• Density and Pressure in Static Fluid

• Buoyant Forces, Archimedes’ Principle

• Moving Fluids and Bernoulli’s Equation
• Properties of Bulk Matter, stress and
Strain
Density, specific weight, specific gravity
• Density, r (decreases with rise in T)
• mass per unit volume (kg/m3 )
• for water density = 1000 kg/m3
• Specific Weight, g (Heaviness of fluid)
• weight per unit volume 𝜸 = 𝝆𝒈
• for water 𝛾 = 9.81 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3
• Specific Gravity = SG
• Ratio of the density of a fluid to the density of water

𝑺𝑮 = 𝝆𝒇 /𝝆𝒘 SG of Hg = 13.55
The cubic vessels contain the water at different
temperatures. Which water has the highest density?

𝟏. 𝟐.
1 𝑘𝑔 of 1 𝑘𝑔 of
water at water at
73°𝐶 273°𝐶
1𝑚 1𝑚

𝟑. 𝟒.
1 𝑘𝑔 of 1 𝑘𝑔 of
water at water at
273°𝐾 373°𝐶
1𝑚 3𝑚
 Example
A object has a mass of 36 grams and the volume of the
water (reference material) is 3 mL. Find (a) the density, (b)
the specific weight and (c) the specific gravity of the
object. Also, specify if the object will sink or float in the
water? The density of the water is 1 g/mL.
Solution:
(a) Density of object:
𝜌 = 𝑚/𝑣 = 36𝑔/3𝑚𝐿 = 12 𝑔/𝑚𝐿 = 12 𝑘𝑔/𝐿
(b) Specific weight:
𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔 = 12 𝑘𝑔/𝐿 × 9.81 𝑚/𝑠2 = 117.72 𝑁/𝑚𝐿
(C) Specific Gravity:
12𝑔Τ𝑚𝐿
SG = 𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 /𝜌𝐻2 𝑂 = = 12
1𝑔Τ𝑚𝐿
The specific gravity is greater than 1 so the object will sink in the
water.
What is a Fluid?
A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the influence
of a shear stress, no matter how small.
Fluids exist in a liquid or gas phase.
In solids, stress is proportional to strain, e.g., Hooke’s law
In fluids, stress is proportional to strain rate.

When a constant shear force

is applied, a solid eventually
stops deforming at some
fixed strain angle, whereas a
fluid never stops deforming
and approaches a constant
rate of strain.
6
Stress: Force per unit area. Stress and Strain
Normal stress: The normal
component of a force acting on
a surface per unit area.
Shear stress: The tangential
component of a force acting on
a surface per unit area.
Pressure: The normal stress
in a fluid at rest.
Zero shear stress: A fluid at
rest is at a state of zero shear
stress.

When the walls are removed or a liquid container is tilted,

a shear develops as the liquid moves to re-establish a
horizontal free surface. 7
Intermolecular bonds are strongest in solids and weakest in
gases.
Solid: molecules are at relatively fixed positions in some
pattern
Liquid: molecules rotate and translate relative to each other
Gas: molecules are far apart from each other and move
randomly

8
 Pressure
• If an object is immersed in a fluid, the
fluid exerts a force on every part of
the object’s surface.
• If the object and fluid are at rest, the
force is perpendicular to the element
of area on which it acts.

𝑷2 𝑨 − 𝑷1 𝑨 − 𝑴𝒈 = 0
𝑷2 = 𝑷1 + 𝝆𝒈(𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 ሻ
𝑴 = 𝝆𝑽 = 𝝆𝑨(𝒚2 − 𝒚1 ሻ
Pressure
• Let 𝑦1 = 0 be the free surface of
the liquid
• At the free surface the pressure is
atmospheric pressure 𝑃0 :
𝑃0 = 1.013 × 105 Pa at sea level
• Then, the pressure at any depth ℎ
will be

𝑷 = 𝑷𝟎 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉
Consider the three open containers filled with water.
How do the pressures at the bottoms compare ?

A. B. C.

1. 𝑷 𝑨 = 𝑷𝑩 = 𝑷𝑪
2. 𝑷𝑨 < 𝑷𝑩 = 𝑷𝑪
3. 𝑷𝑨 < 𝑷𝑩 < 𝑷𝑪
4. 𝑷 𝑩 < 𝑷𝑨 < 𝑷𝑪
5. Not enough information
The three open containers are now filled with oil,
water and honey respectively. How do the pressures
at the bottoms compare ?

honey
A. B. C.
oil water

1. 𝑷 𝑨 = 𝑷𝑩 = 𝑷𝑪
2. 𝑷𝑨 < 𝑷𝑩 = 𝑷𝑪
3. 𝑷 𝑨 < 𝑷𝑩 < 𝑷𝑪
4. 𝑷 𝑩 < 𝑷𝑨 < 𝑷𝑪
5. Not enough information
 Calculating Crush Depth of a Submarine
A nuclear submarine is rated to withstand a pressure difference of
70 𝑎𝑡𝑚 before catastrophic failure. If the internal air pressure is
maintained at 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚, what is the maximum permissible depth ?

𝑃 = 𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ

𝑃 − 𝑃0 = 70 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 7.1 × 106 𝑃𝑎 ; 𝜌 = 1 × 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑃 − 𝑃0 7.1 × 106
ℎ= = 3
= 720 𝑚
𝜌𝑔 1 × 10 × 9.8
 Pascal’s Principle: Example
• Pressure force is transmitted through a fluid

Q. A large piston supports a car.

The total mass of the piston and
car is 3200 𝑘𝑔. What force must F2
A2
A1
be applied to the smaller piston to
support the car?

Pressure at the same height is the same!

𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐴1 𝜋 × 0.152
= 𝐹1 = 𝑚𝑔 = × 3200 × 9.8 = 490 𝑁
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴2 𝜋 × 1.202
 Measuring Pressure
Q. What is height of mercury (Hg)
at 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 ?

𝜌𝐻𝑔 = 13.6 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3

𝑃 = 𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ → ℎ = 𝑃/𝜌𝑔

1 × 105
ℎ= 4
= 0.75 𝑚
1.36 × 10 × 9.8

Atmospheric pressure can support a 10 meters high

column of water. Moving to higher density fluids 𝑝 = 𝑝0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
allows a table top barometer to be easily constructed.
 Gauge Pressure

Gauge Pressure is the pressure difference from atmosphere. (e.g. Tyres)

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 + 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒
Archimedes’ Principle and Buoyancy

Why do some things float and other things sink ?

 Archimedes’ Principle and Buoyancy
Objects immersed in a fluid experience a Buoyant Force!

𝐹𝐵 = 𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑉𝑔 (up) 𝐹𝐵 > 𝑊𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑

Partly immersed

𝐹𝐵 = 𝑊𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
Floating

𝐹𝐵 < 𝑊𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
Sinks

𝑊𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 = 𝑚𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑉𝑔 (𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛ሻ

The Buoyant Force is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid !

 Archimedes’ Principle and Buoyancy

The hot-air balloon

floats because the
weight of air displaced
(= the buoyancy force)
is greater than the
weight of the balloon

The Buoyant Force is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid !

Which of the three cubes of length 𝑙 shown below has the
largest buoyant force?
water stone wood

water FB FB FB

m1g m2g m3g

A. B. C.

1. 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
2. 𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆
3. 𝒘𝒐𝒐𝒅
4. 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒖𝒐𝒚𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆
5. Not enough information
 Example Archimedes’ Principle and Buoyancy
Q. Find the apparent weight of a 60 𝑘𝑔 concrete block when you lift
it under water, 𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 = 2200 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Solution
Water provides a buoyancy force Fnet = mg − Fb = wapparent
Apparent weight should be less
Fb = mdisp water g = rwaterVg
r water mg
wapp = mg −
Fb r con
m r water
r con = wapp = mg (1 − )
V r con
1000
V=
m = 60  9.8  (1 − ) = 321 N
w = mg r con 2200
 Floating Objects
Q. If the density of an iceberg is 0.86
that of seawater, how much of an
iceberg’s volume is below the sea?
𝐵𝑢𝑜𝑦𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹𝐵
= 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝐹𝐵 = 𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑔
𝐼𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚,
𝐹𝐵 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑔
𝐹𝐵 = 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑔
𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑔 = 𝜌𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑉𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑔 → = = 0.86
𝑉𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝜌𝑖𝑐𝑒
A beaker of water weighs 𝑤1 . A block of weight 𝑤2 is
suspended in the water by a spring balance reading 𝑤3 .
What does the scale read?

1. 𝒘𝟏
2. 𝒘𝟏 + 𝒘𝟐
3. 𝒘𝟏 + 𝒘𝟑
4. 𝒘𝟏 + 𝒘𝟐 − 𝒘𝟑
5. 𝒘𝟏 + 𝒘𝟑 − 𝒘𝟐

scale
 Centre of Buoyancy: Example

The Centre of Buoyancy is given by the Centre of Mass of the displaced

fluid. For objects to float with stability the Centre of Buoyancy must be
above the Centre of Mass of the object. Otherwise Torque yield Tip !
 Fluid Dynamics
Laminar (steady) flow is where each
particle in the fluid moves along a
smooth path, and the paths do not cross.
The path is called a streamline.
Velocity is tangent to the streamline for
steady flow don’t cross.
Spacing of streamlines measures speed.
A set of streamlines act as a pipe for an
incompressible fluid.
Non-viscous flow – no internal friction
(water OK, honey not)
Turbulent flow above a critical speed.
Whirlpools appear, paths cross, and
become irregular and chaotic.
LAMINAR AT THE FRONT AND
TURBULENT AT THE BACK
Conservation of Mass: The Continuity Eqn.

The rate of flow is the same

at all cross-sections.
There can be no sources or
sinks of fluid.
Conservation of Mass: The Continuity Eqn.
A1 A2

fluid in → fluid out →

𝑣1 𝑣2
Q. How much fluid flows across each area in a time ∆𝑡:
𝑣2Δ𝑡
𝑣1 Δ𝑡

A1 A2

Δ𝑚 = 𝜌1 𝑉1 = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑣1 Δ𝑡 Δ𝑚 = 𝜌2 𝑉2 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑣2 Δ𝑡
Δ𝑚
𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒: = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 C𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑛: 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑣2
Δ𝑡
 Continuity equation for
incompressible fluid

•Density is constant for incompressible fluid.

•The continuity equation then becomes

𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
Conservation of Mass: The Continuity Eqn.
Q. A river is 40m wide, 2.2m deep and flows at 4.5 m/s. It passes
through a 3.7-m wide gorge, where the flow rate increases to 6.0
m/s. How deep is the gorge?

𝐴2 = 𝑤2𝑑2

𝐴1 = 𝑤1𝑑1

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∶ 𝐴1𝑣1 = 𝐴2𝑣2 → 𝑤1𝑑1𝑣1 = 𝑤2𝑑2𝑣2

𝑤1𝑑1𝑣1 40 × 2.2 × 4.5
𝑑2 = = = 18 𝑚
𝑤2𝑣2 3.7 × 6.0
 Conservation of Energy: Bernoulli’s Eqn.
What happens to the energy density of the fluid if I raise the ends ?

𝑣1Δ𝑡

y2
y1 𝑣2Δ𝑡

Energy per unit p1 + 12 r v12 + r g y1 = p2 + 12 r v22 + r g y2= const

volume

Total energy per unit volume is constant

p + 12 r v 2 + r g y = const
at any point in fluid.
Conservation of Energy: Bernoulli’s Eqn.
Q. Find the velocity of water leaving a tank through a hole in the
side 1 metre below the water level.

𝑃 + 12𝜌𝑣2 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝐴𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑝: 𝑃 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚, 𝑣 = 0, 𝑦 = 1 𝑚

𝐴𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚: 𝑃 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚, 𝑣 =? , 𝑦 = 0 𝑚

𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦 = 𝑃 + 12𝜌𝑣2

𝑣= 2𝑔𝑦 = 2 × 9.8 × 1 = 4.4 𝑚/𝑠

 Which of the following can be done to increase the flow
rate out of the water tank ?

1. Raise the tank (↑ 𝑯ሻ

2. Reduce the hole size ℎ
3. Lower the water level (↓ 𝒉ሻ
4. Raise the water level (↑ 𝒉ሻ
5. None of the above 𝐻
Summary: fluid dynamics
Continuity equation: mass is conserved!
𝜌𝑣𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
For liquids:
𝜌 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 → 𝑣𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
(𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌, 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣, 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴ሻ

Bernoulli’s equation: energy is conserved!

𝑃 + 12𝜌𝑣2 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
(𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃, 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌, 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣, ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑦ሻ
Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle
• Venturi and pitot tubes
Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle
• Scent pray
Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle
• Swerving ball
Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle
Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle
Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle
Properties of Bulk Matter
Reading assignment
 Chapter 4
Heat and
Thermodynamics
 The Concept of Temperature and Heat
• What is temperature?
• Qualitatively, based on our senses, TEMPERATURE is a physical quantity
that tells us how warm or cold an object is.
• This qualitative definition does not answer the question “how hot is hot?”
• Also, our senses are misleading
 The Concept of Temperature and Heat
• What is temperature?
• We need an operational definition of temperature.
• Consider two bodies A and B, A being hotter than B, thermally isolated
from each other.

• What happens
when thermal
contact is
established
between A and
B?
The Concept of Temperature and Heat
• Heat is energy in transfer from a
hot to a cold body.
• Objects are in thermal contact if
heat can flow between them.

• Eventually, the energy flow stops.

• The two bodies will be in thermal equilibrium.
• They are said to be at the same temperature.
 The Concept of Temperature and Heat

• Definition of temperature
There is a scalar quantity called temperature that
assumes the same value for bodies in thermal equilibrium.

• Mechanical Analogy
There is a quantity called
pressure that assumes the
same value for bodies in
mechanical equilibrium.
 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

Let’s now introduce a third body C

ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

If bodies A and B are separately in
thermal equilibrium with a third body C,
then bodies A and B will be in thermal
equilibrium if they are placed in thermal
contact.
 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
What is the third body C? The third body is a thermometer.

A thermometer is an
instrument that
measures the
A and C are in B and C are in temperature of a body
thermal equilibrium thermal equilibrium in a quantitative way.

Temperature is the only

factor that determines
whether two objects in
A and B are in thermal contact are in
thermal equilibrium thermal equilibrium or not.
 Thermal Energy (Heat) versus Temperature
Thermal Energy (Heat) Temperature
• is kinetic energy in transit from one • is the average kinetic energy of
object to another due to temperature particles in an object – not the total
difference. amount of kinetic energy particles.
• Measured in calories or Joules • Measured in C, F, K
• Any object with temperature above • Absolute zero is zero Kelvin
zero Kelvin has thermal energy
𝑇1 𝑇2

Heat
 Quiz

• The zeroth law of thermodynamics is

A. A logical necessity
B. An empirical fact
C. A universal law
D.Transitivity of thermal equilibrium
 Thermodynamics
• The study of the effects of work, heat, and energy on
a system

• A thermodynamic system is a definite quantity of

matter enclosed by boundaries, either real or
imaginary.

• Everything outside the boundary is called the

surroundings.

• The system may interact with the surroundings by

interchanging energy through a transfer of heat
and/or the performance of mechanical work.
 Thermal energy flows from hot to cold

• Identify the
system and the
surroundings
• Indicate the
direction of
energy flow
 Thermodynamic Systems
• Open → when matter CAN cross the boundary Open
↔ matter
system heat
• Closed → when matter CANNOT cross the boundary
• Isolated → Boundary seals matter and heat from being
exchanged
Closed
system
↔ heat

Isolated
system
 Work – Mechanical Energy Transfer
• Work done by expanding gas
𝑊 = −𝐹Δ𝑠 = −𝑃𝐴Δ𝑠 = −𝑃Δ𝑉
 Work – Mechanical Energy Transfer
• Work done depends on the thermodynamic process.
• Similarly, heat absorbed or
rejected by a system depends
on the thermodynamic process.
Internal Energy

The internal energy of a system

is the sum of the kinetic and
potential energies of the atoms
and molecules making up the
system.
 The First Law of Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics is a statement of the
conservation of energy.
If a system’s volume is constant, and heat is added, its
internal energy increases.
 The First Law of Thermodynamics
If a system does work on the external world, and no
heat is added, its internal energy decreases.
 The First Law of Thermodynamics
Combining these gives the first law of thermodynamics.

It is vital to keep track of the signs of Q and W.

 The First Law of Thermodynamics
The internal energy of the system depends only on its
temperature. The work done and the heat added, however,
depend on the details of the process involved.
 Quiz
The first Law of Thermodynamics, U = Q - W, means:
A. Heat cannot be added to a system without work being
done.
B. Work cannot be done without heat being added.
C. The amount of work done always equals the amount
of heat added.
D. The total internal energy of a system is conserved.
CHOOSE THE TRUE STATEMENT.
 Processes in Thermodynamics
• Isothermal process → takes place at constant temperature
(e.g. freezing of water to ice at 0°C)
• Any heat flow into or out of the system must be slow enough to
maintain thermal equilibrium
• For ideal gases, if ΔT is zero, ΔU = 0
• Therefore, Q = W
• Any energy entering the system (Q) must leave as work (W)
For an ideal gas undergoing an isothermal process, pressure
varies inversely with volume.

𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝑉𝑓
𝑃= Q = W = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 ln
𝑉𝑖
𝑉
Processes in Thermodynamics

• Isobaric process → takes place

constant pressure
(e.g. heating of water in open air→
under atmospheric pressure)
• ΔU, W, and Q are generally non-
zero, but calculating the work done
by an ideal gas is straightforward
𝑊 = 𝑃Δ𝑉
Processes in Thermodynamics

• Isochoric process → takes place

constant volume
(e.g. heating of gas in a sealed
metal container)
• When the volume of a system
doesn’t change, it will do no work
on its surroundings. 𝑊 = 0
Δ𝑈 = 𝑄
 Processes in Thermodynamics

• Adiabatic process → no heat is added to/removed from the system

• Therefore 𝑄 = 0 and Δ𝑈 = – 𝑊
• When a system expands adiabatically, 𝑊 is positive (the system
does work) so Δ𝑈 is negative.
• When a system compresses adiabatically, 𝑊 is negative (work is
done on the system) so Δ𝑈 is positive.
Processes in Thermodynamics

• The adiabatic P-V

curve is similar to
the isothermal one,
but is steeper.

• The P-V curve for an

adiabat is given by
• 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
𝑊𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡 < 𝑊𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚

For an ideal gas:

𝑊𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑡 = 𝐶𝑉 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
Or
𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1
𝑊𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡 =
𝛾−1
One way to ensure that a process is adiabatic is
to insulate the system.
Another way to ensure that a
process is effectively adiabatic is to
have the volume change occur so
quickly that heat has no time to
flow in or out of the system.
In summary:
 Other Processes in Thermodynamics

• Reversible process → system is close to equilibrium at all times

• Cyclic process → the final and initial state are the same.
For the ideal gas, Δ𝑈 = 0 and 𝑄 = 𝑊
Consider cycle A -> B -> A
(work done by gas in a cycle)

WA->B = Area 1

WB->A = - Area 2
Consider cycle A -> B -> A
(work done by gas in a cycle)

WA->B->A = Area 1-Area 2

= Area of loop
Reverse the cycle, make it counter clockwise

(work done by gas in a cycle)

WB->A = - Area 1

WA->B = Area 2
Reverse the cycle, make it counter clockwise
(work done by gas in a cycle)

WA->B->A= - Area of loop

Internal Energy in closed cycles

ΔU=0
in closed cycles
 Specific Heats for an Ideal Gas
Specific heats for ideal gases must be quoted either at
constant pressure or at constant volume.
For a constant-volume process,
 Specific Heats for an Ideal Gas

At constant pressure,
 Specific Heats for an Ideal Gas

Both CV and CP can be calculated for a monatomic ideal gas

using the first law of thermodynamics.
 Specific Heats for an Ideal Gas
Although this calculation was done for an ideal, monatomic
gas, it works well for real gases.
 Calculating Energy Transfer
Calculate the energy transferred when a block of aluminum at 80.0°C is
placed in 1.00 liter (1kg) of water at 25.0°C if the final temperature
Q
becomes 30.0°C.

Step 1. List all known values

Mass of water = 1 kg

Cp of water = 4184 JΤkg°C

Difference in temperature = ΔT = 30.0°C – 25.0°C = 5.0°C

Cp of Al = 900 JΤkg°C
Difference in temperature = ΔT = 80.0°C – 30.0°C = 50.0°C
Calculating Energy Transfer
Step 2. List all unknown values
𝑄 = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑚𝐴𝑙 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐴𝑙 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘

Step 3. Select equations to solve unknown values

𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝛥𝑇 𝑄𝐴𝑙 = 𝑄𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Step 4. Solve for Qwater

Q water = 1.00kg × 4184 𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 ℃ × 5.0℃ = 20,920 J gained

Calculating Energy Transfer
Step 5. Solve for 𝑚𝐴𝑙

Q Al (lost) = Q water (gained) = 20,920 J

𝑄𝐴𝑙 = 𝑚𝐴𝑙 𝐶𝑝 𝛥𝑇

Q Al 20920J
mAl = =
Cp ΔT 900 𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 ℃ × 50.0℃

𝑚𝐴𝑙 = 0.465 kg = 465g

Examples and Quizzes
A cylinder of radius 5 cm is kept at a pressure
with a piston of mass 75 kg.
a) What is the pressure inside the cylinder?
1.950x105 Pa
b) If the gas expands such that the
cylinder rises 12.0 cm, what work was
done by the gas?
183.8 J
c) What amount of the work went into
changing the gravitational PE of the
piston?
88.3 J
d) Where did the rest of the work go?
Compressing the outside air
A massive copper piston traps an ideal gas as shown
to the right. The piston is allowed to freely slide up
and down and equilibrate with the outside air.
The pressure inside the cylinder is _________ the
pressure outside.
The temperature inside the cylinder is ______ the
temperature outside.
If the gas is heated by a steady flame, and the
piston rises to a new equilibrium position, the new
pressure will be _________ than the previous
pressure.
a) Greater than
b) Less than
c) Equal to
Identify the processes P
• Isobaric
• P = constant V
P
• Isochoric
• V = constant V
• W = 0 P

• Isothermal V
• T = constant
P
• U = 0 (ideal gas)
V
• Adiabatic
• Q = 0
A massive piston traps an amount of Helium gas as Outside Air:
shown. The piston freely slides up and down. The Room T, Atm. P
system initially equilibrates at room temperature
(state a). Weight is slowly added to the piston,
isothermally compressing the gas to half its original
volume (state b).
Pb is _______ Pa
Tb is _______ Ta
Wab is ______ 0 a) Greater than
Ub is ______ Ua b) Less than
Qab is ______ 0 c) Equal to
A massive piston traps an amount of Helium gas as Outside Air:
shown. The piston freely slides up and down. The Room T, Atm. P
system initially equilibrates at room temperature
(state a). Weight is slowly added to the piston,
adiabatically compressing the gas to half its
original volume (state b).
Pb is _______ Pa
Tb is _______ Ta
Wab is ______ 0 a) Greater than
Ub is ______ Ua b) Less than
Qab is ______ 0 c) Equal to
A massive piston traps an amount of Helium gas as Outside Air:
shown. The piston freely slides up and down. The Room T, Atm. P
system initially equilibrates at room temperature
(state a). The gas is cooled, isobarically
compressing the gas to half its original volume
(state b).
Pb is _______ Pa
Tb is _______ Ta
Wab is ______ 0 a) Greater than
Ub is ______ Ua b) Less than
Qab is ______ 0 c) Equal to
a) What amount of work is
performed by the gas in the
cycle IAFI?

W=304 J

b) How much heat was

inserted into the gas in the
cycle IAFI?

Q = 304 J

c) What amount of work is

performed by the gas in the
cycle IBFI?
W = -304 J
Consider a monotonic ideal gas.
a) What work was done by
the gas from A to B?
20,000 J
b) What heat was added to
P (kPa)
the gas between A and B? 75 A
20,000
c) What work was done by
the gas from B to C? 50
-10,000 J
d) What heat was added to
B
the gas beween B and C? 25
-25,000 J C
e) What work was done by V (m3)
the gas from C to A?
0
f) What heat was added to 0.2 0.4 0.6
the gas from C to A?
15,000 J
Take solutions from last problem and find:

a) Net work done by gas in the cycle

b) Amount of heat added to gas

WAB + WBC + WCA = 10,000 J

QAB + QBC + QCA = 10,000 J
Consider an ideal gas undergoing the path through the PV diagram.
In going from A to B to C,
(a) the work done BY the gas is _______ 0.
(b) the change of the internal energy of the gas is _______ 0.
(c) the amount of heat added to the gas is _______ 0.

a) >
b) <
P C
c) =

B
A
V
In going from A to B to C to D to A,
(a) the work done BY the gas is _______ 0.
(b) the change of the internal energy of the gas is _______ 0.
(c) the heat added to the gas is _______ 0.

a) >
P D C
b) <
c) =
B
A
V