Section 2

The Emergence of Pakistan 1906-1947

The Indian National Congress:
• 1885
• Allan Octavian Hume
• To educate the public in India
• To persuade the British government to end unfair practices.
The Partition of Bengal:
• 1905
• Lord Curzon
• Western Bengal population 54 million (42 million Hindus and 12 million Muslims)
• East Bengal population 31 million (12 million Hindus and 18 million Muslims)
• Too large to govern as one province and it would be more efficient to govern it as two smaller
provinces.
• Divide and rule.
The Swadeshi Movement:
• 1905
• Hindu protest against partition of Bengal
• Boycott of British goods, instead of buying British salt, cloth, or any other product, Hindus
vowed to buy Indian produced goods.
• British cloth was thrown onto bonfires.
The British Reaction to the Hindu Protest:
• Restrictions were placed on newspapers and public meetings.
• In 1908, a press Act gave the government even greater control over newspapers
• Tilak was arrested in 1908 and he was sentenced to six years imprisonment.
• Soon local prisons were filled with those the British considered to be revolutionaries.
The Simla Deputation:
• 1906
• A deputation of prominent Muslims led by the Aga Khan visited Minto at Simla.
• Muslim demanded for separate electorate and higher percentage of seats than their percentage
of the population.
• Lord Minto accepted their demands.
The All-India Muslim League:
• In 1906 Muslim leaders met at the 20th session of the Muhammadan Educational Conference at
Dhaka.
• To show loyalty to the British
• To protect political rights of Muslims
• To represent Muslims in the Government
• To counter the growing influence of Congress
The Morley Minto Reforms:
• In 1909 Lord Minto and Secretary of State John Morley draw up a series of reforms.
• The Imperial Council and Central Executive were increased to 60 members.
• Provincial Councils were also increased to 50 members in the larger provinces and 30 in smaller
provinces.
• Separate electorates for the Muslims.
The Reversal of Partition:
• The partition of Bengal in 1905 was reversed by the British government in 1911.
• It was done by the Viceroy of India, Lord Harding, who announced the reunification of Bengal.
• The decision to reverse the partition was made primarily in response to widespread protests,
opposition, and the Swadeshi movement that had erupted in Bengal.
The Lucknow Pact:
• A political agreement between the Indian National Congress and the All-India Muslim League,
signed in December 1916 in Lucknow, India.
• The agreement was primarily focused on constitutional reforms and representation within the
British colonial government.
• It called for greater Indian representation and self-governance in provincial legislatures.
• The agreement aimed to accommodate the demands and concerns of the Muslim League
regarding separate electorates for Muslims while maintaining Hindu-Muslim cooperation within
a united India.
The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms:
• also known as the Government of India Act 1919
• Viceroy of India, Lord Chelmsford and secretary of State, Lord Montagu issued a report.
• The Legislative Assembly would have 145 members.
• Separate electorate for Muslims and Sikhs.
• A new system of Diarchy was introduced in the provinces. The areas of responsibility were
divided into two lists:
A) Reserved Subjects (Justice, Police, Revenue, Power Resources, Press and Publication)
B) Transferred Subjects (Local government, Education, Public Health, Public Works, Forests)
The Rowlatt Act:
• In December 1917, a committee was formed under Justice Rowlatt to investigate revolutionary
activity in India.
• It reported that there was a growth of revolutionary activity, so recommended that some
emergency measures of the Defence of India Act should be retained permanently.
• Most controversial amongst these were:
1) Arrest without warrant,
2) Detention without bail,
3) The right of provincial government to order people where to live.
• The proposals caused uproar in India as they appeared to go against two of the central
principles of British, namely trial by jury and safeguards against illegal imprisonment.
• Jinnah resigned from the Imperial Legislative Council in protest and Gandhi launched a hartal
against the proposals.
The Amritsar Massacre:
• On 10 April, rioting started in the city of Amritsar and two banks were attacked. Five Europeans
were killed in the rioting.
• General Dyer, the British commander in the area was determined to restore order.
• He banned all public meetings in the city and was angered when an estimated crowd of 20,000
turned up for a peaceful demonstration at a public park called Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar.
• The park had only a narrow entrance and was surrounded by a 5-foot wall, General Dyer
stationed his troops at the entrance and without warning, fired on the unarmed crowd of men,
women and children.
• The troops fired over 1600 rounds, around 400 killed and 1200 wounded in the panic to try to
flee the bullets.
The Non-cooperation Movement:
• The Non-Cooperation Movement began in 1920.
• It was led by Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian National Congress.
• The movement aimed to protest against British rule through nonviolent resistance. Indians
boycotted British institutions, goods, and titles, leading to a significant mass mobilization.
• The Non-Cooperation Movement was suspended in 1922 after the Chauri Chaura incident,
where protesters turned violent. While it did not achieve immediate political concessions, it
marked a turning point in India's struggle for independence, influencing future movements and
strategies.
The Delhi Proposals:
• In 1927 Jinnah called a conference of all Muslim leaders in Delhi.
• To discuss how Muslim interests should be protected in the future.
• The Delhi Conference resulted in several demands, known as the Delhi Proposals.
A) Muslims should be given 1/3 of the seats in the Central Legislature through joint electorates.
B) Sindh should be given full provincial status.
C) All British reforms in India should be extended to Baluchistan and Northwest Frontier Province.
D) The number of seats to be given to Muslims in the Punjab and Bengal should be proportional to
the Muslim population living there.
Jinnah stated that if these proposals were accepted, the Muslims would call off their demands for a
separate electorate.
The Simon Commission:
• The Government of India Act 1919 had stated that a commission was to be set up after 10 years.
• The British Conservative government feared that it might soon lose power to the Labour Party,
which might give concessions to the Indians.
• They decided to bring the date of the concession forward.
• In 1927 a seven-member committee under the chairmanship of Sir John Simon was sent to India
to consider the situation in India.
• All members of the committee were British, which was considered an insult in India.
The Nehru Report:
• In 1928 members of Congress, League, Liberals, Hindu Mahasabha, Sikh League met in an All-
party Conference to draft a constitution.
• Pundit Motilal Nehru chaired the committee that devised the constitution, called the Nehru
Report.
Jinnah’s Fourteen Points:
• In 1929 the All-India Muslim League met in Conference in Delhi, where Jinnah presented his
fourteen Points.
• Few important points are:
A) Muslims should have one-third of the seats in the central Assembly.
B) Elections should be by separate electorate.
C) Sindh shall be separated from Bombay.
D) All Cabinets should have at least 1/3 Muslim representation.
• All the Muslims agreed that Jinnah’s fourteen points should form the basis of any further
discussions with Congress on the future of India.
The Salt March:
• The Salt March of 1930 was a protest led by Mahatma Gandhi.
• Gandhi and followers walked 240 miles to the Arabian Sea.
• The march opposed the British monopoly and salt tax.
• It symbolized nonviolent resistance and contributed to India's independence.
The Allahabad Address:
• Allama Iqbal chaired the crucial meeting of the Muslim League in Allahabad in 1930.
• The meeting was a significant moment in the lead-up to the creation of Pakistan.
• Allama Iqbal discussed the idea of a separate Muslim state in the northwestern regions of India
to protect Muslim political and cultural rights.
• This address is considered a key event in the development of the Two-Nation Theory, laying the
foundation for the eventual establishment of Pakistan in 1947.
The Round Table Conferences:
• Despite the opposition, the Simon Commission still managed to produce a two-volume report in
1930.
• The British called a Round Table Conference to discuss the commission’s recommendations.
The First Round Table Conference:
• 1930
• Attended by the Muslim League, the Liberals and the representatives of princely states
• Congress refused to attend the meeting
Advances:
• Princes declared that they would join a future federation of India if their rights were recognised
• British agreed that representative government should be introduced at provincial levels
The Second Round Table Conference:

• 1931
• Attended by Muslim League, Congress
Failed for two reasons:

• The labour party had lost power in Britain and the new government was less keen to reach a
compromise in India.
• Gandhi took a hard line in the talks and refused to recognise the problems of minorities
Advances:
• Agreement that the NWFP and Sindh should be made provinces with their own governors
Gandhi Irwin Pact:
• 1931
• Irwin agreed to release most political prisoners and return property seized by the government
• Gandhi agreed to call off the non-cooperation campaign and attend the next round of talks
• He also agreed to give up his demand for full independence in return for a promise that in
federal India Indians would have a genuine say in how they were governed
The Communal Award:

• 1932
• British PM, Ramsay MacDonald
• Gave separate electorates to all minorities
• Muslim League accepted and Congress rejected
The Third Round Table Conference:

• 1932
• Congress boycotted the talks, as did all major princes
• Jinnah had gone into voluntary exile
• Sir Agha Khan with 46 delegates only attended the meeting
• Meeting has achieved nothing
Chaudhry Rehmat Ali:
• Chaudhry Rehmat Ali was a Pakistani nationalist who coined the term "Pakistan" in 1933.
• Born in 1897 in British India, Ali was an early advocate for a separate Muslim state.
• In his famous 1933 pamphlet, "Now or Never: Are We to Live or Perish Forever?" he outlined
the idea of an independent Muslim state called Pakistan.
• Chaudhry Rehmat Ali's contributions to the ideological foundation of Pakistan played a role in
shaping the discourse that led to the creation of the country in 1947.
The Government of India Act 1935:
• The Government of India Act 1935 was a British law that aimed to introduce limited self-
governance in India.
• It proposed the establishment of provincial autonomy with elected legislatures and increased
representation for Indians in governance.
• The Act maintained separate electorates based on religion, deepening communal divisions.
• Implemented in 1937, it marked a step towards constitutional reforms, but political challenges
and complexities persisted, ultimately paving the way for India's independence in 1947.
1937 Elections:
• The 1937 elections in India were the first provincial elections held under the Government of
India Act 1935.
• The Congress formed governments in major provinces, including the United Provinces, Madras,
Bihar, and the Central Provinces.
• The Muslim League, on the other hand, faced a setback in these elections. It did not perform as
strongly as the Congress and struggled to win significant support.
The Rule of Congress 1937-39:
• The congress members took up their seats and formed cabinets in eight provinces.
• Congress treated Muslim League with arrogance.
• The Congress leaders introduced a series of measures which threatened Muslim culture and
identity:
A) Bande Matram
B) The Wardha Scheme
C) Vidya Mandir
D) The Congress Tyranny

The Day of Deliverance:

• 1939
• When II WW started, Lord Linlithgow announced that India is at war with British
• Congress in retaliation resigned from Ministries that without consulting them their participation
is announced
• Jinnah asked the Muslims to celebrate the end of Congress rule

The Pakistan Resolution:

• The Pakistan Resolution was passed on March 23, 1940.
• The resolution was proposed by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and supported by the All-India Muslim
League.
• It called for the creation of an independent Muslim state, Pakistan, and laid the foundation for
the partition of British India in 1947.
The Cripps Mission:
• The Cripps Mission arrived in India in March 1942.
• It was led by Sir Stafford Cripps, a British politician, and involved negotiations with Indian
political leaders.
• The Cripps Mission proposed a plan for India's political future, offering dominion status and the
right to secede from the British Commonwealth.
• However, the proposal was rejected by both the Indian National Congress and the Muslim
League.
The Quit India Movement:
• The Quit India Movement was launched on August 8, 1942.
• The movement was led by Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian National Congress.
• It was a mass protest against British rule, demanding an end to colonial domination.
 • Many Indian leaders, including Gandhi, were arrested, and the movement marked a significant
chapter in the struggle for India's independence.
The Gandhi-Jinnah Talks:
• The Gandhi-Jinnah Talks were a series of discussions held between Mahatma Gandhi and
Muhammad Ali Jinnah in September 1944.
• The talks aimed to address the communal tensions and differences between the Indian National
Congress, led by Gandhi, and the All-India Muslim League, led by Jinnah. Despite efforts to find
common ground, the talks failed to resolve the fundamental issues surrounding the political
future of a post-independence India. Jinnah insisted on the creation of a separate nation for
Muslims, leading to the eventual partition of British India in 1947. The inability to reach a
consensus during the Gandhi-Jinnah Talks contributed to the deepening divide between Hindus
and Muslims, paving the way for the creation of India and Pakistan as independent nations.
The Simla Conference:
• The Simla Conference, held in 1945, proposed a plan for the post-war constitutional setup of
British India.
• The main points of the proposal included the establishment of a federal government with a
weak center and strong provinces.
• It suggested a three-tier structure with the provinces having considerable autonomy, and the
center handling only defense, foreign affairs, and communications.
• Additionally, the proposal suggested the creation of an Executive Council at the center, with
members from different communities.
• However, the major point of contention that led to the failure of the conference was the issue of
grouping provinces.
• The Muslim League insisted on separate groupings for Hindu-majority and Muslim-majority
provinces, while the Congress rejected this idea.
The 1945-46 Elections:
The Cabinet Mission Plan:
• The Cabinet Mission Plan was proposed by the British government and announced on May 16,
1946.
• It was an initiative to find a constitutional solution for the transfer of power and independence
for British India.
• The plan suggested the creation of a united and federal India with three groups of provinces—
Hindu-majority, Muslim-majority, and mixed.
• A Constituent Assembly would be formed to draft a new constitution, and the provinces were
given the choice to opt out of the grouping.
• While the plan aimed at fostering cooperation between Hindus and Muslims, the failure to
reach a consensus on various issues eventually led to its breakdown.
Direct Action Day:
• Direct Action Day was proposed by the Muslim League under the leadership of Muhammad Ali
Jinnah and was observed on August 16, 1946.
• The call for Direct Action was intended to press the League's demand for a separate nation for
Muslims, i.e., Pakistan.
• The day witnessed widespread communal violence and riots in Calcutta (now Kolkata) and other
parts of Bengal, leading to significant loss of life and property.
• The violence escalated into what is known as the Great Calcutta Killings, marking a tragic
episode in the pre-independence history of India.
• Direct Action Day intensified religious tensions between Hindus and Muslims and played a
pivotal role in the events leading up to the partition of British India in 1947.
rd
The 3 June Plan:
• The 3 June Plan, also known as the Mountbatten Plan, was proposed by Lord Louis
Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of British India, on June 3, 1947.
• The plan put forward the framework for the partition of British India into two independent
nations, India and Pakistan.
 • It recommended the establishment of separate dominions based on religious lines, with
predominantly Hindu areas forming India and predominantly Muslim areas forming Pakistan.
• The provinces of Punjab and Bengal were to be divided between the two nations, and the
princely states were given the option to join either India or Pakistan or remain independent.
• The plan also set August 15, 1947, as the date for the transfer of power and the independence
of both nations, marking a significant milestone in the history of the Indian subcontinent.
The Redcliffe Award:
• Sir Cyril Radcliffe was appointed to draw the boundary between Muslim and Non-Muslim areas
particularly in Bengal and Punjab.
• Radcliffe had four assistants, two nominated by the League and two by the Congress.
• The decision of the Boundary commission was announced on 16th August 1947.
• Muslims were disappointed by this decision, as Muslim majority areas Ferozpur, Gurdaspur and
Calcutta were given to India.
The Independence Act:
• Passed on 15th July 1947
• From 15 August British India would be partitioned into two dominion states- India and Pakistan
• Each state would have complete freedom to pass any law it wished
• The Government of India Act would be the provisional constitution until the states devised their
own.
The Swaraj Party:
• formed in 1923 by leaders of the Indian National Congress, Motilal Nehru, and Chittaranjan Das.
• It was created as a faction within the Congress to advocate for a more assertive and militant
approach in demanding self-governance, or "Swaraj," from the British colonial rulers.
• The major role of the Swaraj Party was to push for more active and direct action to achieve self-
rule for India.
• It contested elections to the Central Legislative Assembly and provincial legislatures, seeking to
use the legislative process to press for India's political rights.
• The Swaraj Party aimed to unite and mobilize Indians to achieve self-governance through
constitutional means, rather than passive resistance or non-cooperation.
The Hindu Mahasabha:
• The Hindu Mahasabha was founded by Madan Mohan Malaviya, Lala Lajpat Rai, and a few
others in 1909.
• Its major role was to advocate for and protect the interests of Hindus in India.
• It promoted the idea of Hindutva, emphasizing the cultural and religious identity of Hindus, and
sought to unite and empower the Hindu community.
• One of its major roles was to resist the partition of India and advocate for a united India with a
Hindu majority, which put it in opposition to the demands for a separate Muslim state, leading
up to the partition in 1947.
Arya Samaj:
• Arya Samaj, founded by Swami Dayananda Saraswati in 1875, aimed to reform Hinduism.
• It stressed the importance of the Vedas, rejected idol worship, and promoted monotheism.
• The organization actively campaigned against social issues like caste discrimination and child
marriage, advocating for education and social equality.
• Arya Samaj left a lasting impact on Indian society by contributing to the modernization and
reform of Hindu practices and beliefs.
• Together with the Hindu Mahasabha, Arya Samaj carried out militant activities in 1924 which
helped strain relations between Hindus and Muslims.
Abul Kalam Azad:
• Abul Kalam Azad was a prominent Indian freedom fighter, scholar, and the first Minister of
Education in independent India.
• A leading figure in the Indian National Congress, Azad was a staunch advocate for India's
independence and a close associate of Mahatma Gandhi.
• As a prominent Muslim leader, he worked towards Hindu-Muslim unity and played a significant
role in the Khilafat Movement.
• Azad was a prolific writer and orator, advocating for religious tolerance, education, and social
reform.