Forenslc Ballistics

FORENSIC BALLISTICS
UNIT 1-HISTORY OF BALLISTICS

It can be traced back since the time man started studying how to launch objects like stones to
hit specific targets or objects. Later, ballistics engaged In the study of projectiles and even missiles.

A. DEFINITION: BALLISTICS Is defined as the science of motion of projectiles.

Etymology: "Ballistics" - Greek word "Ballo” or "Ballien” mean "to throw" and "Ballista" (old Englis
Ballistae)- a gigantic bow or catapult which was used to hurl large objects such as stones at
a particular distance to deter animals or enemy forces.

ALTERNATIVE DEFINITIONS:
1. Basic: It is an activity that involves throwing.
2. It is a science in itself because it evolved from systematic knowledge, research and
development, training, experience and education of those who pioneered in this field.
3. Technical: It refers to the "science of firearms identification which involves the scientific
examination of ballistics exhibits such as: fired bullets; fired shells; firearms; and allied matters,
used in crime.
4. Legal: It is the microscopic examination of fired cartridge cases and bullets together with the
recording and presentation by means of photography of what is revealed by the microscope.
5. Broadest: It is the study of projectiles, firearms and ammunitions, including the characteristics of
firearm that affect the way projectiles are fired.
6. Classical: It is a branch of engineering that deals with the motion and behavior of projectiles
such as bullets, rockets, bombs, and guided missiles. It is concerned with projectiles fired from
small arms and cannons, but It may be concerned with the free flight of bombs and rockets
(World Book Encyclopedia, 2002).
7. In Police parlance (and by the press): It is frequently used to Firearms Identification.

GENERALLY: Ballistics Includes-

1. Science-refers to the systematized body of knowledge.
2. Projectiles-the metallic or non-metallic objects propelled from a firearm.
3. Motions-the movement or action of projectiles launched from firearms.
a. Direct-forward movement of the projectile inside the gun barrel resulting from the
expanding force of gasses produced after combustion of the gunpowder
b. Rotary - the gyrating action (rotating/spinning), either right or left, of the projectile while
passing through a gun barrel
c. Translational - the straight-line movement where every part of the projectile follows as
parallel path and no rotation takes place such as bouncing of a bullet after hitting a
resistant surface.

B. BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS
1. Internal (Interior) Ballistics-motion of projectile while still inside the gun
2. Transitional or Intermediate Ballistics (most recent) - projectile’s behavior from the time it leaves
the muzzle until the pressure behind the projectile is equalized
3. External (Exterior) Ballistics - motion of the projectile from the time it escapes from the gun muzzle
until it reaches the target
4. Terminal Ballistics- effects of projectiles on their target upon impact to include what happens
when the projectile strikes the target
5. Forensic Ballistics-application of ballistics principles to legal matters

C. SUB-AREAS/BRANCHES

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1. Wound ballistics - closely associated with terminal ballistics, primarily concerned with the nature
and medical implications of physical injury and shock caused by bullets and explosive-driven
fragment
2. Handgun ballistics
3. Shotgun ballistics
4. Rifle ballistics
5. Air gun ballistics

UNIT 2-TECHNICAL TERMS

A. FORENSIC BALLISTICS AND FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

1. Forensic Ballistics
a. Includes firearms identification; forensic internal ballistics; forensic intermediate ballistics; forensic
internal ballistics; and forensic terminal ballistics
b. It is a field of forensic science that is focused on the scientific analysis of all ballistic-related
phenomena to interpret or establish the true facts in a shooting incident (Association of Ballistics
Specialists in south Africa-ABSA)

Ballistic-related evidence (ballistic exhibits) - usually in the form of a real object such as firearm,
bullet, or shell that can be presented in court as physical evidence
Ballistic-related phenomenon - usually in the form of an Incident or a series of events Involving
discharge of firearm which can be presented as documentary or testimonial evidence in court
such as:
(1) Bullet holes
(2) Bullet damage on various mediums
(3) Bullet trajectories
(4) Gunshot wounds

2. Firearms Identification
a. Examination of fired bullets, cartridge cases, or other ammunition components to identify the
gun where they came from
b. Actually a form of toolmark identification: the firearm acts as a tool that leaves impressed and/or
striated marks on various ammunition components
C. Covers: bullet identification; cartridge case identification; and firearm identification.
d. Science of identifying imperfections or Irregularities of firearms and matching the marks they put
on bullets and cartridge cases fired through them
e. Sometimes called ballistics fingerprinting, ballistic matching, and/or toolmark analysis.

B. KEY TERMS
1. Projectile
a. Object that can be launched or fired like bullet, artillery shell, or rocket
b. The metallic or non-metallic object propelled from a firearm in the form of bullets, shotgun
pellets, artillery shells, rockets, bombs, and guided missiles
2. Firearm-basically termed as a gun
a. A portable weapon such as pistol or rifle that discharges ammunition
b. Technical: It is a weapon consisting essentially of a metal tube that fires a projectile by using the
force of an explosive propellant
c. An instrument used for the propulsion of projectiles by means of the expansive force of gasses
coming from burning gunpowder (FBI Manual on Firearms Identification)
d. Legal: (Sec. 877 of the RAC and Sec. 290 of NIRC) - includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns,
pistols, revolvers and all other weapons from which a bullet, a ball, a shot, a shell or missiles may
be discharged by means of gunpowder or other explosives. The term also includes air rifles,

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except that are in small in caliber and usually used as toys. The barrel of any firearm is considered
a complete firearm for purposes of Section 877 of the Revised Administrative Code.
3. Ammunition
a, General term applied to metallic cartridges and shot shells used in firearms
b. Technical: group of cartridges or to a single unit or single cartridge - meaning a complete unfired
unit consisting of a bullet, cartridge, case, gunpowder and primer
c. Any unfired assembly of primer, powder and ball which might be used in a firearm
d. Generally used to a supply of assembled cartridges in bulk, as in boxes or cases
e. Referring to the supply a person might be carrying in his pockets
f. Cartridge-Is synonymously understood
g. Round - often in the military, a single cartridge
h. Legal: A "loaded shell" for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols from which a
ball, bullet, shot, shell or other missile may be fired by means of gunpowder or other explosives.
It also includes ammunition for air rifles (Chapter VII, Sec. 290 of the National Internal Revenue
Code and In Sec. 877 of the Revised Administrative Code).
4. Propellant
a. Explosive charge that projects a bullet from a gun
b. Gunpowder loaded In a cartridge or shotgun shell which when ignited by the primer flash, is
converted to gas under high pressure and launches a projectile through the barrel and on the
target
c. Substance or a mixture of substances which upon suitable ignition releases a large amount of
chemical energy at a high and controllable rate, the energy liberation is to convert the
propellant into a high of gas
5. Rifling
a. Consist of the number of the helical grooves cut on the surface of the bore, it Includes the lands
and grooves that are running parallel with one another concentrically
b. Spiral lands and grooves found at the bore of the gun barrel which is designed to -
(1) To impart of rotation to a bullet
(2) To insure stability in flight
(3) So that the bullet will travel nose towards the target
6. Cartridge Case
a. Tubular metallic or non-metallic container which holds together the bullet, gunpowder and
primer
b. Portion of the cartridge that is automatically ejected from the automatic firearm during firing
and this remains at the scene of the crime.

UNIT 3-HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF BALLISTICS

A. CONCEPT- It can be traced since man learned to study how to launch objects. Man used every
indigenous weapon such as bow arrow and sling shots to hurl objects Scientific studies began with
the invention of propellants and ballistic measuring devices.

B. DISCOVERY OF BLACKPOWDER
1. First developed by Chinese alchemists
2. The first explosives used to propel missiles for military reasons
3. Composition of black powder: Saltpeter (potassium nitrate) - 75%; Charcoal- 14% and Sulfur -
11%
4. Burns rapidly when ignited and produces approximately whitish smoke
5. Historical background
a. 10th century AD, China-used for military purposes in the form of rockets and explosive bombs
fired from catapults
b. 1126 AD - first cannon appeared, Chinese soldiers used oiled bamboo tubes In killing enemy
at great distances
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c. 1242 Ad- Roger Bacon, English philosopher, the first to describe Its preparation
d. There are some evidence claiming the Arabs as the first to develop black powder
e. 1304-Arabs produced the first gun, a bamboo tube reinforced with iron that used a charge
of black powder to shoot an arrow
f. From China-the use of black powder spread to Europe

UNIT 4-BRANCHES OF BALLISTIC

A. INTERIOR BALLISTICS-The time during which the projectile is influenced by Interior Ballistics is very
short. From the release of the firing pin to the moment the sound of the shot can be heard as
it leaves the muzzle occupies only about 0.01 seconds, In a modem rifle.

THINGS INVOLVED IN INTERIOR BALLISTICS:

1. Ignition of the primer.
2. Flames is produced
3. Combustion of the gunpowder
4. Energy that is generated
5. Force/Pressure developed
6. Velocity of the bullet (from the chamber to the muzzle)
7. Rotation of the bullet
8. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet.

Benjamin Thompson, Anglo-American physicist- first attempt to measure the pressure

generated by gunpowder. The account of his experiments was the most important contribution
to interior ballistics that had been made up to that time.

RELATED TERMINOLOGIES IN INTERIOR BALLISTICS:

1. Action-loading and firing mechanism of a firearm.
2. Burning Rate - An arbitrary index of the quickness that burning propellant changes into gas.
Burning rate is controlled by the chemical composition, the size and shape of the propellant
grains, and the pressure at which the burning takes place.
3. Bulk Density - ratio of the weight of a given volume of powder vs. the weight of the same volume
of water
4. Chamber Pressure-generated within the chamber erroneously called breeched pressure.
5. Charge Weight to Bullet Weight ratio - ratio of the weight of the powder charge to the weight of
the projectile.
6. Detonation-Chemical rearrangement of molecules into gas instead of solids to cause the high
explosives to exert full power of shock. The speed of detonation varies in different explosive but
in some it is as high as 7000 yards in a second.
7. Drop-Block Action- That type of action in which the breechblock rises and forces vertically In
cuts in the receiver side walls. Lever actuated as a rule.
8. Energy- is measured in foot-pounds, and one foot-pound means that amount of energy, which
would be capable of lifting a weight of one pound through a distance of one foot
9. Expansion Ratio-ratio of the capacity of the powder chamber plus bore (in grains of water) to
the capacity of the powder chamber (in grains of water).
10. Foot - Pound - amount of work required to raise one pound one foot high against the force of
gravity.
11.Foot second- velocity expressed in foot per second.
12. Gas - a fluid resulting from the combustion of gun powder with a relatively great expansion and
spontaneous tendency.
13. Hangfire - Occurs when a cartridge falls to explode on time or delayed in firing.
14. Knocking Power - power of the bullet which delivers a very heavy paralyzing blow that put the
victim down and may then recover if the wound inflicted upon is not fatal
- ratio of the weight of the powder charge to the capacity of the powder chamber (case)
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15. Loading Density 16. Misfire- total failure of a cartridge to discharge.

17. Powder Chamber Capacity - usually expressed in grains of water. It is determined by measuring
the weight of water that a fired case from the test firearm can contain with a bullet seated to
its normal depth.
18. Pressure-Outward push of gases from powder combustion against cartridge case, chamber
and bore.
19. Sectional Density-The ratio of the bullet's weight (in pounds) to Its diameter.
20.PSI-Pounds per square inch.
21.Recoil - the equal and opposite reaction of the gun against the forward movement of the bullet
during the explosions.
22.Residual Pressure-the pressure remaining in the chamber after the bullet has left the barrel.

B. EXTERIOR BALLISTICS -The flight of most bullet or projectile does not exceed 30 seconds at maximum
range, which for almost any firearms is obtained at an elevation of about 33 degrees.

CONDITIONS-refers to the natural laws such as-

1. velocity- speed per unit of time ex. M16-3,300 ft/sec.
2. energy-fatal equivalent of a bullet.
3. yaw - the unstable rotating motion of a bullet.
4. gyroscopic action - refers to the stillness of its rotating motion and attained its highest
momentum or stability in flight and penetrating power.

CONTRIBUTORS TO EXTERIOR BALLISTICS

1. Niccolò Tartaglia, Italian mathematician, in a published work on gunnery, claimed that no part
of the path of a projectile could be a straight line and that the greater the velocity of the
projectile the flatter its path. He invented the gunner's quadrant used to determine elevation
of the muzzle of a gun.
2. Galileo proved that in a vacuum a projectile describes a parabolic arc.
3. Sir Isaac Newton - British scientist, description of the law of gravitation, made plain the cause
of the curvilinear motion of projectiles.
4. Benjamin Robins, 1743, ballistic pendulum was developed about 1743 by Robins, who was the
first to undertake a systematic series of experiments to determine the velocity of projectile. The
principle of the ballistic pendulum, as well as of the gun pendulum, which was developed by
Thompson, is the transfer of momentum from a projectile with a small mass and a high velocity
to a large mass with a resultant low velocity. He is considered as father of modern gunnery.
5. Sir Charles Wheatstone, in 1840 the British physicist suggested the use of electricity for
measuring small intervals of time. This suggestion led to the development of the chronograph,
a device for recording, by electrical means, the time required for a projectile to pass between
two screens of fine wire.

Further, exterior (external) ballistics refers to the attributes and movements of the bullet after it has left
the gun muzzle. It includes:
1. Muzzle blast - noise created at the muzzle point of the gun due to the sudden escape of the
expanding gas coming in contact with the air in the surrounding atmosphere at the muzzle
point.
2. Muzzle energy - energy generated at the muzzle point.
3. Trajectory - the actual curved path of the bullet during its flight from the gun muzzle to the
target. The following are the kinds of trajectory: straight horizontal line, parabola-like flight, and
vertical drop
4. Range-the straight distance between the muzzle point and the target.
While the range at which the ordinary pistol and revolver are supposed to be effective in only 50-
70 yards, all of them can send their bullets much further than that and are capable of inflicting
fatal wounds at distances up to one mile, depending on the caliber and gunpowder content.
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5. Velocity- rate of speed of the bullet per unit of time.

a. Long barrel rifle-up to 3,000 yards accurate range and its hinge muzzle velocity of 1000-4000
ft./sec.
b. Bullets from rifled weapons spin at 2000-3000 revolutions per second, but over the first few yards
of trajectory - distance varies with the weapon - their flight is slightly unstable; the end of the
projectile wobbles before it picks up a smooth flight path. This phenomenon Is called
"TAILWAG", and is of considerable important in evaluating gunshot wounds. A bullet with
"tallwag" does not strike its target clearly.
6. Air resistance-resistance encountered by the bullet while in flight.
7. Pull of gravity - downward reaction of the bullet while in flight.
8. Penetration -depth of entry on target.

OTHER CONTRIBUTORS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF BALLISTICS (especially exterior)

1.1707-Cassini. Suggested measuring of firearms muzzle velocity
2. 1857 - Monsieur Noiles. Published a thesis titled 'Les Plaies Feu Courtes'. His thesis dealt with the
subject of wounds made by small firearms.
3,1748 - Henry Shrapnel. He invented the shrapnel, which disperse its load of case shot with a
small bursting charge, increasing the effective range of case.
4,1898 - Mr. Corin, Paris, France, "La Determination de La Distance a'Laguelle un Coup de Feu a
e'te' Tire" (Determination of the distance at which a shot has been discharged from a firearm).
5. 1900- Dr. Albert Llewellyn Hal, Buffalo, New York (USA), "The Missile and the Weapon" was
published in the June issue of the Buffalo Medical Journal.
6. 1903-Mr. E.J. Churchill In London, England (uncle of Robert Churchill of later fame as a firearms
examiner for the United Kingdom). He provided testimony as to some experimentation that he
had performed involving the distance of which a shot had been fired into a human skull.
7. 1921-Mr. Jorge T. Filho, "Estimation of Distance from which a Bullet was Fired" ("'Da Diagnose da
Distance nos Tiros de Projecteis Multiplos Chumbo de Caca").
8. Emile Monnin Chamot, authored a 61-paged monograph entitled "The Microscopy of Small
Arms Primers".

RELATED TERMINOLOGIES IN EXTERIOR BALLISTICS:

1. Accuracy Range - maximum distance at which a particular gun and cartridges will consistently
place all shots in the standard target for that distance
2. Accurate Range-distance within which the shooter has control of his shots
3. Back Curve - portion of the bullets trajectory that drops below the critical zone beyond the
point-blank range. Past this point the trajectory begins to drop off very rapidly with range and
the point of impact becomes very difficult to estimate.
4. Ballistic Coefficient -bullet may lose its speed very rapidly during its flight the air. This is a number
that relates to the effect of air drag on the bullet's flight and which can be used to later predict
a bullet's trajectory under different circumstances through what are called "drag tables."
5. Bullet Energy - the power possessed by a moving bullet, or in other words, its ability to keep
going when it meets an obstacle and to do work on the obstacle is immense importance
6. Bullet Trajectory - bullet's path as it travels down range. It is parabolic in shape and because
the line of the bore is below the line of sight at the muzzle and angled upward, the bullet's
path crosses the line of sight at two locations.
7. Critical Zone - area of the bullet's path where it neither rises nor falls greater than the dimension
specified
8. Drift - is the curve/deviation taken by the bullet while in flight. A right-hand rifling curves to the
right while that of the left and rifling curves to the left.
9. Effective Range - maximum distance at which a bullet may reasonably be expected to travel
accurately and kill a particular type of live targe
10.Extreme Range-greatest distance the bullet will travel when the cartridge is fired.

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11.Flat Trajectory - comparative term used to indicate very little curvature in the flight in the bullet
from muzzle to point of impact. When the velocity is high, comparatively flat trajectory.
12.Gallery Range -indoor target range
13. Initial Point - The range at which the bullet's trajectory first crosses the line of sight. This normally
occurs at a range of about 25 yards.
14.Instrument Velocity - the velocity of a projectile measured by the scientific instrument called
chronograph, at a specified point on Its trajectory. Always lower than the muzzle velocity.
15. Key-hole Shot-the tumbling of the bullet in its flight and hitting the target sideways as a result
of not spinning on its axis.
16. Maximum Point Blank Range - This is the farthest distance at which the bullet's path stays within
the critical zone.
17. Maximum Range-the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from a firearm.
18. Maximum Ordinate - maximum height of the projectile's path above the line of sight for a
given point of impact and occurs somewhat past the halfway point to the zero range and it is
determined by your zeroing range
19. Mid-range Trajectory - height of the bullets path above the line of sight at half way to the zero
range.
20. Minute of Angle (MOA) - A "minute" of angle is 1/60 of a degree which for all practical
purposes equates to 1 inch per 100 yards of range.
21. Point Blank Range - Popularly used to Indicate the distance the bullet will travel before it drops
enough to require sight adjustment
22. Ricochet- bouncing off or deflection of a bullet from its original trajectory (normal path) after
striking a resistant surface.
23. Shocking Power- power of the bullet that results in the instantaneous death of the victim
24. Stopping Power- power of the bullet that put the victim out of action instantly
25.Target- an object at which the firearm is aimed and discharged
26. True Drop-actual distance the bullet falls during the time of flight to the target
27. Zero Range-farthest distance at which the line of sight and the bullet's path Intersect

C. TERMINAL BALLISTICS - is the study dealing with the effect of the impact of the bullet on the target.
Penetration of the bullet is of prime interest. It involves-
1. Terminal accuracy- size of the bullet grouping on the target.
2. Terminal energy-energy of the projectile when it strikes the target, a.k.a. striking energy.
3. Terminal penetration-depth of entry of the bullet in the target.
4. Terminal velocity - speed of the bullet upon striking the target. Terminal ballistics also deals with
the destructive actions and effects that occur at the end of the projectile's flight as an integral
and un-deformed body and may end in one of these:
a. the projectile may strike a solid obstruction, or
b. its metal case may be broken by the explosion of a bursting charge

D. SHOTS BALLISTICS- deals with the attributes and properties of shots and pellets.
1. Choke - diameter of a barrel of a shotgun is the same throughout the bore, it is called true
cylinder.
2. Choked- diameter near the muzzle end is slightly smaller than the diameter of the bore of the
rest of the barrel
3. Full- if reduced by one mm; half if reduced by one-half mm; quarter if reduced by 1/4 mm; and
improved cylinder if reduced by about 1/10 mm.
4. Chilled Shot-shotgun pellets made from lead especially hardened by the addition of a slight
amt. of antimony.

E. WOUND BALLISTICS-It is the study of the effects of projectile to human body.

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Gunshot Wound (GSW) - It is an open wound produced by the penetration of bullet slug within
the tissues of the body. The bullet which was propelled from the gun as well as the flame from the
heated expanded gases in short range fire is the one that produces injury.

Three Basic Kinds of GSW Distinguished by the Proximity of the Weapon:

1. Contact-gun muzzle pressed against, or within an inch or two, of the body.
2. Close discharge-6 inches to 2ft.
3. Distance Discharge-over 2 ft. or 3 ft.

RANGE OF FIRE-an important aspect of forensic ballistics.

1. Muzzle Pattern -indicates contact wound and are often observed In suicide cases. The whole
charge (projectile, wads, if any, smoke, unburnt or semi-burnt powder particles and hot gases)
enter into the target. No burning, blackening and tattooing are observed. Instead, they are
observed inside the hole through careful examination. The edges are found ragged (tom in
star shape) and the wound is like an exit wound.
2. Scorching-caused by the flame or hot gases not by the hot projectiles as is commonly believed
a.k.a. burning or charring.
3. Blackening-caused by the deposition of smoke particles by all types of powders at close
ranges. Being light particles, they soon lose their velocity and get deposited on any material
available in the path.
4.Tatbooing (a.k.a. peppering) - caused by the embedding of unburnt and semi-burnt powder
particles into the surface of the target. These particles are slightly heavier than the smoke
particles. They retain motion to somewhat longer intervals and consequently cause tattooing
to a distance of about one and a-half times blackening range.

Other GSW Characteristics:

1. Pink Coloration-caused by absorbed carbon monoxide In the skin and flesh.
2. Dirt Ring - deposited by some projectile (which carry greases on them) around the wound.
Existence of this indicates the entrance side of a firearm injury & does not indicate range.
3. Contusion-caused by the impact of the projectile (reddish dark to blush black - varies
somewhat with the age of the Injury). It takes the form of a belt around the wound. It Is of
uniform in thickness.
4. Foreign Materials - Their presence not only permits the Identification of the firearms injury but
they also permit a fairly reliable guess of firearm.

Factors influencing entrance and exit gunshot wounds:

1. Kind of weapon - higher power the weapon, the more destructive to the tissues of the body.
2. Caliber of the weapon - higher the caliber of the wounding bullet, the greater will be the size
of the wound of entrance, hence, greater destruction to the tissues.
3. Shape and composition of the missile - conical shape free end of the bullet slug has more
penetrating power but less tissue destruction, while bullet slug with hemispherical free end had
less penetrating but more destruction to the tissues.
4. Range of fire - the injury is not only due to the missile but also due to the pressure of the heated
expanded gases, flame and articles of gunpowder
5. Direction of fire - A right angle approach of the bullet to the body will produce a round shape
wound of entrance in short distance fire, while in acute angle of approach the bullet will
produce an oval shape wound of entrance with contusion collar widest on the side of the
acute angle of approach and a tendency for the bullet to deflect to another direction upon
hitting the target.
6. Part of the body Involved - When the bullet hit the soft tissues of the body; the bullet penetrates
and usually without any change in direction, however upon hitting the bones and other hard
body structures the bullet may fracture. the bones causing further injury or may deflect to
another direction.
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Description of the wound of entrance is based on the distance of the body from the fired gun:
1. Contact fire-burst due to the explosion of the powder which produces the heated and
expanded gases. There is burning of the tissues; singeing of the hair; and particles of
gunpowder in and around the wound of entrance; skin is separated from the underlying tissues
in the affected area and the blasted tissues are cherry red in color because of the presence
of carbon monoxide; pressure of the bullet will caused caving-in or excavation of tissues and
the contusion collar is seen around the wound of entrance.
2. Near contact up to six inches distance. There Is bursting of tissues, burning and blackening of
the skin but the particles of gunpowder are present Inside as well as around the wound of
entrance. The shape of the wound maybe lacerated or slit-like and the size is larger than the
diameter of the missile. The excavation of tissues due to the pressure of the penetrating bullet
slug but may as severe as in contact fire.
3. Distance above six inches up to 24 inches. The size of the wound gradually approximates the
size of the missile. The farther the target, the lesser the burning or blackening of tissues, gun
powder tattooing, signing of the hair and excavation of tissues and lesser until they disappear
beyond the 24 inches distance.

Differentiation between gunshot wound of Entrance and Wound of Exit

Differential points Wound of Entrance Wound of Exit
Size of the wound • smaller than the missile • bigger than the missile
Edge of the wound • Inverted • everted
Shape of the wound • round or oval • no definite shape
Contusion collar • present in contact • absent
Gunpowder tattooing • and near contact fire • absent
Presence or absence • always present • maybe absent if logged inside
Protrusion of tissue • Absent • maybe present
Paraffin test • positive in contact and near • negative
fire

DETERMINATION WHETHER THE GUNSHOT INJURY IS SUICIDAL, HOMICIDAL OR ACCIDENTAL

A. Evidence to prove that gunshot wound is suicidal:
1. Accessibility of the involved part to the hand of the victim
2. Usually only one gunshot wound
3. Usually the distance is short range or class range
4. Presence of suicide note
5. History of frustration or despondency of the victim
6. Presence of cadaveric spasm on the hand of the victim
7. Exclusion of other evidence to prove that it is not suicide
B. Evidence that the gunshot wound is homicidal:
1. Wound is located at any part of the body
2. Victim usually at a certain distance from the assailant
3. Signs of struggle (Defense wound) maybe present in the victim
4. Disturbances of the surroundings.
5. Wounding weapon usually not found at the scene of the crime
6. Testimony from the witnesses
C. Evidence that gunshot wound is accidental:
1. Usually only one gunshot wound
2. Wound located at any part of the body
3. Absence of personal grudge between the victim and the one who fired the gun
4. Testimony from witnesses

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SHOTGUN WOUND. In shotgun fire, the pellets penetrate and usually lodged inside the body and a
tendency for a wider dispersion of pellets at a certain distance except in contact and near
contact fires.

Characteristics of the shotgun wound of entrance:

1. Contact fire -irregular with bursting of the affected tissues due to explosion of the heated and
expanded with accompanying flame causing burning of the skin and the tissues. There is
singeing of the hair, presence of wads and particles of gunpowder inside the wound of
entrance.
2. Near shot up to six inches distance. There is marked laceration of the skin and destruction of
tissues due to the pressure of explosion. The burning on the surface of the skin and particles of
gunpowder are present inside and around the wound of entrance. There is singeing of the hair
as well as pieces of wads inside and outside the wound of entrance.
3. Distance about one yard. The pellets penetrate the tissues as one mass making the wound with
irregular edge of the wound of entrance. There will also be blackening of tissues with slight
burning, singeing of the hair or gunpowder tattooing.
4. Distance about two to three yards. The wound of entrance has a big central hole with ragged
edges and a few stray wounds of entrance around the central hole. At this distance, there will
be no more blackening or burning of the skin, gunpowder tattooing, singeing of the hair and
pieces of wads or near the wound of entrance.
5. Distance of four yards. A small group of pellets may penetrate the tissues producing a central
core, although plenty of pellets in a wider dispersion may produce separate wound of entrance.
The pellets dispersed about one and a half the distance in yards in non-choked barrel while in
full choked bore the dispersion is one half less but there is a wider dispersion in short barrel
shotgun.

Points to consider in the reporting of gunshot and shotgun Injuries:

1, Detailed description of the gunshot and shotgun wound
2. Location of wound in the body
3. Measurement of the wound as to diameter and depth
4. Number of wound of entrance and exit
5. Direction and length of the bullet tract
6. Organs or tissues involved
7. Location of the slug if lodged in the body
8. Diagram, photograph, sketch or drawing of the gunshot or shotgun wound

Effects or complications of wound

1. Hemorrhage-Bleeding-loss of blood from the ruptured vessel secondary to trauma or existing
pathology.
2. Direct mechanical injury-direct damage to the tissues
3. Shock -disturbance of the balance of fluid in the body characterized by fall in blood pressure,
decreases blood flow or blood volume in the body.
4. Infection - appearance, growth and multiplication of the micro-organism in the living tissues.
5. Embolism - dogging of the blood vessel by foreign bodies such as air or bits of fats or septic
embolus causing blocking to the blood flow to the distal tissues supplied by the blood.

Points to consider in the reporting of wound:

1. Character of the wound
2. Location of wound in1 the body
3. Measurement of the wound
4. Number of wound
5. Direction of wound
6. Organs Involved
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7. Severity of the wound

8. Period of healing or Incapacity of the victim

Other pieces of evidence in dealing with the wound:

1. Evidence from the wounding weapon
2. Evidence from the victim as well as the assailant
3. Evidence from the scene of the crime

STUDIES CONCERNING TERMINAL & WOUND BALLISTICS

1.1857 - Monsieur Noiles, 'Les Plales Feu Courtes' his thesis dealt with the subject of wounds made
by small firearms.
2.1889-Mr.A.Lacassogne of Lyon, France,"La Deformation Des Balles de Revolver' (Deformation of
Revolver Bullets) in Volume 5. Archives de l'Antropologie Criminelle et Des Sciences Penales.
3.1748 - Henry Shrapnel, Invented the shrapnel, which disperse its load of case shot whit a small
bursting charge, increasing the effective range of case.
4. Anomynous author, "Entrance Wounds and Powder Markings".
5. Mr. Louis B. Wison, "Dispersion of Bullet Energy in Relation to Wound Effects".
6. P. Chavigny and E. Gelma, "Fissures of the Skull by Revolver Bullets at short-range".
7. J. Howard Mathews. Chairman of the Department of Chemistry at the University of Wisconsin. In
this first criminal case, he was involved on the metallographic analysis of bomb parts used to kill
an individual.
8. Sir Sydney Smith -founder of the Medico-Legal Faculty at Cairo University and later Regis
Professor of Forensic Medicine at Edinburgh, was one of the leading exponents in studying
entrance and exit wounds, powder burns and powder "tattooing" on human skin and other
medical phenomena associated with gun fire.

F. FORENSIC BALLISTICS-This is the real branch of the science which the police use as their guide in
field investigations. This Includes the following:
1.Field Investigations-conducted by the first officers on the case in the field when they Investigate
a case or cases wherein firearms have been used. This is a routine job of the investigating
officers, and this involves recognition, collection, marking, preservation, and transmittal of
ballistics exhibits like fired bullets, fired shells, firearms and allied matters.
2. Technical examinations of the ballistics exhibits - This is the job performed by the firearms
examiners in the laboratory. It involves marking of the evidence firearms, test firings of evidence
firearms to obtain test bullets and test shells for comparative purposes, photomicrography
under the bullet comparison microscope, preparation of comparative charts, and the making
of reports on the findings and observations of the firearms examiners.
3. Legal proceedings- Court Trials - wherein the ballistics report of the firearm examiner and the
ballistics exhibits are presented during the trial of the case in a court of justice.
FORENSIC-As applied to ballistics, or to any other subject, suggest a relationship to Courts
of Justice and legal proceedings.
FORUM - It is a Latin word from which forensic was derived, meaning a marketplace, where
people gather for "public disputation" or "public discussion". The terms "Ballistics", Forensic
Ballistics" and "Firearms Identification", have come to mean one and the same thing in the
minds of the public, and they can be used interchangeably.

STUDIES IN RELATION TO FORENSIC BALLISTICS:

1.1835-Henry Goddard. In one of his case in England, where a homemaker was shot and killed,
he was able to identify the mold mark - the mold is used to manufacture lead balls from molten
leads-on the field projectile. He was the bullet, which could be traced back to the mold. He
also examined the paper patch -the paper patch provides the seal between the ball
gunpowder firearms -was able to Identify it as having been tom from a newspaper that was
found on the room of the guilty servant.
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2. Paul Jesrich, took photomicrographs of two bullets to compare, and subsequently Individualize
them through the minute differences.
3. 1905 - Mr. Kockel, published an article entitled "The Expert Examination of Fired Bullets".
4. 1912-Professor V. Baltahazard. He devised a series of procedures to identify fired bullets to the
firearms from which they were fired. He studied the firearms by taking an elaborate series of
photographs of test fired bullet from the firearms as well as evidence bullet. In 1913, he
published the first article individualizing bullet markings.
5. 1922- Mr. C. Williams, wrote "Fingerprints on Bullets" which appeared in Outdoor Life magazine.
6. 1920 - R.E. Herrick, published "Ballistics Jurisprudence".
7. November 1924-Dr Sydney Smith. He wrote an article concerning the details of the
investigating that appeared in the British Medical Journal in January 1926. He relates that he
believes that scientific examination of firearms and projectiles in Great Britain had its beginning
as a result of the publication of his report on the case.
8. 1920 (Modern Era) - COL CALVIN H. GODDARD (M.D., U.S. ARMY) pioneered the introduction of
this science in Criminology courses in the different universities.
9. 1947-Col Goddard came to the Philippines when Gen. Castaneda was ambushed together
with his aid, Col Salgado in Kamias, Quezon City, both died.
10.1924- Captain Edward C. 'Ned' Crossman. A well-known shooter and sportswriter, examined
firearms evidence for the Los Angeles County Sheriff in April 1925, in New York City, New York
(USA), THE Bureau of Forensic Ballistics was established by C.E. Waite, Major (later Colonel)
Calvin H. Goddard, Philip O. Gravelle and John H. Fisher.
11.1934-Major Sir Gerald Burrard, wrote "The Identification of Firearms and Forensic Ballistics"
12.1935 Major Julian S. Hatcher, wrote and published; "Textbook of Firearms Investigation,
Identification and Evidence" together with the "Textbook of Pistols and Revolvers."
13.1944-John E. Davis. He joined the Police Department in Oakland, California establishing its first
criminology laboratory.
14.Derechter and Mage, wrote "Communication on the Identification of Fired Bullets and Shells“.
15.Arthur Lucas, published "The Examination of Firearms and Projectiles in Forensic Cases”.
16.Jack D. Gunther and Professor Charles O. Gunther, published "The Identification of Firearms",
which provided additional information about the principles of firearms identification with
approximately one-half of the book discussing in great detail the Sacco-Vanzetti case to
include reprinting large portions of the actual court transcript
17.1958-John E. Davis, wrote "An Introduction to Tool Marks, Firearms and the Striagraph" which
provided excellent information about the examination and identification of firearms and tool
mark evidence.
18.1996- Tom A. Warlow, published "Firearms, the Law and Forensic Ballistics"
19.1997-Brian J.Heard, published "Handbook of Firearms and Ballistics Examining and Interpreting
Forensic Evidence".

UNIT 4-FIREARMS

A. DEFINITION - Firearm (Technical)- instrument that is used for the propulsion of projectile by means
of the expansive force of gases of burning gunpowder
The Law on Firearms (excerpted from the ruling of Associate Justice Arturo D. Brion in G.R.190779)-
The definition of "firearm" has evolved through various statutes and issuances.

Under Act No. 1780,a firearm was defined as any rifle, musket, carbine, shotgun, revolver,
pistol or air rifle, except air rifles of small caliber and limited range used as toys, or any other deadly
weapon from which a bullet, ball, shot, shell or other missile or missiles may be discharged by means
of gunpowder or other explosive; the barrel of any of the same shall be considered a firearm.
Under Act No. 2711 (which repealed Act No. 1780), firearms include rifles, muskets, carbines,
shotguns, revolvers, pistols and all other deadly weapons from which a bullet, ball, shot, shell or other
missile may be discharged by means of gunpowder or other explosives; the term also includes air
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rifles except such as being a small caliber and limited range used as toys, the barrel of any firearm
shall be considered a complete firearm for all the purposes hereof.
Commonwealth Act No. 466, as amended, follows the definition under Act No. 2711, with the
modification that the term firearms include air rifles coming under regulations of the Provost Marshal
General.
Presidential Decree No. 1866 codifies the laws on illegal/unlawful possession, manufacture,
dealing in, acquisition or disposition of firearms, ammunition or explosives or Instruments used in the
manufacture of firearms, ammunition or explosives, and imposed stiffer penalties for its violation. It
does not, however, define the term firearm. The definition is provided in the Implementing Rules and
Regulations of PD 1866 as follows:
Firearm- as herein used, includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers, pistols and
all other deadly weapons from which a bullet, ball, shot, shell or other missile may be
discharged by means of gunpowder or other explosives. The term also includes air rifles and
air pistols not classified as toys under the provisions of Executive Order No. 712 dated 28 July
1981. The barrel of any firearm shall be considered a complete firearm.
Executive Order (EO) No. 712, to which the Implementing Rules and Regulations of PD
1866refers, regulates the manufacture, sale and possession of air rifles/pistols which are considered
as firearms. Under Its Section 1, the Chief of the Philippine Constabulary is given the authority to
prescribe the criteria in determining whether an air rifle/pistol is to be considered a firearm or a toy
within the contemplation of Sec. 877 of the Revised Administrative Code. Under Section 3, the Chief
of the Philippine Constabulary is also delegated the authority to act dispositively on all applications
to manufacture, sell or possess and/or otherwise deal in air rifles/pistols whether considered as
firearms or toys under the criteria to be prescribed pursuant to Section 1. The Chief of the Philippine
Constabulary shall also prescribe, under Section 4, the rules and regulations to Implement EO 712.
Republic Act (RA) No. 8294, which amended PD 1866, also does not define the term firearm
but categorizes it into two: (1) low powered firearm such as rimfire handgun, 380 or .32 and other
firearm of similar firepower, and (2) high powered firearm which includes those with bores bigger In
diameter than 38 caliber and 9 millimeter, such as caliber .40, .41, .44, .45 and also lesser caliber
firearms but considered powerful such as caliber .357 and caliber .22 center-fire magnum and other
firearms with firing capability of full automatic and by burst of two or three.

The Authority to Categorize Air Rifles and Airsoft Guns

Pursuant to the cited EO 712, the President, then exercising legislative powers and authority,
delegated to the Chief of the Constabulary [now the Chief of the Philippine National Police
(PNP)],the authority to determine whether certain air rifles/guns can be treated as toys or firearms.
Under this same authority, then PNP Chief Avelino Razon Issued PNP Circular No. 11 on December 4,
2007.
PNP Circular No. 11 requires that airsoft guns and rifles be given the same treatment as
firearms and air rifles with respect to licensing, manufacture, possession and transport limitations. In
effect, this is the PNP Chief's determination, by regulation, that airsoft guns and rifles are not simply
considered toys beyond administrative regulation but, on the contrary, are considered as weapons
subject to regulation. Based on this Circular, they are Included under the term “firearms” within the
contemplation of RA 7166, and are therefore appropriate subjects of COMELEC Resolution No. 8714
issued pursuant to this law. (Associate Justice Arturo D. Brion @ sc.judiciary.gov.ph)

ACT 2711 OR TH E ADMINISTRATIVE CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES, SECTION 877. "Firearm," or "arm,” as
herein used, includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers, pistols, and all other deadly
weapons from which a bullet, ball, shot, shell, or other missile may be discharged by means of
gunpowder or other explosive. The term also includes air rifles except such as being of small caliber
and limited range are used as toys. The barrel of any firearm shall be considered a complete firearm
for all the purposes hereof.
First Sentence (Shoulder Arms):

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1. Rifle-long rifle bored firearm designed to hit targets at a greater or longer distance, with spiral
grooves to fire only a single shot.
2. Musket-long smooth bored firearm that is designed to prepare a single shot.
3. Shotgun-long smooth bored firearm having a barrel of 25-30 inches long and designed to shot
birds in flight; long smooth bored firearm and breech loading3 designed to fire a number of
lead pellets or shot In one charge.
4. Carbine - s short barrel rifle, having a barrel not longer than 22 inches and it is designed to fire
a single shot through a rifled-bore, either semi-automatic or full automatic, for every press of
the trigger.

Second Sentence:
1. .22-minimum caliber
2..19
3..18-if only used as toys, could not be considered as firearm.
4. .17- -do-

Third Sentence - barrel of any firearm - Possession of any part of a firearm is considered a violation of
illegal possession of firearm (SCRA Dec. 11, 1992).

B. FIREARM:IN ITS GENERAL CONTEXT

Firearm is any weapon that uses gunpowder to fire a bullet or shell. Generally, the term is used
for light firearms, such as rifles, shotguns, and pistols. They are often called small arms. Heavier firearms
are generally referred to as artillery. Mechanism. Any firearm, large or small, has four essential parts:
1. Barrel-a long tube, may be smooth, as in a shotgun, or with spiral grooves on the Inner surface,
as in a rifle
2. Chamber - widened hole at the breech (rear) end of the barrel which holds the cartridge
(explosive charge).
3. Breech mechanism - closes the rear end of the barrel, holding the cartridge in the chamber.
4. Firing mechanism - may be electric, as in some large artillery pieces. In small arms, a spring
drives a pointed firing pin through the breech bolt against a sensitive primer in the cartridge.

C. HANDGUN/SHORT ARMS
1. Pistol-handgun that is magazine feed. It is said that pistols were invented in the Italian town
"PISTOIA." Hence, the name pistol-arrived in Britain about 1515 as German Import.
2. Revolver - handgun with a corresponding cylinder that revolves before the barrel which consist
of different chambers.

D. ORIGINS OF FIREARMS
1. 13th Century-development of firearms followed the invention of gunpowder in Western Europe.
2. BERTHOLD SCHWARTZ -a German monk, and Roger Bacon, an English monk-are both credited
with gunpowder invention. Most reference books credit Roger Bacon, English monk and
scientist, with the invention of gunpowder in 1248, and Berthold Schwartz, with the application
of gun powder to the propelling of a missile in the early 1300's. This powder was that we now
called "black powder",
3. 1118-Moors used artillery against Zaragoza. Early manuscripts tell o several Moorish campaign
in which artillery was used all dating prior to Bacon and Scwartz.
4. 1245- Gen. Batu, the Tartar leader used artillery in Liegnitz when he defeated the Poles,
Hungarians and Russians.
5. It is also often stated that gunpowder was first invented by Chinese were aware of gunpowder
and its use as a propellant long before its advantage became recognized in Europe. It may
also be assumed the Arabs with their advance knowledge of chemistry at that time.
6. 1247-one of the earliest recorded uses of firearms in warfare was that of an attack on Seville,
Spain.
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7.1346-Cannons used by King Edward III of England at Crecy

8.1453-Mohammed II of Turkey in his famous conquest of Constantinople.
9. 1500 AD - French Artist LEONARDO DA VINCE as can be gleaned in his sketch of steam powered
cannon to his primitive wheel lock firearm.

Stages of development of man's weapon:

1. Stones
2. Clubs
3. Knives
4. Spears and darts
5. Slingshots to hurl objects
6. Bows and arrows
7. Cross-bows
8. Guns
9. Missiles

E. CONTRIBUTORS IN FIREARMS DEVELOPMENT

1. Col. Calvin H. Goddard, Md., OS, U.S. Army- Father of Modern Ballistics
2. Horace Smith - Founded the Smith & Wesson and pioneered the making of breech-loading riffles.
3. Daniel B. Wesson - associate or partners of Smith in revolver making.
4. John M. Browning-Wizard of modern firearms and pioneered the breech loading single shot rifle.
5. John T. Thompson- Pioneered the making of Thompson Sub-machine gun.
6. David "Carbine" Williams'- maker of first known carbine.
7. Alexander John Forsyth -Father of the percussion ignition.
8. Elisha King Root-Designed machinery of making Colt firearms.
9. Eliphalet Remington-one of the first riffle makers.
10.John Mahion Marlin - founder of Marlin Firearms Company.
11.James Wolfe Ripley-Stimulated the development of the Model 1855 riffled-musket.
12.Samuel Colt (1814-1862) - of Hartford, Connecticut, produced the first practical revolver
bringing it to what most gunsmiths would agree was its perfect form in the Colt Army 1873
model, which became famous for its.45 caliber.
13.Other manufacturers followed Calt's lead: Remington and Smith and Wesson in the US. Adams
and Scott-Webley in BRITAIN, Star, Luger, Browning and Beretta on the continent, until revolvers
were in used in every part of the world.
14.Henry Derringer-gave his name to a whole class of firearms (Rifles and pistols)
15.John C. Garand-semi-automatic US Riffle, Cal..3O MI
16.Oliver F. Winchester-one of the earliest riffles and pistol makers
17.John Dreyse (1841) - breech-loading infantry rifle, the so-called needle gun because of its long
sharp firing pin
18.Maj. Cavalli of Sardina (1845) - serviceable breech loading artillery rifle
19. Carl Walther (1866) - reliable small caliber automatic Pistol
20.Paul Withelm Mauser (1871) - Produced parts of the rifle which had been adopted by the
German government.
21.Sergei Mossin (1891)- Russian Service rifle.
22. Kijiro Nambu (1904) - whose design was first produced by the Kayoba factory.
23.Charles Dorchester & George Sullivan (1950)-Formed the Armalite business.

F. IMPORTANT DATES IN FIREARMS HISTORY

1. 1313 - Gunpowder as a Propellant - age of gunpowder began with its first use as a propellant
for a projectile recorded as early as 1313.
2. 1350 - Small Arms - first used only in cannons. It was in the middle of the 14th century that
portable hand firearms were Introduced. These guns were ignited by a hand-held hot wire or
lighted match.
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3. 1498-Riflings- first reference to riffled barrels appeared. Although It's Important as an aid to
accuracy was recognized by some, years after before rifling was generally used.
4. 1575-Cartridge. Paper cartridge combining both powder and bail were developed. This greatly
speeded loading and reduced the hazards of carrying loose powder.
5,1807-Percussion System, Forsyth in 1807 that certain compounds detonated by a blast would be
used to ignite the charge in a firearm, for the basis for all later percussion and cartridge to come
into general use.
6. 1845 - Rimfire Cartridge, France, Flobert, "bullet breech cap” which was in reality the first rim fire
cartridge.
7.1858-Center fire Cartridge, Morse cartridge of 1858 marked the beginning of the rapid
development of the center fire cartridge.
8. 1884 - Automatic machine-gun. Hiram Maxim built the first fully automatic gun, utilizing the recoil
of the piece of load and fire the next charge.
9. 1885 - Smokeless Powder, France, Vieille developed the first satisfactory smokeless powder
which is more powerful.

G. RIFLING-As part of the firearm, rifling refers to the lands and grooves in the gun barrel of the firearm

Courtesy of gpicustomgunworks.com

Petygowal GonynCarmsn

H. CALIBER OF THE FIREARM

Courtesy of leeloflland.com
It is the diameter of the bore of
the barrel measured from land to
land in rifled firearm. American and
English manufacturers use fraction
of an inch while manufacturers in
Continental Europe use millimeter
or centimeter.

I. THE RIFLE
It is a gun with spiral grooves in its long barrel that spin the bullet as It is shot. Rifles are usually
held against the shoulder when firing. Soldiers use rifles in battle.

PARTS OF A RIFLE-All rifles have four basic parts: barrel; stock; action; and sights.

Kinds of rifles according to:

1. type of action: (manually operated, automatic, or semiautomatic);
2. name of the designer or manufacturer (for example, Remington or Winchester); or
3. caliber (.22 rifle, etc.)

J. THE HANDGUN:
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It is a firearm that can be operated with one hand.

Parts of a handgun
1. Frame-main body of the gun that connects the other parts
2. Grip-handle of the gun
3. Barrel-metal tube through which the bullet is fired
4. Sights-use to line up the handgun with the target. Some sights can be adjusted to help aim the
gun more easily
5. Action - main working parts of the handgun such as the trigger, the hammer, and the cartridge
chamber
6. Safety-mechanism that prevents the gun from being fired unintentionally

Types of handguns
1. Single-action revolvers typically hold six cartridges. The movement of the rotating cylinder puts
a cartridge into line with the barrel and the firing pin (part that strikes the prime to fire the
cartridge). After cocking the hammer, the shooter pulls the trigger. The hammer unlocks and
falls, exploding the cartridge.
2. Double-action revolvers, typically hold six cartridges also. But, unlike single-action revolvers,
double action revolvers do not require the user to manually cock the hammer before firing.
3. Single-action semiautomatic pistols are fired by first pulling back a device called a slide to cock
the hammer or the firing pin, which is sometimes called a striker mechanism. When the slide is
released, it moves forward and feeds a round from the clip into the cartridge chamber. When
the shooter pulls the trigger, the hammer falls or the striker mechanism is released, impacting
the primer and exploding the gunpowder in the cartridge. The explosion causes the slide to
move backward. This recoil automatically ejects the empty cartridge and recocks the gun.
When the slide moves forward again, it reloads the chamber.
4. Double-action semiautomatic pistols operate somewhat like double-action revolvers. When the
trigger is pulled, the hammer goes through the firing cycle and fires the cartridge. After the Initial
shot, the pistol begins to operate like a single-action semiautomatic pistol. The recoil of the first
shot forces out the empty cartridge case, cocks the hammer, and inserts a new cartridge from
the clip into the cartridge chamber.
5. Single-shot pistols are used chiefly in international target-shooting competitions. To load a single-
shot pistol, the user moves the operating lever (part that opens and closes the action) forward
and down to lower the breech block and to cock the firing pin. The breech block closes the
breech of the gun-that is, the part behind the barrel. After the breech block has been lowered,
the cartridge chamber is exposed1. The user then inserts a cartridge into the chamber. Next,
the operating lever is pulled up and back to close the chamber and move the cartridge into
the closed position. The pistol is then ready to fire. When the trigger is pulled, the firing pin drops,
exploding the cartridge.
6. Rapid-fire handguns. One of the first practical revolvers was the Colt Paterson, patented in
England in 1835 by Samuel Colt, a U.S. Inventor. In 1857, the U.S. Inventors Horace Smith and
Daniel Wesson began producing revolvers that used cartridges.

K. THE MACHINE GUN

It is an automatic weapon that can fire from 400 to 1,600 rounds of ammunition each minute.
Machine gun barrels range in size from .22 caliber to 20 millimeters. Ammunition is fed into the
gun from a cloth or metal belt, or from a cartridge holder called a magazine. Because machine
guns fire so rapidly, they must be cooled by air.

Operation.
Blowback system, the operating energy comes from the cartridge case as the case is forced to
the rear by the gas pressure. The case moves against the bolt (a device that opens and closes the
bore), driving the bolt backward against a spring. The case Is ejected, and the compressed spring
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drives the bolt forward. As the bolt moves forward, It cocks the firing mechanism, picks up a new
cartridge, carries it into the chamber, and the cycle begins again.
Gas system, the gas pressure drives a piston against the bolt. The bolt is driven to the rear,
providing energy for a cycle like that of the blowback system.
Recoil system, the bolt locks to the barrel when the gun is fired. These parts remain locked
together as they are forced to the rear by the gas pressure. This movement provides energy to
operate the gun.
History. It appeared as early as the 1500's. It consisted of several guns bound together in a bundle
or spread out in a row. A device that was fitted to the gun barrels caused them to fire simultaneously
or in series. The French Montigny mitrailleuse and the American Gatling were among the more
successful of these guns.
1883, Hiram Maxim, an American-born inventor, developed the first entirely automatic machine
gun to gain wide acceptance. By the time of World War I, many different types of machine guns had
come into use.

CLASSIFICASTION OF FIREARMS
A. ACCORDING TO GUN BARREL INTERMAL CONSTRUCTION
1. Riffed Bore Firearms - has rifling which is also called the
spiraling lands and grooves. Examples: Rifle; Pistol;
and Revolver
2. Smooth Bore Firearms - have no rifling inside the gun
barrel for the breech end up to the muzzle of the
firearm. Examples: Shotguns; Muskets, and
Airsoft guns

SHOTGUN - smooth bore firearm designed to shoot a

number of lead pellets one discharge.
GAUGE - indicates that the bore diameter is equal
to the diameter of lead ball weighing in pounds.

B. MAIN TYPES OF FIREARM (according to caliber of projectile)

1. Artillery- propelled projectile is more than one inch in diameter like cannons, mortars, bazookas
2. Small Arms- propelled projectile is less than one inch diameter like machine guns, shoulder arms
and handguns/arms

C. TYPES OF FIREARMS ACCORDING TO MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION

1. Single Rifle Firearms-fire only one shot for every loading like Pistol, Rifle, etc.
2. Repeating Arms - fire several shots in one loading like automatic Pistols, Revolvers, Rifles, Shotguns
3. Bolt Action Type-reloading is done by manipulation of the bolt like Rifles & Shotguns.
4. Automatic Loading Type - after the first shot is fired, automatic loading or feeding of the chamber
takes place.
5. Slide Action Type (Trombone)- loading takes place by back-and-forth manipulation of the under
forearm of the gun like some Rifles and Shotguns.
6. Lever Type (Break-type)- loading takes place by lever action on the firearm like some Rifles,
Shotguns.

D. TYPES OF FIREARMS ACCORDING TO USE

1. Military Firearms- It may include pistols, revolvers, rifles, shotguns, assault rifles, and machine guns
2. Pocket and Home Defense Firearms-It may include pistols, revolvers, rifles, and shotguns
3. Target and Outdoorsman known as Sporting- It may also include pistols, revolvers, and rifles

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R. UNUSUAL/MISCELLANEOUS TYPES-those that are unique in mechanism and construction such as

Paltik pistols, Paltik rifles, Paltik revolvers, and Paltik shotguns

F. CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS ACCORDING TO ITS POWER PURSUANT TO R.A. 8294

Section 1. Unlawful Manufacture, Sale, Acquisition, Disposition or Possession of Firearms or
Ammunition or Instruments used or Intended to be used in the Manufacture of Firearms or
Ammunitions. The penalty of prision correctional in Its maximum period and a fine of not less than
Fifteen thousand pesos (P15,000.00)shall be imposed upon any person who shall unlawfully
manufacture, dealt in, acquire, dispose or possess any low-powered firearm, such as rimfire handgun,
380, 32 and other firearm of similar firepower, part of firearm, ammunition or machinery, tool or
instrument used in the manufacture of any firearm or ammunition: provided, that no other crime was
committed.
The penalty of prision mayor in Its minimum period and a fine of thirty thousand pesos
(P30,000.00)shall be imposed in the firearm is classified as high powered firearms which includes those
with bore bigger in diameter than caliber .38 and 9mm such as caliber .40, 44, .45 and also lesser
caliber firearms but considered powerful such as caliber .357 and caliber .22 center fire magnum and
other firearms with firing capability of full automatic and by burst of two (2) or three (3): Provided,
however, that no other crime was committed by the person arrested.

G. THREE MAIN PARTS OF FIREARMS

1. Revolver 3. Rifle-Cal..30
a. barrel assembly a. barrel assembly
b. cylinder assembly b. magazine assembly
c. frame or receiver c. stock group

2. Pistol 4. Shotgun
a. barrel assembly a. barrel assembly
b. slide assembly b. magazine assembly
c. frame or receiver c. stock group

H. ADVANTAGES
1. Revolver
a. almost everyone knows something about how to handle it
b. safer for inexperienced people
c. the mechanism allows the trigger pull to be better
d. a misfire does not put the revolver out of action
e. Can handle satisfactory old or new or partly deteriorated ammunition which reduces velocity

2. Automatic pistol
a. has a better grip, fits the hand and points naturally
b. more compact for the same fire power
c. easier to load
d. barrel when worn or corroded can be replaced without sending the gun to the factory
e. gives greater number of shots
f. easier to clean
g. gives greater fire power and greatest ease in firing
h. no gas leakage during firing

I. DISADVANTAGES
1. Revolver
a. bulkier to carry
b. grip or handle is generally not as good as that of pistol
c. hard to clean after firing

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 Forenslc Ballistics

d. slower to load
e. harder to replace worn out parts - it's a factory job
f. worn out or poorly made weapon is subject to variable accuracy to improper lining up of
cylinder

2. Automatic Pistol
a. ammunition must be perfect - it causes jam
b. misfire stops the functioning of gun
c. when kept loaded for long period of time - magazine spring is under tension
d. has poorer trigger pull
e. magazine requires jacketed bullet
f. more dangerous to handle especially for inexperienced people
g. usually not adopted for reloading
h. possible ejection of empty shell towards the face of the firer causing flinching
I. throws out empty shell on the ground to remain as evidence
j. cannot be fired from the pocket without jamming

TERMS TO PONDER:
1. Accelerator -used in some automatic and semi-automatic weapons to accelerate the rearward
travel of the bolt of breechblock by applying leverage at the critical point in the bolt's travel.
2. ACP- Arms Corporation of the Philippines.
3. Barrel Length - measured from the face of the muzzle to the base of the seated bullet or base
of the case neck.
4. Barrel Telescope-used to make a visual Inspection of the inset of a gun barrel to see a sign of
having been fired recently, to look for leading or metal fouling and to see how distinct the lands
and grooves appear.
5. Blow back - the backward escape of powder or primer gases from the chamber around the
breechblock or bolt due to split or fractured cartridge case or punctured primer.
6. Blow Forward-An automatic of semi-automatic firearm having a standing breech, in which the
barrel is blown to open the action and eject the fired cartridge case. The barrel is then forced
back against the standing breech by a powerful spring. The gun is cocked and reloaded as the
barrel is forced to the rear
7. Bore Centerline - visual line of the center of the bore
8. Breech Block-steel block which closes the tear bore against the force of the charge; or the face
of the block
9. Burr Hammer-An expose hammer having a serrated knob at the top to provide a griping surface
for cocking
10.Camming-lug bolts-employs one or more bolt locking logs which are cammed outward from
the interior of the bolt cylinder to unlock the action
11.Chamber- rear portion of the barrel where the cartridge is inserted
12. Cylinder - serves as chamber and magazine and a revolver
13.Cylinder Stop-stops and holds the cylinder in alignment for firing.
14.Delayed Blowback-Sometimes called hesitation locking the breech, although not positively
locked, must overcome a mechanical disadvantage, such as knuckle joint, to open
15.Disconnector lever in the gunlock which prevents the release of the hammer unless the slide
and barrel are in forward position safely interlocked
16.Double-Set Triggers-A pair of triggers so arranged that pressure on one trigger engages the sear
in such fashion that the slightest tough on the second trigger will then discharge the gun
17.Double Action Sear-Built into weapon to allow double action fire

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 Forenslc Balllstics

18.EC-Evansille Chrisler
19.Ejector- causes the cartridge case or shell to be thrown out from the gun
20.Extractor -mechanism in a firearm by which the cartridge case or shell is' withdrawn from the
chamber mechanism in a revolver that pulls the empty shells simultaneously.
21.Extractor Rod - activates the extractor and is a locking device.
22.FA-Frankford Arsenal.
23. Falling Block Action - the breechblock is pivoted at the rear of the receiver so that the face of
the breechblock swings down below the chamber to open the action.
24.FCC-Federal Cartridge Company
25. Firearm (Other Definition) - pistol or revolver with a barrel less than 12 inches, any riffle with a
barrel less than 15 inches, other weapon which is design to expel projectile buy the action of
explosion. (Uniform firearms act of Pennsylvania)
26. Flying Firing Pin - A firing pin shorter that the length of its travel in the breechblock. A spiral spring
coiled around the pin forward compressing the spring and exploding the primer, the
compressed spring immediately draws the firing pin back into the breechblock. This is a safety
feature since the firing pin is not in contact with the primer except when driven forward by the
hammer at the instant of firing. Also known as rebound type firing pin Examples: Colt
Government Model Caliber. 45 and Tokarev 7.62 mm.
27.Foiding Trigger - A trigger hinged so that it can be folded forward close to under side of the
frame. Examples: Italian 10:35 mm Bodego.
28.Frame-Part of the firearm that houses the internal parts.
29.Front sight - A protrusion or attachment above the barrel near the muzzle. It may be fixed or
adjustable.
30.Grip or Automatic Safeties-Flat lavers of plungers normally protruding from some portion of the
grip such position that when the hand firing the piece is squeezed around the grip, by the firer,
automatically releasing the firing mechanism
31.Hair Trigger-any trigger which can be released by very light pressure
32.Hammer-mechanism In a firearm that strikes the primer
33.Hammer Block-Safety device that prevents hammer blow to primer
34.Hand (Pawl) - it rotates the cylinder.
35.Hanged Frame - A weapon in which the barrel including the cylinder in the case of revolver is
pivoted to the forward end of the frame.
36.Headspace-distance between the breech of the gun and the support for the cartridge rim; or
the space occupied by the head of the cartridge when the gun is loaded
37. Head stamps - letters or design placed on the base of the cases by the manufacturer to identify
his product.
38. Inertia Firing Pin - firing pin assembled into the breech block and free to move forward and
backward. It is impelled forward by the blow of the hammer or striker and backward by the
explosions of the primer.
39.LC-Lake City Arsenal
40. Leaf Sight - Any metallic sight which is hinged at the base to permit raising it to a vertical position
sighting and lowering it to a horizontal position to avoid damage and carrying leaf sight.
Principle Is usually applied to rear sight only.
41.Line of Sight-visual line of the aligned sight path
42.Mainspring-provides energy to the hammer to activate firing mechanism.
43.Metallic Sights-normally consist of a pair of front sight and rear sights.
44. Muzzle Brake - designed to deflect the propelling gases emerging from the muzzle behind the
bullet and to utilize the energy of these gases to pull the gun forward to counter the recoil of
the weapon.
45.Open Sight-any sight in which there is to tube or aperture through which aim Is taken

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 Forensic Ballistics

46.Paradox Gun - a shotgun having the last few inches of the muzzle rifled so that it will impart a
spin to the patented slug that is used with it when it is desired to fire a large single projectile
Instead of a charge of shot
47.Parker size-a Gray rust preventive finish for metal
48.Post Sight-front sight resembling a post or one of generally rectangular of quadrilateral design
49.Pump Action-popular term for slide action
50.Pyramidal Sight - front sight of generally pyramidal design.
51.RA or REM-Remington Arms Company
52.Ramp Sight-front sight mounted at the ramp, which inclines upward and forward, a rear sight
having a sliding member, which may be moved up and down a ramp to change the elevation
of the sight
53.Rear Sight-rearmost of a pair of metallic gun sights. It may be mounted on the barrel, receiver,
frame, slide, tang, cocking piece, bolt sleeve or stock; may be fixed or adjustable
54.Receiver Sight-type of sight fastened to the receiver bridge
55.Recoil Operated - a weapon in which the barrel and breechblock are locked together at the
instant firing. As the bullet leaves the barrel, the rearward thrust of the powder gases starts the
locked barrel and bolt to the rear
56.Repeater-any firearm holding more than one round at a time
57.Rolling Block Action-the breechblock rotates Its about an axis pin downward and backward
from the chamber
58.RPA-Republic of the Philippines Arsenal
59.Sear-The lever in the gunlock which holds the hammer until the released by the trigger.
60.Semi-Automatic Revolver-the recoil from one shot plus spring action revolvers, the cylinder
aligns a chamber and cocks the hammer ready for firing the next shot
61.Set Trigger-adjustable trigger design to operate reliable with a very light trigger pull. Colloquially
a "hair trigger"
62.Shoat Trigger-absolute form of trigger in which no trigger guard was used. The trigger was
mounted in and projected only slightly from the frame just forward of the grip.
63.Shoulder-Portion of a shell that support the neck.
64.Slide Action-That type of breech closure, which Is moved forward and backward along guide
ways paralleling the lower side of the barrel. The operating rod is properly linked to the
breechblock to provide the desired and closing action.
65.Slide Plate-Part of the revolver that provides access to the internal part.
66.Signal Radius-the distance between forward and rear sight.
67.Silencer-A device Intended to be attached to muzzle of a firearm to prevent or reduce its noise.
68.Single Action Revolvers-the hammer must be manually cocked.
69.Solid Frame- in a revolver, a swing-out cylinder or rod ejector type. There is a break or hinge in
the frame.
70.Spur Hammer-a hammer having a cocking spur.
71.Stab Crimp -a series of small indents at intervals around the cartridge case, engaging a
cannelure in the bullet jacket. Both types of crimps are also used on high-pressure cartridge to
hold the primer in the pocket.
72.Standing Breech-when a receiver is not cut away at its rear to a point below the line of the gun
bore, the solid rear wall of the receiver is the "standing breech".
73.Straight-line Hammer - a metal forced straight back by bolt action during bolt reciprocation to
cocked position. When released it drives straight ahead to fire. Found on reising and similar guns.
74.Straight-puil Action - that type in which the rotary motion required to turn the bolt locking lugs
into or out of engagement with their locking recesses is applied by the action of studs on the
bolt sliding in helical grooves cut inside a bolt cylinder.

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75.Sub caliber Barrel-a barrel of small caliber inserted down the bore or mounted over the barrel
of a large caliber gun, permitting it to be used for practice work with less powerful, cheaper
ammunition.
76.Thumb latch - mechanism in a revolver that actuates bolt to release the cylinder.
77.Thumb trigger-a button design on or near the tang. It fines the rifle when depressed normally by
thumb pressure.
78.Trigger-the lever operated by the shooter which releases the firing pin and allows it to discharge
the cartridge.
79.Trigger Guard-the bent strip of metal that protects the trigger from accidental discharge.
80.Trigger Lever - mechanism in a revolver that contacts the rebound slide to return the trigger
forward.
81. Trigger Spring - spring that provides energy for return movement of rebound slide.
82.Trigger Stop-mechanism In a revolver that prevents excessive rearward movement after
hammer release.
83.Tube Sight-a tube in which front and rear sights are mounted.
84.Turn-bolt Action - that type of firearm which locked by the turning one or more bolt locking lugs
into locking recesses cut into the receiver.
85.U or UT-Utah Ordinance Company
86.Vernier Sight-metallic sights which may be adjusted for elevation or wind age by the action of
a vernier screw. Also called a micrometer sight. Screw having a head calibrated to Indicate the
amount of movement transmitted to the sight.
87.WCC-Western Cartridge Company
88.Wedge-type Bolts-that type which employs a ramp or camp arrangement raise lower, or move
to either side, one end of the bolts so that the end of the bolt or lug thereon is wedged against
a supporting surface in the receiver to lock the action.
89.WRA-Winchester Repacking Company
90.Yoke-mechanism in a revolver that connects pivot between the frame and cylinder.

UNIT 5-AMMUNITIONS/CARTRIDGES

A. DEFINITION - complete unfired unit consisting of cartridge case, gunpowder, primer, and projectile.

B. ORIGIN
The term "cartridge" evolved from about the tum of sixteenth century. The earliest small arms
ammunition or cartridge consisted of a pre-measured charge of powder wrapped in a paper. In
Webster's later edition, a cartridge is defined as “A case capsule, shell or bag of metal, pasteboard,
of the like, containing the explosive charge and in small arms and some cannon, the projectile to be
fired. The term cartridge is derived from the word "charta", the Latin word for paper. Later on, it came
through the French word "cartouche", meaning a roll of paper, which indicates that the original
cartridges were not the brass gilding-metal tipped units which we are familiar with today.

Originally:
1. "ammunition" means any unfired assembly of cartridge case, powder, primer and projectile
which may be used in a firearm. Today, it refers to a “file of assembled cartridges" in bulks as
in boxes or lots & also used to refer to the supply a person may be carrying with him.
2. "round" refers to a single cartridge.
3. shotgun cartridges are commonly referred to as “shell" or “shotshell"
4. rifle ammunition is referred to as "metallics" or “cartridges“.
5.When an investigator uses a term "cartridge” he invariably refers to revolver, pistol, or rifle
cartridges.

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6. The layman uses the abovementioned terms indiscriminately, although as general rule he
speaks of "cartridges" when referring to a pistol, revolver, rifle ammunitions and “shells” when
referring to shotguns.
7. Among the uniformed, the word "bullet” as often misused, as it is commonly used to apply to
any sort of any unfired cartridge.

C. PARTS OF A CARTRIDGE (Nomenclature)

1. BULLET - the projectile propelled through the barrel of a
firearm by means of expansive force of gases coming from
burning gunpowder.
2. CARTRIDGE CASE - the tubular metallic container for the
gunpowder. Sometimes called "shell” or "casting”.
3. GUNPOWDER - the propellant which when ignited by the
primer flash is converted to gas under high pressure and
propels the bullet or shot change through the barrel and on
to the target.
4. PRIMER - the metal cap containing the highly sensitive
priming mixture of chemical compound, which when heat or
struck by firing pin would ignite - also called "percussion."

D. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF FIREARMS

1. Revolver cartridges
2. Pistol cartridges
3. Rifle cartridges
4. Shotgun cartridges

E. CLASSIFICATION ACCDG.TO LOCATION PRIMERS

1. PIN FIRE CARTRIDGE - the first cartridge of a self -exploding type which enjoyed any real general
use was the type called the "pin fire" commonly attributed to Monsier Le Facheux of Paris,
around 1896. Pin-fire cartridges have a head of the cartridge, and a percussion fixed by a wad
or metal cup.
2. CENTER FIRE-priming powder is located at the center.
3. RINGFIRE CARTRIDGE-A type of cartridge used only on sabotage cases. The chattel cartridges
of Steyr advance combat rifle and Steyr anti-material squad machine gun. This is a special type
of cartridge wherein the priming mixture is placed in a circular hollow ring about 1/3 of the base
of the cartridge.
4. RIM FIRE CARTRIDGE-simplest form of modern cartridge is the "rim-fire cartridge" in which this type
can be fired only if the cartridge Is struck by the hammer of firing pin on the rim of the case.

F. TYPES ACCORDING TO CALIBER

1. Caliber.22-used in revolvers, pistols, rifles
2. Caliber.25-used in pistols and rifles
3. Caliber.30-used in carbines and other rifles
4. Caliber .32-used in automatic pistols and revolvers
5. Caliber.380-used in pistols
6. Caliber.38-used in revolvers
7. Caliber.357-used in .357 revolvers (Magnum)
8. Caliber.44-used in Magnum revolvers
9. Caliber.45-used In Automatic pistols
10. Caliber .50-used in caliber .50 machine guns

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G. CLASSIFICATION OF AMMUNITIONS ACCORDING TO ITS EFFECTS

1. penetrators - pierce targets using a single bullet,
2. high explosives - burst before hitting their target, fragmenting Into thousands of penetrating
pieces or becoming a high-speed jet of molten metal, and
3. carrier projectiles - break open near the target to deliver leaflets, radar-deceiving materials, or
sub-munitions (small ammunition).

H. ARTILLERY AMMUNITION

There are five main types of artillery shells:

1. Fixed ammunition fired by artillery consists of a projectile, a casing, a primer, and a propellant.
Like small-arms cartridges, fixed artillery ammunition shells are manufactured as complete
units.
2. Semifixed ammunition resembles fixed ammunition. However, the projectile fits loosely Into the
casing so that the sections can be separated. Thus, the amount of propellant in the casing
can be increased or decreased, depending on how far the shell is from the target.
3. Separate loading ammunition, also called bag ammunition, consists of separate sections for the
projectile, the primer, and the propellant. The propellant is packed into bags that are placed
behind the projectile. The number of bags used depends on the distance the shell must travel.
This type of ammunition is used to fire the heaviest artillery shells over great distances.
4. Separated ammunition consists of two sections. One section is the projectile. The other includes
the primer, the casing, and a fixed amount of propellant.
5. Guided ammunition can correct its flight in the air after being fired. It often uses pop-out tail fins
to steer itself. Most guided ammunition finds its target by tracking a laser spot on the target.
This spot is usually produced by a forward observer, a person or object forward of the line of
fire. Some shells known as smart shells have small radars and computers in them. These shells
can search for and find such targets as armored vehicles or trucks without help.

I. RIOT CONTROL AMMUNITION

This is used by law enforcement officials to subdue rioters without causing serious injury. Most of
this ammunition consists of hard rubber bullets. Another type is made of soft rubber rings that look<
like doughnuts and may contain tear gas. These rings cause less damage than do the rubber bullets.

J. SHOTGUN CARTRIDGE (SHELL)

Shotgun is a shoulder gun that fires a
cartridge that contains a powder charge
and a load of metal pellets, called shot.
The shot spreads over a wide area. This
makes it easier to hit a moving target
with a shotgun than with the single bullet
from a rifle or a pistol. The shotgun is chiefly
a hunting gun.
1. bird shot - small shotgun pellets
2. buckshot- larger ones are used to
shoot such animals as deer
3. single shot-consist of single unit of
projectile

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Shotgun cartridges consist of a plastic or Courtesy of shotgun.me.uk

paper tube with a brass or steel case at one
end. They contain lead or steel shot instead
of bullets.
The caliber of a shotgun is measured by
bore, or gauge. The weight of the lead shot
required to fit the muzzle of the gun is the
standard of measurement for the bore. If a
bullet weighing 1/12 pound (38 grams) fits the bore, the shotgun is called a 12-bore, or a 12-gauge,
gun. Popular gauges are 10, 12, 16, 20,28, and
.410.
Some shotguns are named by caliber, as
for example, the one that is called 410-gauge
shotguns which actually means .41 caliber. A
12-gauge shotgun has a caliber of .729 inch.
The first shotgun, developed in 1537 was
loaded with small shot instead of one round
ball. In 1831, Augustus Demondion patented
a cartridge that held small shot.

SHOT WADS. At a distance of 5-8 yards or more from the place of firing in the approximate
direction of fire, one can sometimes find wads.

K. CARTRIDGE LIFE
The life of well-made metallic small arms ammunitions perhaps 10 years on the average. Some
last 5-6 years, however, ammunitions may lose some of its strength in 5 or 6 years. Some may last 25
years or more depending on the conditions storage. Damp, and warm climates are worst.
In order to prevent the entrance of oil or moisture, it is common practice to vanish the mouth of
the case before the insertion of the bullet and to put a ring of waterproofing around the joint between
the primer and the primer pocket.

L. CARTRIDGE CASES/SHELL

DEFINITION- the body or container that holds together the bullet, propellant, and primer as one unit.
This is firearm evidence that can help trace a particular firearm from which it was fired.

FUNCTIONS OF CARTRIGE CASE-

1. It holds the bullet, gunpowder and primer assembled into one unit.
2. It serves as a waterproof container for the gunpowder against the walls of the chamber by the
pressure. It serves as a "gas seal” at the breech end of the barrel.

PARTS OF THE CARTRIDGE CASE:

1. RIM – the projecting rims or rimed and semi-rimmed cases serve the purpose of limiting the
forward travel of cartridges into their chambers and thus also limit the clearance, If any between
the head and the supporting.
2. PRIMER POCKET-performs three functions:
b.) holding primers securely in certain position;
c.) providing a means to prevent the escape of gas to the rear of the cartridge;
d.) providing a primer support for primer anvils, without which the latter could not be fired.

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3. VENTS ORPLASH HOLES-the "vent" or "flash holes" is the hole in the web or bottom of the primer
pocket through which the primer "flash" provides ignition to the powder charge. It is the
"opening" or "canal” that connects the priming mixture with the gunpowder.
4. THE HEAD AND BODY - the "head" and "body" constitute the "cork" that plugs the breech of the
barrel against the escape of the gas.
5. NECK-applied to that part of the cartridge case that is occupied by the bullet to prevent the
bullet from being push back or loosened.
6. CANNELURES-shell cannelures are the serrated grooves that are sometimes found rolled into the
neck and body of cases at the location of the cases of the bullet to prevent the bullet from
being pushed back or loosened.
7. CRIMP- Is that part of the mouth of a case that is turned In upon the bullet. It works two ways a)
it aids in holding the bullet in place; b) it offers resistance to the movement of the bullet out of
the neck which affects the burning of gunpowder.
8. BASE- the bottom portion of the case which holds: a) the primer which contains the priming
mixture; b) the shell head which contains the headstamp, caliber, and year of manufacture.
9. SHOULDER-that portion which supports the neck.
10.EXTRACTING GROOVE-the circular groove near the base of the case or shell designed for the
automatic withdrawal of the case after each firing.

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO CASESHAPE:

1. Straight-all rimmed shell and most centerfire revolver cartridges. Ex. Cal. 38 special
2. Tapered-very rare but being used in so-called "magnum jet” Cal. .22.
3. Bottleneck-ex.5.56mm cartridge cases
4. Belbed-ex..30 magnum

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO HEAD FORMS:

1. Rimmed- diameter of base is very much bigger than of the body; (revolvers.38 and .357)
2. Semi-rimmed- diameter of base is slightly bigger than of the body (super.380)
3. Rimless - diameter of base is the same as of the body (45 pistols, Thompson, grease gun,
submachine guns)

CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE ACCDG. TO THE CONFIGURATION OF ITS BASE

1. RIMMED - flange at the base is larger than the diameter of the body of the cartridge case.
2. SEMI-RIMMED - flange is slightly larger than the diameter of the cartridge case and a groove
around the case body just in front of the flange.
3.RIMLESS-flange diameter is the same as the body and there is, for extraction purposes, a groove
around the case-body in front of the flange.
4. REBATED-extractor flange is less than the diameter of the cartridge case.
5. BELTED CASE-It has a pronounced raised belt encircling the base of the cartridge, the belt is for
additional strength in high pressure cartridge.

CARTRIDGE CASES ACCORDING TO SHAPES

1. Straight cased-where the case diameter is approximately the same along its length.
2. Bottled-necked-where a wide bodied case is, just before the case mouth, reduced in diameter
to that of the bullet.
3. Tapered case-where a wide based cartridge case is gradually reduced in diameter along its
length.

TERMS TO RECALL:
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 Forensic Ballistics

1. Annealing - is the process of making cartridge case by heating a brass to become very soft and
ductile and very weak: when It is drawn or otherwise worked, it becomes hard, strong and elastic.
2. Belted Cartridge - A cartridge, which has a raised belt before the extractor groove. The cartridge
seats on this belt, most "Magnum" cartridge case. Also called a European type primer.
3. Blank Cartridge-Is a cartridge consisting of the case with Its primer, powder charge and a wad
to train the powder.
4. Blank Cartridge Pistol - A firearm without opening in the muzzle, the gas may escape through
the hole in the top of the frame.
5. Center Pin - serve us a locking device for the cylinder.
6. Drawing - a machine operation In manufacturing cartridge cases. Is the process of making case
by punching discs from a sheet of brass and then making these discs out into tubes closed to one
end.
7. Guard Cartridge- one loaded with buckshot or a reduced charge ball.
8. Rolled Crimp- One in which the mouth of the cartridge case is turned inward into a cannelure
on the bullet all around its circumference to retain the bullet at the proper seating depth.
9. Round- One single complete cartridge.
10.Ruptured Case~ Any cartridge case, which has been split in firing so that the gas has escape.
11.Short Cartridge - a metallic cartridge loaded with a small shot.
12.Signal Cartridge-one containing vari-colored luminous balls of the "roman candle” variety.

M. BULLETS (Projectiles)
PROJECTILE - is a metallic or non-metallic body usually referred to as a bullet that is completely
dependent upon an outside force for Its power.
Under this definition, the term may also include projectiles propelled from shotguns although
strictly speaking these projectiles designed for shotguns are called "shot", "slug" or pellets. In a layman's
viewpoint, a projectile fired from a firearms is called slug, although what be actually meant is a
"bullet".
Originated from the French word "boulette", a small ball. In common Police parlance, a bullet
may be called "slug" which is a colloquial term.

A. CLASSIFICATION OF BULLETS ACCORDING TO MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION

1. Lead Bullets-those which are made of lead or alloy of this metals such as lead, tin and antimony.
2. Jacketed Bullets-those with a core of lead alloy covered a jacket of harder metal such as guiding
metal and copper zinc.
✓ Copper plated steel maybe used instead of gilding metal for the jacket of caliber .45 - jacket
of metal patch made of cupro nickel or gilding metal.
✓ If jacket bullets are used in revolvers, the gun barrel will be loosened or destroyed.

Purposes of the jacket:

1. keep the bullet intact and from not breaking up when it strikes the target.
2. prevent damage while in the weapon
3. control expansion

B. TYPES OF BULLETS ACCORDING TO SHAPE

1. Pointed bullet
2. Round Nose bullet
3. Wad Cutter bullet
4. Semi-Wad Cutter bullet
5. Boat Tailed bullet
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C. COMMON BULLET TYPES

1. solid lead point
Rifled slug- steeleityguns.com
2. solid hollow point
3. solid paper patch
4. metal cased
5. soft point
6. metal cased hollow point
7. metal point
8. rifled slug
9. glycer type bullet
10.quadraximum

D. PURPOSES OF BULLETS
1. 38-disability purposes
2. .45-knocking power-subduing a maniac or amok
3. M16-fatal effects
4. Garand and Carbine-penetration and long-range shooting

E. TYPES OF BULLETS ACCORDING TO USE:

1. Ball Bullets - have soft cores and are used against personnel.
2. Armor Piercing Bullet - have hardened steel cores and are
fired against vehicles, weapons and armored targets in
general.
3. Tracer Bullets-contains compound usually similar to barium
nitrates which is set on fire when the bullet ls projected.
The flash of this smoke from this burning permits the flight of
the bullet to be seen.
4. Incendiary Bullets - contains a mixture such as phosphorous
or other materials, that can be set on fire by impact.
They are used against target that will burn readily such as
aircraft.
5. Explosives Bullets - contains a high charge of high explosive
and because of their small size it is difficult to make a fuse
that will work reliably in small arms ammunition. For this
reason the use of high explosive bullets is usually limited to
20mm and above.

F. BULLETS' MEASUREMENT (DIAMETER)

Cartridges used in weapons other than shotguns are measured by caliber (the diameter of
the bullet). Manufacturers and users of ammunition in the United States have traditionally specified
caliber in decimal fractions of an inch. For example, a .30-caliber cartridge has a diameter of
30/100 inch (7.6 millimeters). However, it is becoming customary to use millimeters instead. The U.S.
armed forces specify caliber in millimeters. Small-arms cartridges are less than 20 millimeters or .78
caliber.

G. EQUIVALENT OF CALIBER TO MILLIMETER

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 Forensic Ballistics

1. Caliber.22 about 5.56 mm

2. Caliber.25 about 6.35 mm
3. Caliber .32 about 7.65 mm
4. Caliber .30 about 7.63 mm (Mauser)
5. Caliber .30 about 7.63 mm (Luger)
6. Caliber 38 about 9mm E.38 .
7. Caliber .45 about 11.43 mm

H. CONVERSION TABLE

Multiply
1. cm to mm 10.0 Ex.2cm X 10mm=20mm
2. mm to inch - 0.03937 Ex. 11.5 × .03937 = 0.452755𝑜𝑟𝐶𝑎𝑙. 45
3. inch to mm - 25.4 Ex. 38inX254mm=9.65mm
4. meter to yard- 1.094
5. grain to gram. 0.06480
6. gram to gram 15.43
7. gram to kg .0.001

I. MISCELLANEOUS
1. .0002 second- explosion of a bullet by means of tremendous explosion of burning gases.
2. Resistance of ,38 is 15,000 to 45,000 ft./found.
3. Buck-shot-it ranges 50 yards

J. OTHER TERMS TO REMEMBER:

1. Ball Bullet-Bullets have soft lead cores inside a jacket.
2 Cannelure (bullet) - A knurled ring or serrated grooved around the body of the bullet which
contains wax for lubrication in order to minimize friction during the passage of the bullet inside
the bore.
3. Dumdum Bullet- an out-moded and generally misused term -hollow point bullets manufactured
in Dumdum, India.
4. Explosive (Fragmentary) Bullets - Contain a high charge explosive, because of heir small size, it
is difficult to make a fuse that will work reliably in small arms ammunitions. For this reason the use
of high explosive bullets is usually to 20 mm. and above.
5. Hollow Point-designed to Increase expansion (sometimes called "express bullets”)
6. Iced Bullets or solidified bullets - super cooled water made as a projectile.
7. Lead Bullets-Actually a mixture of lead and one or more hardening ingredient.
8. Metal Cased Bullet-colloquially used to indicate either a metal patched of full patched bullet.
9. Metal Patched Bullet - any metal-jacketed bullet. Technically, it is a bullet having a metal cup
over the base and extending forward over that portion of the bullet which bears against the
rifling, the lead core being exposed at the nose of the bullet.
10.Mushroom Bullet - colloquially. Any bullet designed to expand on impact. Technically, a metal
patched bullet with exposed round nose.
11.Ogive- the curved portion of the bullet that is symmetrical and forms the head of the projectile
of ogival shape.
12.Plated Bullet- a bullet covered with a thin coating of a copper alloy to prevent leading on the
Inside of the barrel.
13.Pointed Bullet-more effective ballistically because there is less surface resistance to air, thus the
speed is less retarded and greater velocity.
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14.Soft or Drop Shot-shotgun pellets made of ordinary soft lead made into round pellets.
15.Soft Point Bullet-expands on striking hence it produces more serious damage and have greater
stopping power: from a high velocity rifle, it will expand upon striking a flesh until it looks like a
mushroom, hence, they are often called mushroom bullet.
16.Steel Jacketed Bullet-bullet having soft steel jacket, often clad or plated with gliding metal to
prevent resting and reduce frictional resistance in the bore.
17.Tracer Bullet - a bullet containing a substance Inside the jacket at the base of the bullet which
is ignited when fired showing a brilliant "taillight" during its flight. It has an incendiary effect If they
strike before the "tall light" base burned put.

N. GUNPOWDER

A. CLASSIFICATION AND COMPOSITION

1. Black Powder (Europeans) - the standard ingredients are: Potassium nitrate 75%, Sulphur 10%
and Charcoal 15%. It's characteristics are:
a. oldest propellant powder
b. consist of Irregular grains and have either a dull or shiny black surface
C. produces grayish smoke and considerable residue is left in the barrel
d. burns with reasonable great rapidity when ignited

Qualities (typical to all explosives):

a. when ignited, it will burn by itself without aid from the outside air
b. in burning, it gives off large amount of gas
c. a considerable amount of heat is evolved

2. Smokeless Powder-Nitrocellulose and Nitroglycerine as the major ingredients, mixed with one or
more minor ingredients such as centralite, Vaseline esters, inorganic salts and etc.

B. CLASSIFICATION OF SMOKELESS POWDER

1. Single based (Nitrocellulose) - pure nitroglycerin gelatinized with nitrocellulose
2. Double based- Nitrocellulose and Nitroglycerine with the following minor ingredients:
a. centralite
b. Vaseline phthalate esters
C. Inorganic salt

Purposes of the minor ingredients:

a. insure stability
b. reduce flash or flame temperature
c. improve ignitability

Characteristics of Double based:

a. gray green to black in color and grains are similar in size and shape to the single-base
propellants
b. almost all have a perfectly definite shape such as: small squares; discs; flakes; stripes; pellets;
and perforated cylindrical grains

3. Triple based-Nitroceliulose, Nitroglycerine and Nitroguanadine

It was devised in an attempt to compromise between the low power single based powders and
high power but excessive heat of double based powders. The percentage of nitroglycerin is small,but
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sufficient to give added power. The nitro-guanidine lowers the flame temperature while still adding
active explosive constituent. One of its virtues is that it is entirely flashless though It does not generate
rather more smoke than the other types.

4. High ignition temperature propellant - Its main constituent is from RDX group of high explosives. It
was moderated to the process of gelatinozation and was then developed by Dynamite Noble of
Germany in conjunction with Heckler and Koch for the latter's G11K2 rifle. This is a caseless
cartridge.

MISCELLANEOUS
1. Cordite- A British propellant made by dissolving gun cotton and nitroglycerin and adding 5% of
Vaseline.
2. Gun Cotton-A very powerful explosive, like nitroglycerin which is a chemical compound and not
a mixture. This is formed by the action of nitric and sulfuric acid on cotton or any other kind of
cellulose.

O. PRIMER
It is the assembly which ignite the propellant. The primer assembly of centerflre cartridges consists
of a brass or guiding-metal cup that contains a primer composition pellet of sensitive explosive, a
paper disc (foll), and a brass anvil.

ORIGIN:
1807-Alexander John Forsyth conceived the percussion Ignition system. He was a Scotch
Presbyterian Minister, chemist and hunter.

First successful priming mixture was one composed of potassium chlorate.

A. TYPES OF PRIMER ACCORDING TO ANVIL

1. Boxer primer (one flash hole) - favorite in U.S. invented
by Col. Edward Munier Boxer in 1869.
2. Berdan (European Type)-two flash holes or vents
Invented by Hiram Berdan of New York in 1850's.

B. PARTS OF PRIMER AND FUNCTION

1. Primer Cap- it is the soft guiding metal which serves as the
container of priming mixture, paper disc and anvil.
2. Priming Mixture - contains a small amount of explosive
mixture which is sufficiently sensitive to result of chemical
reaction being set up by the caused by a sudden blow.
3. Paper Discs-this is made of thin shellacked paper disc
that protects the priming mixture that will cause its
disintegration. Its two-fold purposes:
a. help hold the priming mixture in place and
b. exclude moisture
4. Anvil - it is made of spring tempered brass place inside the
primer and it is on this side or point which the priming
mixture is crushed.
5.Battery Cap- battery cap as applied to shotgun primer
serves as the main support for the whole primer components.
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C. PRIMING COMPOUNDS
1. Corrosive -it has potassium chlorate - IF ignited produces potassium chloride which draws
moisture from the air and this moisture speeds the rusting and corrosion in gun barrels.
a. Corrosion - chemical wear and tear of the inside of the barrel due to rust formation or
chemical reaction by products of combustion during firing.
b. Erosion- mechanical wear and tear of the inner surface of the gun barrel due to mechanical
abrasion or sliding friction.
2. Non-corrosive-Mixture 25 yrs. ago:
a. potassium chlorate (initiator & fuel) -45%
b. antimony (element & fuel)-23%
C. fulminate of mercury (initiator) - 32%

D. RELATED MATTERS
1. Match Slow - a slow burning fuse or twisted cotton
soaked in a solution of saltpeter or hemp or on
matchlock weapons.
2. Maynard Primer-another form of percussion cap.
Explosive pellets were sealed at proper intervals
between two strips of paper. This primer tape was
then rolled and inserted in guns of suitable design.
The action of cocking the hammer pulled the
primer tape until a primer pellet lay under the
hammer and over the ignition vent into the
chamber ready for firing. Similar forms are used in
cap pistols.

UNIT 6-FORENSIC BALLISTICS (FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION)

It is a ballistics applied in the determination of legal evidence esp. as concerned with the
identification of firearms, ammunition, bullets, and cartridge cases (Merriam-Webster)

A. SCOPE OF ARMS MANUFACTURING PROCESS AND ITS RELATION TO FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

How is a firearm manufactured?
(Drilling) The process of manufacture starts with a solid steel bar which, when drilled from end to
end makes it is steel pipe. The interior surface at this stage bears numerous scratches resulting from
irregular cutting of the drill and the metal chips which mark the finish.
(Lapping) For smooth bore barrels, after the drilling process the inside of the barrel is made very
smooth.
(Reaming) In barrels Intended for rifles the next steps after drilling consists of "reaming” and drilled
hole for its entire length, this removes some of the sears and scratches. The reamer removes metal
from the entire surface because it is slightly larger in diameter than the drill.
(Rifling) If the barrel is to be rifled it Is done with the use of modern tools which automatically cut
the spiral grooves on the inside the barrel and Impart to every firearms characteristic which are
peculiar to the barrel.
Another phase of firearm manufacture which is of great importance to the identification of
firearms is finishing operations of the breech face of the breechblock of the firearm. It is that portion
of the firearm against which the cartridge is fired.

B. TWO (2) GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS REGARDING FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

1.CLASS CHARACTERISTICS-are those characteristics which are determinable even before the
manufacture of the firearm. It bs categorized into the following:

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a. Caliber
b. Number of Lands and Grooves
C. Width of Lands and Grooves
d. Twist of rifling
e. Pitch of the rifling
f. Depth of grooves

CLASS CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT FIREARMS

a. Colt Type -------------------------------------------.45 6L G2X
b. Grease Gun ---------------------------------------.45 6R G+
c. Smith and Wesson Rev. -----------------------.45 6R GL
d. Smith and Wesson Rev. -----------------------.38 5R G=L
c. Colt Revolver -------------------------------------.38 6L G+
f. Colt Pistol Super ---------------------------------- .38 6L G+
g. Colt Revolver--------------------------------------.32 6L G+
h. Colt Pistol -------------------------------------------.32 6L G+
1. Colt Pistol -------------------------------------------.25 6L G2X
J. Colt Revolver --------------------------------------.22 6L G2X
k. Colt Revolver --------------------------------------.357 6L G2X
1.Smith and Wesson Rev. -------------------------.32 5R G=L
m. Smith and Wesson MRF Rev.-----------------.22 6R G=L
n. Enfield Revolver ---------------------------------- .38 7R G2X
o. US Carbine -----------------------------------------.30 4R G3x
p. Browning Pistol-------------------------------------.9mm 6R G=L
q. Star Pistol -------------------------------------------- .380 6R G+
r. Llama Pistol ------------------------------------------.380 6L G+
S. Beretta Pistol----------------------------------------.32 6R G2X
t. Astra Pistol -------------------------------------------.32 6R G2X
u. Arminius Revolver ---------------------------------.22 6R G2X
v. Burgo Revolver -------------------------------------.22 8R G+
w. Marlin M57 Rifle------------------------------------.22 20R G+

2. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS-are those characteristics which are determinable only after

the manufacture of the firearm. Their existence In a firearm is brought about by the tools in their
normal operation resulting through wear, tear, abuse, mutilations, corrosion, erosions and other
fortuitous causes. These are the irregularities found on the inner surface of the barrel and on the
breech face of the breechblock of the firearms as a result of the failure of the tool beyond the control
of the manufacturer to make them smooth as a minor.

C. PRINCIPLES GOVERNING FIREARMS EXAMINATION

1. BULLET IDENTIFICATION
a. No two barrels and microscopically identical as the surface of their bores all posses Individual
characteristics markings.
b. When a bullet is fired from a rifled barrel, it becomes engraved by the rifling and this engraving
on a bullet fired from one barrel will be different from that on a similar bullet fire from another
barrel, And conversely,. The engraving on bullet from the same barrel will be the same.

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C. Every barrel leaves its "thumbmark” on every bullet which is fired through it, just as every
breech face leaves its "thumbmark" on the base of the fired cartridge case.
2. IDENTIFICATION OF FIRED BULLETS AND CARTRIDGE CASES
a. The first thing to do in the examination of bullets is to conduct a visual examination of the
bullets in order to familiarize with all markings appearing on it.
b. Conduct examination of the bore of the firearm.
c. Determine the conspicuous characteristics appearing on the bullet or any markings
appearing therein.
d. Markings appearing on the test bullet No. 1 and does not appear on the succeeding test
bullet such markings should be disregarded. Consequently, such markings are called
accidental markings which came from foreign substances.
e. cylindrical passage of the expending gas will appear dark or black in the picture.

D, WHAT TO COMPARE?
1. Evidence Bullet
2. Test/Standard Bullet - Before proceeding in the examination of the firearm by means of the
fired bullets, first identify the particular firearm through the class characteristics appearing on
the cylindrical surface of the bullet.
3. SHELL Identification
a. The breech face and the striker of every single firearm leave microscopically individualities
of their own. The firearm leaves its "fingerprint" or "thumbmark" on every cartridge which is
fires.
b. The whole principle of identification is based on the fact that since the breechface of every
weapon must be individually distinct, the cartridge case which it fires is imprinted with this
individuality.
c. The imprints on all cartridges fired from the same weapon are the same and those cartridges
fired from different weapon must always be different.

E. IMPORTANCE OF FIRED BULLET IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

1. By means of fire bullet you can determine the particular barrel of firearm used.
2. Recovered bullet can tell the type, caliber and make of firearm from which it was fired.
3. Can determine also the condition of the firearm us

F. FIREARM CARTRIDGE CASE

Before proceeding in the examination, conduct a preliminary examination on the cartridge
case having a visual examination on the condition of such cartridge case. Determine whether or not
it came from a revolver or from an automatic pistol and sub-machine guns. Examine those markings
that are present on the base portion, the breechface marks, firing pin impression, the location of the
extractor and ejector markings. Check also the markings caused by the chamber of the firearm. The
magazine and the ejector port markings must also be taken into consideration particularly those
cartridge cases from gums having full automatic mechanism.

G. MARKINGS APPEARING ON A FIRED CARTRIDGE CASE

1. Breechface marks
2. Firing pin impression
3. Ejector mark
4. Extractor mark
5. Chamber mark

H. TWO TYPES OF MARKINGS (individual)

1. Impression type-those markings caused by direct pressure contact. (ex. Breechface mark)

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2. Striated mark- those markings caused by sliding contact. (ex. Minute striations on the cylindrical
surface of the bullet)

I. RELATED TERMINOLOGIES:
1. Abrasion (in the bore) - Scratches caused by using Improper cleaning materials, or by firing
ammunition with bullets to which abrasive material was adhering.
2. Accidental Characteristics - characteristics or marks left by some individual gun that occurred
on that particular shot and may or may not reproduced on any other shots.
3. Ballistician- Person whose knowledge in firearms identification is accepted by the courts and
other investigation agencies.
4. Definitive Proof-after the gun is finally completed, it is again fired with a heavy charge to ensure
against accident. This is the definitive proof and guns passing this test are stamped with stlll
another marked. Belgium is the great center for the manufacture of
5. Expert-all witnesses whose opinions are admitted on grounds of specialized knowledge, training
and experience.
6. Fouling - accumulation of a deposit within the bore of a firearm caused by solid by-products
remaining after a cartridge of is fired.
7. Heavy Rusting - Usually called corrosion rather than fouling.
8. Proof Marks-examination and testing of firearms by a recognized authority according to certain
rules and stamped with a mark to indicate that they are safe for sale and used by the public.
9. Provisional Proof-the testing of the rough gun barrels and fired with a heavy charge of powder
to see if they are strong enough to be finished and assembled Into gun.
10. Secondary Firing Pin Impression - Is a mark on the side of the regular impression usually found
in pistols.
11.Shaving Marks - a shaving on the ogive portion of the fired bullet due to poor alignment of the
cylinder with the barrel. This shaving is often found in the revolver.
12.Sidd Marks-When the bullet first starts forward without turning, that before the bullet can begin
to tum, it moves forward a small distance and this makes the front of the groove in the bullet
wider than the rear part. This skidding is more pronounced in revolvers.
13.Slippage Marks-Scratches of the fired bullet due to badly worn rifling or when the bullet is small
or too soft for the velocity used, there is a tendency for it to go straight forward without turning
and it jumps the rifling or slips.
14.Stripping Marks-scratches on the fired bullet due to worn out barrel.

J. TECHNIQUES OF EXAMINATION
1. Physical-Evidence bullets, cartridge cases and suspected firearm once submitted by the
requesting party will be physically examined to determine its markings or initials made by the
investigator for Identification purposes. If no identifying marks were found the firearms examiner will,
before anything, affix his own identifying markings or initials derived form the names of the requesting
party, victim or suspect in that order of priority. The firearm will also be physically examine to
determine its safety devices seeing to lt that there is no cartridge inserted in the chamber that will
cause accidental firing. Likewise, it will be examined of its vital parts whether or not it is in operating
condition and a tag will be attached for distinction.
Bullets of different class characteristics will be segregated from one another especially the
determination of caliber, number of lands and grooves, twist of rifling, etc. to facilitate its easy final
microscopic examination.
Cartridge cases will also be segregated to determine the caliber, type and make of firearm
from which they were fired. Misfired or dud cartridges will also be taken into consideration. Although
they may not have any ballistics probative value, yet, they may give a clue to the solution of a crime.

2. Test Firing-The firearm is test fired before a bullet recovery box in order to obtain test bullets
and test cartridge cases for comparison with the evidence bullets and cartridge cases, respectively.
But before firing, the cartridge will be marked at the side of the case and on the nose portion of the
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bullet with letter T" (to represent test) followed by the last two digits of the serial number of the firearm
of the test to be made (e.g.) T-77-1 to T-77-3 in their order of firing to distinguish the number 1 test from
the number 2 or 3as the case may be.
3. Microscope Examination - After the recovery of the test bullets arid cartridge case, they
will be compared with the evidence cartridge cases under the Bullet Comparison Microscope to
determine whether or not the have the congruency of striations or the same individual characteristics.

K. BULLET COMPARISON MICROSCOPE

This instrument consists of two single tubes fitted with a cross arm and comparison eyepiece,
in which the images of two objects held on its two adjustable stages are fused into one, forming a
single image as can be seen on the comparison eyepiece. The microscope tubes are built as a unit
with the comparison eyepiece which has a prism arrangement that brings the images of the
specimen held under the microscopic tubes into a side by side position in the left and right side of
the eyepiece field the eyepiece is threaded for focusing on the dividing line between the two fields.
Under the microscope the two fired bullets or fired cartridge cases can be examined in a
"juxtaposition" and whatever the observation and findings obtained during the examination can be
photographed for court presentation and also to give the Court a better understanding and good
appreciation of how he came to that conclusion.

L. FINDINGS/CONCLUSION
Findings are the bases of conclusion. A conclusion cannot be made without the findings. A
good conclusion is always based on good findings. In comparative examination of the evidence
bullet that are found on the periphery running from the forward shoulder to the base portion (these
are surface of the barrel), are discernible with the test bullet or if they have the congruency,
correspondence or intermarriage, then the evidence bullet and the best bullet were fired from one
and the same firearm. For conclusive of findings, there should be at least three (3) tests that should
be compared. The first is for preliminary, the second is for confirmation and the third is for conclusion.
This is also true for fired cartridge cases. Although the individual characteristics of the cases may be
found at the base portion where breechface, ejector, extractor markings are found on the sides that
are in contact with the inner surface of the chamber.
Clip or magazine markings may also give discernible markings. Like the ejector or extractor
markings If considered singly may not be a basis for conclusion. These only serve as corroborative
characteristics but certainly lack legal significance. This is so because the case may have these
markings even if they were unloaded from the firearm without firing. As a rule, the point of the
examination and comparison is at the area of the primer proper where breechface markings
together with the firing pin impression are located. Primers are softer metals and receive more
prominent striation than any other portion of the base.
Conclusion is the opinion gathered from the finding. This is the end result of the examination
and should be taken seriously as it involves the life and liberty of the suspect. When the evidence and
the test bullets or cartridge cases have the same individual characteristics, the competent examiner
will conclude that they were fired from one and the same individual characteristic; the competent
examiner will conclude that they were fired from one and the same suspected firearm. If they have
different individual characteristics, certainly, the evidence bullet or case was not fired from the
suspected firearm. Where the evidence has prominent or minor striations that the three tests, it calls
for uncertainty and doubt for a positive or negative conclusion. Only those evidence bullets or cases
that have the same Individual characteristics may be taken of photomicrograph for Court
presentation.

M. REQUIREMENTS FOR A POSITIVE IDENTIFICATION

1. Prominent- Standing out or projecting beyond a surface or line, readily noticeable
2. Consistent - Possessing firmness. The Impression or striation found on the evidence bullet or
cartridge case appearing in every test bullets and cartridge cases.

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3. Significant - The markings have meaning or capable of being Interpreted by the Firearms
Examiner or Ballistician.

N. INSTRUMENTS USED IN FORENSIC BALISTICS

1. Analytical or Torsion Balance - for determining weights of bullets and shotgun pellets for possible
determination of type, and make of firearm from which it was fired.
2. Bullet Comparison Microscope - designed to permit the firearms examiner to determine the
similarity and dissimilarity between two fired bullets or two fired shells, by simultaneously
observing their magnified image in a single microscopic field.
3. Bullet Recovery Box- Consist of a wooden box, 12 "x"12"x 96, with a hinged to cover and with
one end open. This long box is filled with ordinary cotton and separated into sections by
cardboard petitions.
4. CP-6 Comparison Projector- very much similar with the bullet comparison microscope, where
2fired bullets or shells can be compared in one setting of the firearms examiner.
5. Filan Micrometer Eye Piece-a measuring microscope to read the width of the land and groove
marks and to obtain the pitch of the rifling in turns per inch.
6. Helixometer-used in measuring pitch of rifling firearms. This instrument is generally used in high
advanced ballistic laboratory.
7. Machine Rest-use for testing the accuracy of a firearm.
8. Caliper-used for making measurements such as bullet diameter and bore diameter.
9. Micrometer-similar in use as caliber.
10.Onoscope-a small instrument sometimes used in examining the internal surface of the gun barrel
in determining the irregularities inside the bore of the gun barrel. It has a tiny lamp at the terminal
portion and this is inserted inside the bore for internal examination.
11.Optical Sight-sight containing series of lenses to form an optical system being contained in one
unit. Optical sights do not necessarily have telescopic properties. The optical system may merely
include range indicating, or range estimating devices, plus the necessary means of adjusting
for elevation and wind age.
12.Shadow Graph - contains a series of microscopic lenses of different magnification that can be
used in examining fired bullet or fired shells to determine their class characteristics and also for
orientation purposes. It greatly differs from the bullet comparison microscope and stereoscope
microscope that this instrument contains a large ground glass, 14 inches more or less in diameter,
wherein the observation and comparison of the class characteristics is done by the firearm
examiner.
13.Stereoscopic Microscope - used in the preliminary examination of fired bullets and fired shells
to determine the relative distribution of the class characteristics or for so-called orientation
purposes. It can be used also in the close-up examination of tempered serial numbers of
firearms.
14.Taper Gauge- for determining bore diameter of firearms. This instrument is very useful for giving
quick idea as to the caliber of a gun.
15.Telescope Sight-an optical employing the principle of the telescope to enlarge the image of
the target.

REFERENCES:
Unpublished notes and handouts, University of Baguio and University of the Cordilleras Forensic
Ballistics by del Rosario
Wikipedia and other open internet sources as earlier cited

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