Trends, Networks, and Critical Thinking in the 21 st Century

Models of Communication

What are Communication Models?

According to Denis McQuail’s book Mass Communication Theory, “a model is a
selective representation in verbal or diagrammatic form of some aspect of the dynamic
process of mass communication.”
In other words, models of communication provide us with a visual representation
of the different aspects of a communication situation. Since communication is a complex
process, it’s often challenging to determine where a conversation begins and ends. That
is where models of communication come in — to simplify the process of understanding
communication. Some models are more detailed than others, but even the most
elaborate ones cannot perfectly represent what goes on in a communication encounter.
The 8 Major Communication Models
There are 8 major models of communication, which can be divided into 3 categories:
1. Linear models of communication — They only look at one-way communication.
The most prominent linear models of communication are:
1. Aristotle’s communication model,
2. Lasswell’s communication model,
3. The Shannon-Weaver communication model, and
4. Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model.
2. Interactive models of communication — They analyze two-way communication.
These are the following:
1. The Osgood-Schramm communication model, and
2. The Westley and Maclean communication model.
3. Transactional models of communication — They illustrate two-way
communication where the message gets more complex as the communication
event progresses. These include:
1. Barnlund’s transactional communication model, and
2. Dance’s Helical communication model.
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A. Linear Models of Communication

The linear communication model is straightforward and used mainly in marketing,
sales, and PR, in communication with customers.
What is a linear model of communication?
Linear communication models suggest that communication takes place only in one
direction.
The main elements in these models are: The channel, The sender, and The receiver.
Some linear models of communication also mention noise as one of the factors
that have a role in the communication process. Noise acts as the added (background)
element that usually distracts from the original message.
As illustrated in the linear communication model diagram below, this
communication model is pretty straightforward.

Linear communication model diagram. Simply put, the sender transmits the
message via a channel. The channel, as the medium, changes the message into
speech, writing, or animation. The message then finally reaches the receiver, who
decodes it.
We already mentioned the 3 most prominent linear models of communication, and now
it is time to analyze each one of them in more detail.

1. Aristotle’s model of communication

The oldest communication model that dates back to 300 BC, Aristotle’s model was
designed to examine how to become a better and more persuasive communicator.
What is Aristotle’s model of communication?
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Aristotle’s model of communication primarily focuses on the sender (public speaker,

professor, etc.) who passes on their message to the receiver (the audience).
The sender is also the only active member in this model, whereas the audience is
passive. This makes Aristotle’s communication model a foolproof way to excel in public
speaking, seminars, and lectures.
What are the main elements of Aristotle’s communication model?
Aristotle identified 3 elements that improve communication within this model:
1. Ethos — Defines the credibility of the speaker. Speaker gains credibility,
authority, and power by being an expert in a field of their choice.
2. Pathos — Connects the speaker with the audience through different emotions
(anger, sadness, happiness, etc.)
3. Logos — Signifies logic. Namely, it is not enough for the speech to be interesting
— it needs to follow the rules of logic.
As shown in Aristotle’s communication model diagram below, Aristotle also suggested
that we look at 5 components of a communication situation to analyze the best way to
communicate:
Speaker, Speech, Occasion, Target audience, and Effect.

Aristotle’s communication model diagram

2. Lasswell’s model of communication

Lasswell’s communication model views communication as the transmission of a
message with the effect as the result. The effect in this case is the measurable and
obvious change in the receiver of the message that is caused by the elements of
communication. If any of the elements change, the effect also changes.
What are the main elements of Lasswell’s communication model?
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Lasswell’s model aims to answer the following 5 questions regarding its elements:
1. Who created the message?
2. What did they say?
3. What channel did they use (TV, radio, blog)?
4. To whom did they say it?
5. What effect did it have on the receiver?
The answers to these questions offer us the main components of this model:
• Communicator, Message, Medium, Audience/Receiver, and Effect.
If we take a look at Lasswell’s communication model diagram below, we can get a better
understanding of how these main components are organized.

Lasswell’s communication model diagram

3. The Shannon-Weaver model of communication

The Shannon-Weaver communication model, therefore, is a mathematical
communication concept that proposes that communication is a linear, one-way process
that can be broken down into 5 key concepts.
What are the main elements of the Shannon-Weaver communication model?
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As the Shanon-Weaver communication model diagram below shows, the main

components of this model are: Sender, Encoder, Channel, Decoder, and Receiver.

The Shannon-Weaver communication model diagram

Shannon and Weaver were also the first to introduce the role of noise in the
communication process. In his book Introduction to Communication Studies, John Fiske
defines noise as: “Anything that is added to the signal between its transmission and
reception that is not intended by the source.” The noise appears in the form of
mishearing a conversation, misspelling an email, or static on a radio broadcast.

4. Berlo’s S-M-C-R model of communication

Berlo’s model of communication was first defined by David Berlo in his 1960
book The Process of Communication. This communication model is unique in the sense
that it gives a detailed account of the key elements in each step.
What is Berlo’s S-M-C-R model of communication?
Simply put, Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model is a linear model of communication
that suggests communication is the transfer of information between 4 basic steps or key
elements.
What are the main elements of Berlo’s Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model?
As shown in Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model diagram below, these steps are the
following:
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Source, Message, Channel, and Receiver.

Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model diagram

Step #1: The source
The source or the sender carefully puts their thoughts into words and transfers the
message to the receiver.
So, how does the sender transfer the information to the receiver according to Berlo’s S-
M-C-R communication model?
With the help of:
• Communication skills — First and foremost, the source needs good
communication skills to ensure the communication will be effective. The speaker
should know when to pause, what to repeat, how to pronounce a word, etc.
• Attitude — Secondly, the source needs the right attitude. Without it, not even a
great speaker would ever emerge as a winner. The source needs to make a
lasting impression on the receiver(s).
• Knowledge — Here, knowledge does not refer to educational qualifications but to
the clarity of the information that the source wants to transfer to the receiver.
• Social system — The source should be familiar with the social system in which
the communication process takes place. That would help the source not to offend
anyone.
• Culture — Last but not least, to achieve effective communication, the source
needs to be acquainted with the culture in which the communication encounter is
taking place. This is especially important for cross-cultural communication.
Step #2: The message
The speaker creates the message when they transform their thoughts into words.
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Here are the key factors of the message:

• Content — Simply put, this is the script of the conversation.
• Elements — Speech alone is not enough for the message to be fully understood.
That is why other elements have to be taken into account: gestures, body
language, facial expressions, etc.
• Treatment — The way the source treats the message. They have to be aware of
the importance of the message so that they can convey it appropriately.
• Structure — The source has to properly structure the message to ensure the
receiver will understand it correctly.
• Code — All the elements, verbal and nonverbal, need to be accurate if you do
not want your message to get distorted and misinterpreted.
Step #3: The channel
To get from the source to the receiver, the message goes through the channel.
Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model identifies all our senses are the channels that
help us communicate with one another.
Our sense of hearing lets us know that someone is speaking to us.
Through our sense of taste, we gather information about the spiciness of a sauce we
are eating.
Our sense of sight allows us to decipher traffic signs while driving.
We decide whether we like a certain perfume or not by smelling it.
By touching the water we feel whether it is too cold for a swim.
Step #4: The receiver
A receiver is a person the source is speaking to — the destination of the conveyed
message.
To understand the message, the receiver should involve the same elements as the
source. They should have similar communication skills, attitudes, and knowledge, and
be acquainted with the social system and culture in which they communicate.
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B. Interactive models of communication

Interactive models are used in internet-based and mediated communication such
as telephone conversations, letters, etc.
What is an interactive model of communication?
As more dynamic models, interactive communication models refer to two-way
communication with feedback. However, feedback within interactive communication
models is not simultaneous, but rather slow and indirect.
What are the main elements of interactive communication models?
The main elements of these models, illustrated in the interactive communication
model diagram, include the following:
Sender, Message, Receiver, Feedback, and Field of experience.

Interactive communication model diagram

5. The Osgood-Schramm model of communication
In their book Communication Models for the Study of Mass Communications,
Denis Mcquail and Sven Windahl say that the emergence of this model “meant a clear
break with the traditional linear/one-way picture of communication.”
What is the Osgood-Schramm model of communication?
The Osgood-Schramm model is a circular model of communication, in which
messages go in two directions between encoding and decoding. As such, this model is
useful for describing synchronous, interpersonal communication, but less suitable for
cases with little or no feedback.
Interestingly, in the Osgood-Schramm communication model, there is no
difference between a sender and a receiver. Both parties are equally encoding and
decoding the messages. The interpreter is the person trying to understand the message
at that moment. Furthermore, the Osgood-Schramm communication model shows that
information is of no use until it is put into words and conveyed to other people.
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What are the main principles and steps in the communication process according
to this model?
The Osgood-Schramm communication model proposes 4 main principles of
communication:
1. Communication is circular. — Individuals involved in the communication process
are changing their roles as encoders and decoders.
2. Communication is equal and reciprocal. — Both parties are equally engaged as
encoders and decoders.
3. The message requires interpretation. — The information needs to be properly
interpreted to be understood.
4. As shown in the Osgood-Schramm communication model diagram below, this
model proposes 3 steps in the process of communication:
Encoding, Decoding, and Interpreting.

The Osgood-Schramm communication model diagram

6. The Westley and Maclean model of communication

The next interactive communication model on our list is the Westley and Maclean model
of communication.
This communication model is primarily used for explaining mass communication.
What is the Westley and Maclean communication model?
The Westley and Maclean communication model suggests that the communication
process does not start with the source/sender, but rather with environmental factors.
This model also takes into account the object of the orientation (background, culture,
and beliefs) of the sender and the receiver of messages.
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The very process of communication, according to this communication model, starts with
environmental factors that influence the speaker — the culture or society the speaker
lives in, whether the speaker is in a public or private space, etc.
Aside from that, the role of feedback is also significant.
What are the main elements of the Westley and Maclean communication model?
This model consists of 9 crucial components:
1. Environment (X),
2. Sensory experience (X¹),
3. Source/Sender (A),
4. The object of the orientation of the source (X²),
5. Receiver (B),
6. The object of the orientation of the receiver (X³),
7. Feedback (F),
8. Gatekeepers (C), and
9. Opinion leaders.
The Westley and Maclean communication model diagram below shows how these
components are organized in the communication process.

The Westley and Maclean communication model diagram

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C. Transactional communication models

Transactional models are the most dynamic communication models, which first
introduce a new term for senders and receivers — communicators.
What is a transactional communication model?
Transactional communication models view communication as a transaction, meaning
that it is a cooperative process in which communicators co-create the process of
communication, thereby influencing its outcome and effectiveness.
In other words, communicators create shared meaning in a dynamic process.
Aside from that, transactional models show that we do not just exchange information
during our interactions, but create relationships, form cross-cultural bonds, and shape
our opinions.
In other words, communication helps us establish our realities.
These models also introduced the roles of:
• Social,
• Relational, and
• Cultural contexts.
Moreover, these models acknowledge that there are barriers to effective
communication — noise.
What are the main elements of transactional communication models?
If we take a look at the transactional communication model diagram below, we can
identify the key components of this communication model: Encoding,
Decoding, Communicators, The message, The channel, and Noise.

Transactional communication model diagram

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7. Barnlund’s transactional model of communication

Barnlund’s transactional communication model explores interpersonal, immediate-
feedback communication.
What is Barnlund’s transactional communication model?
Barnlund’s model of communication recognizes that communication is a circular
process and a multi-layered feedback system between the sender and the
receiver, both of whom can affect the message being sent.
The sender and the receiver change their places and are equally important. Feedback
from the sender is the reply for the receiver, and both communicators provide feedback.
At the same time, both sender and receiver are responsible for the communication’s
effect and effectiveness.
What are the main elements of Barnlund’s communication model?
Barnlund’s transactional communication model diagram below illustrates the following
main components of this communication model: Encoding,
Decoding, Communicators, The message (including the cues, environment, and
noise), and The channel.

Barnlund’s communication model diagram

This model accentuates the role of cues in impacting our messages.
So, Barnlund differentiates between:
• Public cues (environmental cues),
• Private cues (person’s personal thoughts and background), and
• Behavioral cues (person’s behavior, that can be verbal and nonverbal).
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All these cues, as well as the environment and noise, are part of the message. Each
communicator’s reaction depends on their background, experiences, attitudes, and
beliefs.

8. Dance’s Helical model of communication

According to Dance’s Helical model of communication, with every cycle of
communication, we expand our circle.
Therefore, each communication encounter is different from the previous one because
communication never repeats itself.
What is Dance’s Helical communication model?
Dance’s Helical communication model views communication as a circular process that
gets more and more complex as communication progresses.
That is why it is represented by a helical spiral in the Dance’s Helical communication
model diagram below.

Dance’s Helical communication model diagram

In their book Communication: Principles for a Lifetime, Steven A. Beebe, Susan J.
Beebe, and Diana K. Ivy state:
“Interpersonal communication is irreversible. Like the spiral shown here, communication
never loops back on itself. Once it begins, it expands infinitely as the communication
partners contribute their thoughts and experiences to the exchange.”
Steven A. Beebe, Susan J. Beebe, Diana K. Ivy
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According to this communication model, in the communication process, the feedback

we get from the other party involved influences our next statement and we become
more knowledgeable with every new cycle.
In this guide, we have covered the most important models of communication, divided
into 3 categories:
• Linear models — Mainly used in marketing, sales, and PR, in communication
with customers, these models view communication as a one-way process.
• Interactive models — Used in internet-based and mediated communication,
they refer to two-way communication with indirect feedback.
• Transactional models — The most complex models of communication, which
best reflect the communication process.