of communication

The next interactive communication model on our list is the Westley and Maclean model of
communication.

This communication model is primarily used for explaining mass communication.

What is the Westley and Maclean communication model?

The Westley and Maclean communication model suggests that the communication process does
not start with the source/sender, but rather with environmental factors.

This model also takes into account the object of the orientation (background, culture, and beliefs) of
the sender and the receiver of messages.
The very process of communication, according to this communication model, starts with
environmental factors that influence the speaker — the culture or society the speaker lives in,
whether the speaker is in a public or private space, etc.

Aside from that, the role of feedback is also significant.

What are the main elements of the Westley and Maclean communication model?

This model consists of 9 crucial components:

. Environment (X),
. Sensory experience (X¹),
. Source/Sender (A),
. The object of the orientation of the source (X²),
. Receiver (B),
. The object of the orientation of the receiver (X³),
. Feedback (F),
. Gatekeepers (C), and
. Opinion leaders.

The Westley and Maclean communication model diagram below shows how these components are
organized in the communication process.

The Westley and Maclean communication model diagram

The Westley and Maclean communication model example

Imagine that on your way to the office, you witness a road accident.

This is the type of stimulus that would nudge you to call your friends and tell them about what you
had seen, or call your boss to say you are going to be a bit late.

So, the communication process in this example does not start with you, but with the road accident
you have witnessed.

Acknowledgment of the environmental factors in communication, therefore, allows us to pay

attention to the social and cultural contexts that influence our acts of communication.
—

Now that we have seen what the elements of communication in this model are, let’s look at all of
them in greater detail.

9 Key elements of communication in the Westley and Maclean communication model

As mentioned above, this model shows that the communication process does not start from the
sender of the message, but rather from the environment.

So, we will start with this element.

Element #1: Environment (X)

According to the Westley and Maclean Model, the communication process starts when a stimulus
from the environment motivates a person to create and send a message.

Element #2: Sensory experience (X¹)

When the sender of the message experiences something in their environment that nudges them to
send the message, then that sensory experience becomes an element of communication.

In the example above, the sensory experience would be witnessing a road accident.

Element #3: Source/Sender (A)

Only now does the sender come into play.

In the above-mentioned example, you are the sender, as well as a participant in the interpersonal
communication situation.

However, a sender can also be a newscaster sending a message to millions of viewers. In that
case, we are talking about mass communication.

Element #4: The object of the orientation of the source (X²)

The next element of communication in this model is the object of the orientation of the source.

Namely, the object of the orientation of the source is the sender’s beliefs or experiences.

If we take the previously-mentioned road accident as an example, you (A) are concerned (X²) that
you are going to be late for work because of the accident (X¹), and that is why you are calling your
boss (B).

Element #5: Receiver (B)

The receiver is the person who receives the message from the sender.

In mass communication, a receiver is a person who watches TV, reads a newspaper, etc.

When speaking about interpersonal communication, a receiver is a person who listens to the
message.

In the example of a road accident, mentioned above, the receivers of the message are your friends
and your boss.
Element #6: The object of the orientation of the receiver (X³)

The object of orientation of the receiver is the receiver’s beliefs or experiences, which influence
how the message is received.

For example, your friend (B) watching the news is worried about your safety (X³) after receiving the
message.

Element #7: Feedback (F)

Feedback is crucial for this model because it makes this model circular, rather than linear.

As a matter of fact, feedback influences how messages are sent.

That means that a receiver and a gatekeeper are sending messages back to the sender.

After they have received the feedback, the sender modifies the message and sends it back.

Let’s go back to our example (about the road accident).

So, you have witnessed the accident and feel the urge to call your best friend.

You: “There was a terrible accident downtown!”

Your friend: “My goodness! Are you hurt?”

You: “No, no, I just witnessed it. I wasn’t involved! Don’t worry!”

In this example, after the feedback from your worried friend, you modify your message and send it
back to them.

Element #8: Gatekeepers (C)

This element usually occurs in mass communication, rather than in interpersonal communication.

Gatekeepers are editors of the messages senders are trying to communicate to receivers.

For example, these are newspaper editors who edit the message before it reaches the readers.

Element #9: Opinion leaders

Again, this element of communication refers to mass communication situations.

Namely, opinion leaders have an immense influence as an environmental factor (X) on the
sender of the message (A).

These are political leaders, celebrities, or social media influencers.

Transactional communication models

Transactional models are the most dynamic communication models, which first introduce a new
term for senders and receivers — communicators.

What is a transactional communication model?

Transactional communication models view communication as a transaction, meaning that it is a
cooperative process in which communicators co-create the process of communication, thereby
influencing its outcome and effectiveness.

In other words, communicators create shared meaning in a dynamic process.

Aside from that, transactional models show that we do not just exchange information during our
interactions, but create relationships, form cross-cultural bonds, and shape our opinions.

In other words, communication helps us establish our realities.

These models also introduced the roles of:

 Social,

 Relational, and

 Cultural contexts.

Moreover, these models acknowledge that there are barriers to effective communication — noise.

What are the main elements of transactional communication models?

If we take a look at the transactional communication model diagram below, we can identify the key
components of this communication model:

 Encoding,

 Decoding,

 Communicators,

 The message,

 The channel, and

 Noise.
 7. Barnlund’s transactional model of communication

Barnlund’s transactional communication model explores interpersonal, immediate-feedback

communication.

What is Barnlund’s transactional communication model?

Barnlund’s model of communication recognizes that communication is a circular process and a

multi-layered feedback system between the sender and the receiver, both of whom can affect
the message being sent.

The sender and the receiver change their places and are equally important. Feedback from the
sender is the reply for the receiver, and both communicators provide feedback.

At the same time, both sender and receiver are responsible for the communication’s effect and
effectiveness.

What are the main elements of Barnlund’s communication model?

Barnlund’s transactional communication model diagram below illustrates the following main
components of this communication model:

 Encoding,

 Decoding,

 Communicators,

 The message (including the cues, environment, and noise), and

 The channel.

\\\\
This model accentuates the role of cues in impacting our messages.

So, Barnlund differentiates between:

 Public cues (environmental cues),

 Private cues (person’s personal thoughts and background), and

 Behavioral cues (person’s behavior, that can be verbal and nonverbal).

All these cues, as well as the environment and noise, are part of the message. Each
communicator’s reaction depends on their background, experiences, attitudes, and beliefs.

Barnlund’s transactional communication model example

Examples of Barnlund’s Model of communication include:

 Face-to-face interactions,

 Chat sessions,

 Telephone conversations,

 Meetings, etc.

8. Dance’s Helical model of communication

According to Dance’s Helical model of communication, with every cycle of communication, we

expand our circle.

Therefore, each communication encounter is different from the previous one because
communication never repeats itself.

What is Dance’s Helical communication model?

Dance’s Helical communication model views communication as a circular process that gets more
and more complex as communication progresses.

That is why it is represented by a helical spiral in the Dance’s Helical communication model
diagram below.

Dance’s Helical communication model diagram

In their book Communication: Principles for a Lifetime, Steven A. Beebe, Susan J. Beebe, and
Diana K. Ivy state:

“Interpersonal communication is irreversible. Like the spiral shown here,

communication never loops back on itself. Once it begins, it expands infinitely as the
communication partners contribute their thoughts and experiences to the exchange.”
Steven A. Beebe, Susan J. Beebe, Diana K. Ivy

According to this communication model, in the communication process, the feedback we get from
the other party involved influences our next statement and we become more knowledgeable with
every new cycle.

Dance’s Helical communication model example

Dance himself explained his model with the example of a person learning throughout their life.

Namely, a person starts to communicate with their surroundings very early on, using rudimentary
methods of communication.

For instance, as babies, we cry to get our mothers’ attention. Later on, we learn to speak in words,
and then in full sentences.

During the whole process, we build on what we know to improve our communication.

Every communication act is, therefore, a chance for us to learn how to communicate more
effectively in the future, and feedback helps us achieve more effective communication.

In a way, our whole life is one communicational journey toward the top of Dance’s helix.

 Linear models — Mainly used in marketing, sales, and PR, in communication with
customers, these models view communication as a one-way process.

 Interactive models — Used in internet-based and mediated communication, they refer to

two-way communication with indirect feedback.

 Transactional models — The most complex models of communication, which best reflect
the communication process.

Elements of Communication Process

In the process of communication, at least two persons are required: Sender and Receiver. The
process of communication begins when a sender wishes to convey some idea, facts, information or
opinion to the receiver. The idea is conceived by the sender and is put in such terms that can be
conveyed. He decides the channel of communication and conveys the idea. The idea is received by
the receiver, and after understanding the idea, action is taken according to the information or
direction received from the source.
The process of communication involves the following steps:
1. Sender
The person who conveys his thoughts, message or ideas to the receiver is known as the sender.
He is at the starting point of the communication system and represents the source of
communication. E.g., In a classroom, a teacher is a sender.
2. Message
The subject matter of communication is termed as messages. It includes ideas, feelings,
suggestions, order, etc., which a sender wants to convey to the receiver.
3. Encoding
The process of converting messages into communication symbols, which may be understood by
the receiver. It includes words, pictures, gestures, symbols, etc. Encoding translates the internal
thought of the sender into a language which can be understandable.
4. Media
The path, channel or medium through which encoded message is transmitted to the receiver is
known as media. It is the carrier of the message. It can be in written form, face to face, through
telephone, letter, internet, etc.
5. Decoding
The process of translating the encoded message into an effective language, which can be
understood by the receiver is known as decoding. In this, the encoded symbols of the sender are
converted.
6. Receiver
The person who receives the message of the sender is known as the receiver. E.g., Students are
receivers in the classroom.
7. Feedback
In order to complete the process of communication, feedback is essential. The process of reversal
of communication in which the receiver expresses his reaction to the sender of the message is
known as feedback. Feedback ensures that the receiver has received and understood the
message.
8. Noise
Any construction or hindrance which hampers the communication process is known as noise. The
hindrance may be caused to the sender, message or receiver. It acts as a barrier to effective
communication and because of this message is interpreted differently by the receiver. Disturbance
in the telephone line, inattentive receiver, faulty decoding, poor internet connection, improper
gestures and postures, etc., are some examples of noise.

COMMUNICATION BARRIERS
Physical Barriers

Research shows that proximity is important for building cohesive teams, yet workplaces often
stifle this with a range of physical communication barriers. These can include desk and office
dividers, closed office doors, separate areas for people of different statuses, and ‘team
territories’ that others avoid. are structures or materials that are used to physically block,
obstruct or restrict the movement or passage of something. They create a tangible, physical
separation between two or more things or spaces.

Emotional communication barriers An emotional barrier is a mental block that influences

how you perceive others' actions and prevents you from clearly communicating your feelings.
Emotional barriers can trigger an emotional response that's inappropriate or unproductive.

Perceptual Barriers

These communication barriers exist in people’s minds based on how they perceive the world
around them. They can be caused by the many cognitive biases of the human mind that
prevent us from perceiving people and situations accurately. Individuals may also have their
own unique biases based on previous experience and the influence of others.

Cultural barriers: Cultural barriers are those that arise due to lack of similarities among the
different cultures across the world. A term that can be harmless in one culture can be regarded as a
slang in another culture. Moreover, various beliefs can differ from one culture to another.

Language Barriers

Language causes communication barriers if you use words that other people are unfamiliar
with. As soon as you introduce these words, you begin to exclude others. Bear in mind this
includes expressions, buzzwords and jargon. Semantic barriers are also known as language
barriers. These barriers are caused due to improper communication between the sender and
the receiver. The following instances of semantic barriers can be witnessed in
communication.

Gender Barriers

Gender barriers to communication can still cause issues occasionally, and are perhaps some
of the subtlest to identify. They often arise when someone has an oversimplified or
stereotypical idea of how a gender behaves. This can cause them to act in a way that
impedes open, honest and appropriate communication with others.

Gender barriers are closely linked to cultural barriers, particularly differences in nationality
and age group. Bear in mind that not everyone has the same ability to adapt to the values of a
different culture, or ‘move with the times’ as we attempt to progress towards a more equal
society.

Interpersonal Barriers

Interpersonal barriers are patterns of behaviour that prevent you from communicating
effectively, or that prevent people from communicating with you.
 This could be because of something the person is doing consciously, such as deliberately
switching off their phone or closing their door because they don’t want to speak to
anyone.However, it is often more likely to be something they are doing unconsciously. For
example, our feelings about someone or something can be expressed through our body
language. This is perceived by the other person, and causes them to react accordingly.

Break Through The Barriers

Identifying barriers is an essential communication skill that helps with management,

networking, sales and generally being able to influence people. It is as valuable to written
communication as it is to verbal. This is why great communicators develop a keen sense for
when communication isn’t going as well as it should. As soon as you detect this, start looking
for the clues.

Psychological Barriers: Psychological barriers play an important role in interpersonal

communication as the state of the mind of the sender or the receiver can make it difficult to
understand the information that is conveyed, which often leads to misunderstanding.

Organisational barriers: Organisational barriers are those barriers that are caused due to the
structure, rules and regulations present in the organisation. The various types of barriers that can
be encountered due to superior subordinate relationships where the free flow of communication is
not possible.

Physiological barriers: Physiological barriers arise when a sender or the receiver of the
communication is not in a position to express or receive the message with clarity due to some
physiological issues like dyslexia, or nerve disorders that interfere with speech or
hearing. Physiological barriers to communication are related with the limitations of the human
body and the human mind (memory, attention, and perception). Physiological barriers may result
from individuals' personal discomfort, caused by ill-health, poor eye sight, or hearing difficulties.

Technological barriers in communication refer to any issues or limitations with the

technology used to facilitate communication that can hinder the effective exchange of
information between people. These barriers can arise from the design, functionality, or
accessibility of the communication technology.

Channel barriers in communication refer to any physical, psychological, or semantic

obstacles that interfere with the transmission of a message from the sender to the receiver.
These barriers can distort, block, or prevent the intended message from being received and
understood correctly.

COMMUNICATION MEDIA

Communication media refers to various means and methods of sending or receiving information or
data. It comprises tools, technology, gestures, speech, and every way a person can transfer
information to another person. Communication media is either verbal or non-verbal. Moreover, the
sender and receiver must use a common language to make information exchange successful.

Forms of Communication
Analog Media
Analog media is a form of communication media that uses electrical signals of varying altitudes to
transfer information from one point to another. Some of the most commonly used examples of
analog communication media are televisions, radios, VCRs, land-line telephones, cassette music
players, etc. Human speech is also an example of analog media.

Digital Media
Digital media is a form of communication media that uses discrete electrical signals in the form of
ones and zeroes (bits or binary digits) to transfer information from one point to another. Digital
media is often found in devices and technologies that use computers and processors. Today,
everything from a smartphone to a calculator uses digital signals to process and transfer
information. There are countless examples of digital media around us, such as email, text
messages, social media advertisements, wireless calls, Bluetooth music, etc.

In simple terms, digital and analog media are channels that make mass communication possible.
However, digital media is more prevalent in domestic as well as business arenas.

Types of Communication Media

Verbal Communication
Verbal communication is a communication medium that uses written or spoken words for
information exchange. Verbal communication media is further divided into:

Oral Communication
The oral communication medium uses spoken words for the exchange of information. It requires a
language that is understood by the sender and receiver. Speaking and listening are two parts of
oral communication.

For example, a company’s CEO is meeting with the board of directors. They use words and
sentences to inform board members about the company’s performance in the previous quarter and
other important affairs. The board members are also listening intently to everything the CEO has to
say. This is oral communication media.

Written Communication
Written communication media uses written words for the exchange of information. Naturally, it also
requires a language understood by the sender and receiver. Writing and reading are two parts of
written communication.

For example, an employee emails their boss about why they won’t be able to come to the office
tomorrow. The employee has to write the email while the boss has to read it to understand each
other. The boss might also write an email to let the employee know if their request for leave is
accepted or rejected. This is written communication media.

Non-Verbal Communication
Non-verbal communication is a communication medium that doesn’t use spoken or written words to
exchange information. Rather, it uses expressions, body language, gestures, and various signs to
convey information. Non-verbal communication is further divided into:

Facial Expressions
People communicate using their facial expressions in different situations. This is why we can
classify facial expressions as a type of communication media. When two people know each other
well, they can exchange much information using this type of non-verbal communication.

It is important to note that persons involved in this type of communication know each other well or
understand the meaning of those expressions. For example, you can tell someone is happy to see
you if they smile when they look at you.

Gestures
Gestures are another type of non-verbal communication media that refer to various actions like
pointing fingers, waving hands, opening arms, turning away from someone, etc. They can help
people transfer information using minimal speech.

For example, when you want to ask a person to sit down, you simply point your hand towards an
empty chair without saying anything.

Body Language
Our body language also transfers information with the way we stand, sit, and hold ourselves in the
presence of others. A confident person might stand up straight with their neck held high and
shoulders straight. Similarly, a nervous person might bite their nails, cross their arms, or look down.
Body language can help others understand your thoughts and emotions.

Personal Appearance
Personal appearance is a non-verbal communication medium that can help people share
information. For example, medical practitioners are easily distinguishable from others due to their
white lab coats and a stethoscope.

Others
There are multiple other non-verbal communication methods that help transfer information.

Examples include gaze, touch, proximity, silence, bowing, etc. They are informal communication
methods learned intrinsically by being a part of a culture or society. Some non-verbal cues might be
appropriate in one society or country, while in another country, those cues might be considered
rude or offensive.

For instance, a simple smile is not a sign of politeness in Russian culture. You may be surprised to
hear that Russians consider it a sign of unwillingness to reveal your true feelings.

Examples of Communication Media

Here are some common examples of different types of communication media.

Television
Television is an example of communication media that uses verbal and non-verbal communication.
The viewers receive information in an audio-visual format on a color or monochromatic screen. TV
is one of the most revolutionary technologies in the world of business communication.

Today, you will find televisions in pretty much every household. On average, an American spends
about 3 hours watching TV every day. People watch things like movies, documentaries, news
shows, contests, music, and advertisements on television.
Radio
Before television, radio was a highly important communication medium for domestic and business
purposes. The radio uses analog signals to transfer audio information using electromagnetic waves.
Even though it is not as common today, people used the radio to listen to the news, shows, and
sports just a few decades ago.

Print Media
Print media refers to all kinds of written or visual communication media printed on paper.
Examples of print media include newspapers, books, magazines, catalogs, brochures, posters, etc.
Even though it used to be one of the most popular communication media, its popularity has seen
a downward trend in the past couple of decades due to the rise of the internet and digital media.

Internet
The internet is by far the most popular form of communication media today. You can find all types
of communication here, whether verbal or non-verbal. Websites like Google, Twitter, Facebook,
and YouTube have transformed communication practices, which is why most people prefer the
internet over anything else. Whether it is entertainment or education you seek, you can find it on the
internet.

Outdoor Advertising
Outdoor media or advertising is the type of communication media you come across outside your
homes. Examples of outdoor advertising include billboards, placards, signs, posters, etc. More
often than not, the purpose of outdoor media is to advertise a product or a service.

Types of Media For Communication

Let’s first explore a variety of media channels. We’ll discuss each channel’s methods, functions,
and user demographics so you can understand how they help you reach your audience.

Social Media

Social media platforms like TikTok, Snapchat, and even YouTube allow brands to interact directly
with their target demographic, fostering a space for real-time communication and community
building. Through social media, businesses can share content that engages their audience,
increases brand visibility, and drives conversions with targeted campaigns. Social media’s
popularity makes it a fundamental part of marketing strategies today. Using social media to
communicate can help brands connect with younger audiences and drive conversions through
innovative tools like shoppable content.

Mass and Broadcast Media

Television shows, commercials, and radio remain powerful mediums for mass communication,
capable of reaching a large audience with a single broadcast. Broadcast media’s ability to convey
messages through a combination of audio, visual, and dynamic storytelling enhances its impact,
making it a preferred choice for brands looking to establish a strong presence in the market and
connect with a wide audience base. Demographics reachable through broadcast media vary
depending on the platform and time of day. Daytime television and radio, for example, tend to reach
an older demographic, while advertisements on streaming services are more effective for targeting
younger audiences.

Digital and Electronic Media

Digital and electronic media have changed communication, introducing new media channels like
websites, blogs, and streaming services that support quick, interactive conversations. These
platforms provide a versatile foundation for computer-mediated communication, enabling brands to
reach audiences precisely and efficiently. Digital media’s capacity for personalization and analytics
allows for more targeted and measurable marketing efforts, changing how companies engage with
their consumers and measure success.

Outdoor and Analog Media

Billboards, transit stations as spaces, and other forms of outdoor advertising continue to offer
significant value, delivering messages to audiences on the move. Outdoor media’s physical
presence and strategic placement capture attention in public spaces, making it an effective channel
for high-impact visual advertising. You can even combine digital and out-of-home advertising to
create an interactive experience for your audience.

Most outdoor media remains analog, and that is a good thing. Analog media’s simplicity and broad
reach make it a key component of integrated marketing campaigns, especially for local targeting
and brand visibility.

Interactive Media

Video games and interactive platforms represent a cutting-edge frontier in media communication.
These mediums engage users in immersive experiences, offering unique opportunities for brands
to integrate advertising that enhances rather than interrupts the user experience. Interactive
media’s ability to captivate audiences through engaging content and participatory elements opens
new avenues for creative marketing.

· Verbal Communication:

 · Face-to-Face: Direct, in-person conversations.

 Telephone: Voice calls for real-time communication.
 Video Conferencing: Virtual meetings using platforms like Zoom or Skype.

· Written Communication:

 · Emails: Digital messages for formal and informal communication.

 Reports: Detailed documents presenting information or analysis.
 Letters: Formal or personal written correspondence.
 Text Messages: Short, informal messages typically sent via mobile devices.

· Digital Communication:

 · Social Media: Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram for sharing information
and engaging with audiences.
 Websites and Blogs: Online platforms for disseminating information and content.
 Instant Messaging: Real-time text communication via apps like WhatsApp or Slack.

· Visual Communication:

 · Infographics: Visual representations of information or data.

 Presentations: Slideshows created using tools like PowerPoint or Google Slides.
 Videos: Visual content shared on platforms like YouTube.
· Nonverbal Communication:

 · Body Language: Gestures, posture, and facial expressions that convey messages.
 Sign Language: A visual language using hand signs and gestures.

· Mass Communication:

 · Television: Broadcast media for reaching large audiences.

 Radio: Audio content distributed via airwaves.
 Print Media: Newspapers, magazines, and brochures.