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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

1.1 Atomic Structure

Contents
1.1.1 Changing Models of the Atom
1.1.2 Atomic Structure
1.1.3 The Nucleus
1.1.4 Isotopes
1.1.5 Calculating Relative Atomic Mass

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1.1.1 Changing Models of the Atom

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Changing Models of the Atom
The atomic model developed by scientists has changed over time as experimental evidence has
improved our understanding of the structure of atoms
In 1803 John Dalton presented his atomic theory based on three key ideas:
Matter is made of atoms which are tiny particles that cannot be created, destroyed, or divided
Atoms of the same element are identical, and atoms of different elements are different
Different atoms combine together to form new substances
At the time, the theory was correct but as science developed some parts of Dalton’s theory were
disproved
This is a fundamental feature of science: new experimental evidence may lead to a scientific model
being changed or replaced

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The evolution of models of atomic structure

Discovery of the electron
In 1897 physicist J.J. Thomson discovered the electron
Using a cathode-ray tube he conducted an experiment which identified the electron as a negatively
charged subatomic particle, hence proving that atoms are divisible

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Diagram showing an electron beam deflecting towards the positive plate, proving electrons are
negatively charged
Based on his investigations Thomson proposed a model of the atom known as the plum pudding
model which depicted negative electrons spread throughout soft globules of positively charged
material

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Diagram showing the plum pudding model of the atom

The discovery of the nucleus
In 1909 Ernest Rutherford presented his model of the atom based on the famous gold foil experiment
Rutherford shot a beam of positively charged particles at a thin sheet of gold foil and based on the
plum pudding model, expected the particles to pass through the foil because the positive charge of
the nucleus was thought to be evenly spread out
Some particles were scattered, however, and a few were deflected directly back, which led him to
postulate that most of an atom’s mass is concentrated in a region of space at the centre of the atom
called the nucleus
The results of Rutherford’s scattering experiments did not support the idea that atoms were as
described in the plum pudding model, so the model had to be changed
In Rutherford’s model the atom consists mainly of empty space with the nucleus at the centre and
the electrons orbiting in paths around the nucleus
This model was known as the nuclear model of the atom

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Diagram showing Ernest Rutherford’s nuclear model of the atom

In the plum pudding model, atoms were described as being made from electrons embedded within a
positive sphere, whereas in the nuclear model the nucleus is a positive structure at the centre of the
atom, with negative (and much smaller) electrons ‘orbiting’ around the outside of it
The Bohr model
In 1913 Niels Bohr further developed the nuclear model by proposing that electrons orbit the nucleus
in fixed shells or orbitals located at set distances from the nucleus
Each orbital has a different energy associated with it, with the higher energy orbitals being
located further away from the nucleus
This model solved the question of why the atom does not collapse inwards due to the attraction
between the positive nucleus and negative electrons circling the nucleus
Bohr’s theory and calculations agreed with experimental results
Further investigation and experimentation revealed that the nucleus could be divided into smaller
particles, each one having the same mass and charge
This work led to the discovery of the proton

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Diagram showing Niels Bohr’s model of the atom

Discovery of the neutron
In 1920 Rutherford put forward the idea of the existence of large, neutral particles within the nucleus
His idea was based on the differences between the atomic mass and the atomic number of atoms
In 1932 James Chadwick published a paper based on an experiment carried out
by Frédéric and Irène Joliot-Curie which provided evidence for the existence of these neutral particles
which were called neutrons

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1.1.2 Atomic Structure

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The Structure of an Atom
Elements are made of tiny particles of matter called atoms
Each atom is made of subatomic particles called protons, neutrons and electrons
Their size is so tiny that we can't really compare their masses in conventional units such as kilograms or
grams, so a unit called the relative atomic mass is used
The mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus, because the nucleus contains the heaviest
subatomic particles (the neutrons and protons)
The nucleus is also positively charged due to the protons
Electrons orbit the nucleus of the atom, contributing very little to its overall mass, but creating
a ‘cloud’ of negative charge
The electrostatic attraction between the positive nucleus and negatively charged electrons orbiting
around it is what holds an atom together

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The mass of the atom is concentrated in the positively charged nucleus which is attracted to the
negatively charged electrons orbiting around it
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The Sub-atomic Particles
The protons, neutrons and electrons that an atom is made up of are called subatomic particles
These subatomic particles are so small that it is not practical to measure their masses and charges
using conventional units (such as grams or coulombs)
Instead, their masses and charges are compared to each other, and so are
called ‘relative atomic masses’ and ‘relative atomic charges’
These are not actual charges and masses, but rather charges and masses of particles relative to each
other
Protons and neutrons have a very similar mass, so each is assigned a relative mass of 1
Electrons are 1840 times smaller than a proton and neutron, and so their mass is often described as
being negligible
The relative mass and charge of the subatomic particles are:
The Mass & Charge of Subatomic Particles Table

Atoms are electrically neutral

This is achieved by having the same number of electrons as protons
The negative charge of an electron exactly cancels out the positive charge of a proton

Exam Tip
The mass of an electron can just be stated as 'negligible' or 'very small' in an exam. You do not need to
learn the value.

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1.1.3 The Nucleus

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The Nucleus
Atoms are extremely small with a radius of about 1 x 10-10 metres
The central nucleus contains protons and neutrons only which are packed close together in a small
region of space
The radius of the nucleus is about 10 000 times smaller than that of the atom, so it is an extremely small
region of space compared to the overall size of the atom
This means that rather than being evenly spread out throughout the atom, virtually all of the atom's
mass is concentrated inside the nucleus
Electrons have a much smaller mass than protons and neutrons (1 proton has the same mass of around
1840 electrons) and move in the space outside the nucleus in orbits

Exam Tip
Most of the atom is actually empty space, with the mass being concentrated in the nucleus and the
electrons orbiting in shells around it.

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Mass Number & Atomic Number

You need to know the following terms to describe the properties and characteristics of atoms Your notes
Atomic Structure Key Terms Table

The atomic number and mass number are represented by writing them next to the symbol of the
element
By convention the mass number is usually written as a superscript and the atomic number as a
subscript

Conventions for showing atomic number and mass number

Exam Tip
The term nucleon number is an alternative to mass number and means the same thing. A nucleon is a
collective name for protons and neutrons.

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1.1.4 Isotopes
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Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that contain the same number of protons and electrons but a
different number of neutrons
The symbol for an isotope is the chemical symbol (or word) followed by a dash and then the mass
number
So, C-14 is the isotope of carbon which contains 6 protons and 6 electrons, but the 14 signifies that it
has 8 neutrons (14 - 6 = 8)
It can also be written as 14C
Isotopes display the same chemical characteristics
This is because they have the same number of electrons in their outer shells, and this is what determines
their chemistry
The difference between isotopes is the neutrons which are neutral particles within the nucleus and add
mass only

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Your notes

The atomic structure and symbols of the three isotopes of hydrogen

Deducing protons, neutrons & electrons
Finding the protons
The atomic number of an atom and ion determines which element it is
Therefore, all atoms and ions of the same element have the same number of protons (atomic number)
in the nucleus
E.g. lithium has an atomic number of 3 (three protons) whereas beryllium has atomic number of 4 (4
protons)
The number of protons equals the atomic (proton) number

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The number of protons of an unknown element can be calculated by using its mass number and
number of neutrons:
Your notes
Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
Number of protons = mass number – number of neutrons
Finding the electrons
An atom is neutral and therefore has the same number of protons and electrons
Finding the neutrons
The mass and atomic numbers can be used to find the number of neutrons in ions and atoms:
Number of neutrons = mass number – number of protons

Worked example
Determine the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in an atom of element X with atomic number
29 and mass number 63.
Answer:
The number of protons of element X is the same as the atomic number
Number of protons = 29
The neutral atom of element X therefore also has 29 electrons
The atomic number of an element X atom is 29 and its mass number is 63
Number of neutrons = mass number – number of protons
Number of neutrons = 63 – 29
Number of neutrons = 34

Are mass number and relative atomic mass the same thing?
On a GCSE periodic table you will see that lithium has a relative atomic mass of 7
Although it seems that this is the same as the mass number, they are not the same thing because the
relative atomic mass is a rounded number
Relative atomic mass takes into account the existence of isotopes when calculating the mass
Relative atomic mass is an average mass of all the isotopes of that element
For simplicity relative atomic masses are often shown to the nearest whole number

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Your notes

The relative atomic mass of lithium to two decimal places is 6.94 when rounded to the nearest whole
number, the RAM is 7, which is the same as the mass number shown on this isotope of lithium

Exam Tip
For atoms to be isotopes of each other, they must both be from the same element, hence they must
have the same atomic number. For example, C-13 and C-14 are isotopes whereas C-13 and H-2 are
not.

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1.1.5 Calculating Relative Atomic Mass

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Calculating Relative Atomic Mass
The relative atomic mass of each element is calculated from the mass number and relative
abundances of all the isotopes of a particular element
The equation below is used where the top line of the equation can be extended to include the number
of different isotopes of a particular element present
So, if there were 3 isotopes present then the top line of the equation would read:
(% of isotope A x mass of isotope A) + (% of isotope B x mass of isotope B) + (% of isotope C x mass
of isotope C)
RAM Calculation Formula

Worked example
The table shows information about the isotopes in a sample of rubidium with 72% 85Rb and 28% 87Rb

Use information from the table to calculate the relative atomic mass of this sample of rubidium. Give
your answer to one decimal place:

Answer

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Relative Atomic Mass = 85.6

Exam Tip
Isotopes are easy to recognise from their notation as they have the same symbol but different mass
numbers. For example, the two stable isotopes of copper are 63Cu and 65Cu

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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

1.2 The Periodic Table

Contents
1.2.1 Mendeleev´s Periodic Table
1.2.2 The Modern Periodic Table
1.2.3 Electronic Configurations

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1.2.1 Mendeleev´s Periodic Table

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Mendeleev's Arrangement
Before the discovery of the subatomic particles, scientists struggled to find ways of ordering the
growing knowledge of elements and their chemistry
When the elements that were known at that time were sorted by mass into a table, patterns emerged at
regular periods along the table, giving rise to the term periodic
The earlier tables were incomplete as some elements were forced into a position to fill gaps which
appeared during the sorting process
Other elements were placed in the wrong group as they were sorted strictly on their mass and had their
chemical properties ignored
There were many early versions of the tables as scientists in different countries grappled with the
ordering of the elements
In 1869 the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev created his first draft of the periodic table
He organised the elements into vertical columns based on their properties and the properties of their
compounds
He then started to arrange them horizontally in order of increasing atomic mass and as he worked, he
found that a pattern began to appear in which chemically similar elements fell naturally into the same
columns

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Mendeleev's Periodic Table showing gaps

There were exceptions though as some elements didn't fit the pattern when arranged by atomic mass
Mendeleev worked to include all the elements, but he didn't force an element to fit the pattern, rather
he left gaps in the table that he thought would best be filled by elements that had not yet been
discovered
He also switched the order of the elements to maintain consistency down the columns

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Mendeleev's Predictions
Mendeleev quickly realised that elements with the same properties should be placed in the same Your notes
column
He realised that gaps in the table must correspond to elements that had not yet been discovered or
isolated
He used the properties and trends of other elements in the group with the gap to predict the
properties of these undiscovered elements
Mendeleev left a gap between silicon and tin and used his knowledge of the properties of those two
elements to make predictions about the physical and chemical properties of the undiscovered
element
He called this element 'eka-silicon' which comes from the Greek 'like silicon' and when the element
germanium was discovered in 1887 it was found to almost exactly match the properties Mendeleev had
predicted
No one doubted that Mendeleev had got the right idea about ordering the elements
Strangely enough, Mendeleev always denied the existence of an eighth group of elements, even after
the discovery of the noble gases in Mendeleev's final years

Exam Tip
Mendeleev’s table had gaps into which he didn’t force an element, rather he left them empty to be
filled at a later date when the correct element was isolated. In this way his version of the table allowed
him to predict the existence and properties of then-unknown elements.

Problems with Mendeleev's Table

Once he was finished, Mendeleev thought he had organised the elements systematically but there
were still some elements which didn't quite fit in as neatly as he wanted.
This is because isotopes were not known in Mendeleev's time, and he made no provisions for them in
his table
This meant that there was always going to be some level of inaccuracy in Mendeleev ́s work even
though he did also consider the elements chemical properties as well as their atomic mass when
sorting them
Mendeleev switched the order of tellurium and iodine is his table, because even though tellurium was
heavier than iodine, the chemistry of iodine fitted better with the other halogen elements; it was a
nagging problem that was not solved in his lifetime
The discovery of the proton lead to the determination of atomic number for each element
This number is used to arrange the elements in the modern-day periodic table which fits with
Mendeleev 's patterns

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1.2.2 The Modern Periodic Table

Your notes
The Modern Periodic Table
There are over 100 chemical elements which have been isolated and identified
Elements are arranged on the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number
Each element has one proton more than the element preceding it
This is done so that elements end up in columns with other elements which have similar properties
The table is arranged in vertical columns called groups and in rows called periods
Period: These are the horizontal rows that show the number of shells of electrons an atom has and
are numbered from 1 - 7
E.g. elements in period 2 have two electron shells, elements in period 3 have three electron shells
Group: These are the vertical columns that show how many outer electrons each atom has and are
numbered from 1 – 7, with a final group called group 0 (instead of group 8)
E.g. group 4 elements have atoms with 4 electrons in the outermost shell, group 6 elements have
atoms with 6 electrons in the outermost shell and so on

The Periodic Table

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The Periodic Table of the Elements

Exam Tip
The atomic number is unique to each element and could be considered as an element's “fingerprint”.
The number of electrons changes during chemical reactions, but the atomic number does not change.

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Metals and Non-Metals in the Periodic Table

The metals that are further to the left on the periodic table do not have many electrons to remove from Your notes
their outer shells
As you descend the groups, the outer shell electrons become further away from the nucleus due to
increasing atomic size
This weakens their attraction to the nucleus
The further down the group an element is, the more easily it can react and lose its outer electron(s)
For the non-metals which are placed on the right-hand side, the opposite is the case
These elements have a lot of outer electrons, and it is more feasible for them to gain (or share
electrons) to obtain a full outer shell
This is a key difference between metals and non-metals and influences their chemical behaviour
It also clearly illustrates the important link between an element’s atomic number and how it reacts as
well as its position on the periodic table
The general properties of most metals and non-metals are summarised below:
A summary of the General Properties of Metals & Non-metals

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1.2.3 Electronic Configurations

Your notes
Electronic Configurations
We can represent the electronic structure of atoms using electron shell diagrams
Electrons orbit the nucleus in shells and each shell has a different amount of energy associated with it
The further away from the nucleus, the more energy a shell has
Electrons first occupy the shell closest to the nucleus which can hold a maximum of 2 electrons
When a shell becomes full of electrons, additional electrons have to be added to the next shell
The second shell and third shell can hold 8 electrons each
The outermost shell of an atom is called the valence shell and an atom is much more stable if it can
manage to completely fill this shell with electrons
In most atoms, the outermost shell is not full and therefore these atoms react with other atoms in order
to achieve a full outer shell of electrons (which would make them more stable)
In some cases, atoms lose electrons to entirely empty this shell so that the next shell below becomes a
(full) outer shell

Deducing electron configuration

The arrangement of electrons in shells can also be explained using numbers
Instead of drawing electron shell diagrams, the number of electrons in each electron shell can be
written down, separated by full stops
This notation is called the electronic configuration (or electronic structure)
E.g. Carbon has 6 electrons, 2 in the 1st shell and 4 in the 2nd shell
Its electronic configuration is 2.4
Electronic configurations can also be written for ions

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E.g. A sodium atom has 11 electrons, a sodium ion has lost one electron, therefore has 10 electrons;
2 in the first shell and 8 in the 2nd shell
Its electronic configuration is 2.8 Your notes
There is a clear relationship between the electronic configuration and how the Periodic Table is
designed
The number of notations in the electronic configuration will show the number of occupied shells of
electrons the atom has, showing the period in which that element is in
The last notation shows the number of outer electrons the atom has, showing the group that element is
in (for elements in groups 1 to 7)
The electron configuration of the first twenty elements is shown below:
Electronic Configuration of the First 20 Elements Table

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Note: Although the third shell can hold up to 18 electrons, the filling of the shells follows a more
complicated pattern after potassium and calcium. For these two elements, the third shell holds 8 and the
remaining electrons (for reasons of stability) occupy the fourth shell first before filling the third shell

Exam Tip
You should be able to represent the first 20 elements using either electron shell diagrams or written
electronic configuration.

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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

1.3 Ionic Bonding

Contents
1.3.1 Ions
1.3.2 Ionic Bonding
1.3.3 Names & Formulae of Ionic Compounds

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1.3.1 Ions
Your notes
Ions
What are ions?
An ion is an electrically charged atom or group of atoms formed by the loss or gain of electrons
Negative ions are called anions and form when atoms gain electrons, meaning they have more
electrons than protons
Positive ions are called cations and form when atoms lose electrons, meaning they have more protons
than electrons
All metals lose electrons to other atoms to become positively charged ions
All non-metals gain electrons from other atoms to become negatively charged ions
Deducing subatomic particles in ions
An atom is neutral and has no overall charge
Ions on the other hand have either gained or lost electrons causing them to become charged
The number of subatomic particles in atoms and ions can be determined given their atomic (proton)
number, mass (nucleon) number and charge
Ions have a different number of electrons to the number of protons, depending on their charge
A positively charged ion has lost electrons and therefore has fewer electrons than protons
A negatively charged ion has gained electrons and therefore has more electrons than protons

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Worked example
Your notes
Determine the number of protons, neutrons & electrons of the following ions:
1. Mg2+ ion
2. F– ion
Answer 1:
The atomic number of a magnesium atom is 12 and the mass number is 24
Therefore, the number of protons in a Mg2+ ion is 12
Remember: The number of protons does not change when an ion is formed
An atom of magnesium is electronically neutral, which means that the number of protons equals
the number of electrons
However, the 2+ charge in an Mg2+ ion means it has lost two electrons
So, it has 12 - 2 = 10 electrons
Number of neutrons = mass number – atomic (proton) number
Number of neutrons = 24 – 12
Number of neutrons = 12
Answer 2:
The atomic number of a fluorine atom is 9 and the mass number is 19
Therefore, the number of protons in an F– ion is 9
Remember: The number of protons does not change when an ion is formed
An atom of fluorine is electronically neutral, which means that the number of protons equals the
number of electrons
However, the 1- charge in an F– ion means it has gained one electron
So, it has 9 + 1 = 10 electrons
Number of neutrons = mass number – atomic (proton) number
Number of neutrons = 19 – 9
Number of neutrons = 10

Exam Tip
The number of electrons that an atom gains or loses is the same as the charge
For example:
If a magnesium atom loses 2 electrons, then the charge will be 2+
If a bromine atom gains 1 electron then the charge will be 1-

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Formation of Ions
This loss or gain of electrons takes place to obtain a full outer shell of electrons Your notes
The electronic structure of ions of elements in groups 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 will be the same as that of a
noble gas - such as helium, neon, and argon
Deducing Dot & Cross Diagrams for Ionic Compounds
Sodium is a group 1 metal so will lose one outer electron to another atom to gain a full outer shell of
electrons
A positive sodium ion with the charge 1+ is formed

Diagram showing the formation of the sodium ion

Chlorine is a group 7 non-metal so will need to gain an electron to have a full outer shell of electrons
One electron will be transferred from the outer shell of the sodium atom to the outer shell of the
chlorine atom
A chlorine atom will gain an electron to form a negatively charged chloride ion with a charge of -1

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Your notes

Diagram showing the formation of the chloride ion

Exam Tip
For exam purposes you need only show the outer electrons in dot & cross diagrams.When writing
about ions, we use the notation 1-, 2+ etc. to describe the charge of the ion, with the number first
followed by the sign (+/-). It is incorrect to write them the other way around as this refers to the
oxidation state, not the charge.

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1.3.2 Ionic Bonding

Your notes
Ionic Bonds
Sodium Chloride Dot & Cross Diagram
The process of ion formation does not happen in isolation; sodium atoms want to lose electrons and
chlorine atoms want to gain electrons
We can use dot & cross diagram to show this as one continuous process
The positive and negative charges are held together by the strong electrostatic forces of attraction
between oppositely charged ions
This is what holds ionic compounds together

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Your notes

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Your notes

Sodium chloride ionic bonding

Magnesium Oxide Dot & Cross Diagram
Magnesium is a group 2 metal so will lose two outer electrons to another atom to have a full outer shell
of electrons
A positive ion with the charge 2+ is formed
Oxygen is a group 6 non-metal so will need to gain two electrons to have a full outer shell of electrons
Two electrons will be transferred from the outer shell of the magnesium atom to the outer shell of the
oxygen atom
The oxygen atom will gain the two electrons
A negative ion with charge 2- is formed

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Your notes

Diagram showing the dot-and-cross diagram of magnesium oxide

Exam Tip
You should be able to draw dot & cross diagrams for combinations of ions from groups 1,2, 6 and 7.

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Ionic Lattices
Ionic compounds are made of charged particles called ions which form a giant lattice structure Your notes
A lattice is a regular repeating arrangement of particles, in this case, ions
Ionic substances have high melting and boiling points due to the presence of strong electrostatic
forces acting between the oppositely charged ions
These forces act in all directions and a lot of energy is required to overcome them

Strong electrostatic forces act in all directions in an ionic solid such as sodium chloride

Exam Tip
Ions with higher charge have stronger electrostatic forces and will thus have higher melting and boiling
points.

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1.3.3 Names & Formulae of Ionic Compounds

Your notes
Naming Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds contain metal and non-metal elements joined together as particles called ions
The metal element’s symbol is always written first
The non-metal element always takes on the name ending ‘– ide’ unless oxygen is also present,
For example, PbS is called lead sulfide and MgCl2 is called magnesium chloride
When oxygen is present the name ending is usually ‘-ate’
For example, CuSO4 is copper sulfate, KClO3 is potassium chlorate and Na2CO3 is sodium
carbonate

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Deducing Formulae
The formulae of simple ionic compounds can be calculated if you know the charge on the ions Your notes
Below are some common ions and their charges:
Common Ions & Their Charges Table

For ionic compounds you have to balance the charge of each part by multiplying each ion until the sum
of the charges = 0
Example: what is the formula of aluminium sulfate?
Write out the formulae of each ion, including their charges
Al3+ SO42-
Balance the charges by multiplying them out:
Al3+ x 2 = +6 and SO42- x 3 = -6; so +6 – 6 = 0
So the formula is Al2(SO4)3

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Exam Tip
Your notes
Another method that also works is to 'swap the numbers'. In the example above the numbers in front of
the charges of the ions (3 and 2) are swapped over and become the multipliers in the formula (2 and 3).
Easy when you know how!

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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

1.4 Covalent Bonding

Contents
1.4.1 Covalent Bonding
1.4.2 Simple Molecules

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1.4.1 Covalent Bonding

Your notes
Covalent Bonding
Non-metal atoms can share electrons with other non-metal atoms to obtain a full outer shell of
electrons
When atoms share pairs of electrons, they form covalent bonds
Covalent bonds between atoms are very strong
When two or more atoms are chemically bonded together, they form ‘molecules’
Covalently bonded substances may consist of small molecules or giant molecules
Weak intermolecular forces exist between individual molecules
E.g. Each liquid water molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to an oxygen
atom, and in between two individual water molecules there are weak intermolecular forces
Shared electrons are called bonding electrons and occur in pairs
Electrons on the outer shell which are not involved in the covalent bond(s) are called non-bonding
electrons
Simple covalent molecules do not conduct electricity as they do not contain free electrons

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Your notes

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Your notes
Diagram showing covalent bonding in a molecule of chlorine (Cl2)
The Size of Molecules
Simple molecular substances consist of molecules which contain atoms that are bound tightly
together by strong covalent bonds
An atom is typically about 0.1 nanometres in size, which is 0.0000000001 m or 10-10 m
Simple molecules contain only a few atoms, so the sizes of atoms and simple molecules have similar
ranges
The smallest molecule is hydrogen, H2, which is just 0.074 nm long or 7.4 x 10-11 m
Even though individual atoms and molecules are extremely small, developments in electron
microscopy can produce images of atoms and simple molecules

Pentacene (C22H14) was first imaged in 2009 by the IBM Research team in Zurich using a technique
called atomic force microscopy

Exam Tip
A key difference between covalent bonds and ionic bonds is that in covalent bonds the electrons are
shared between the atoms, they are not transferred (donated or gained) and no ions are formed.

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1.4.2 Simple Molecules

Your notes
Dot & Cross Diagrams for Molecules
Covalent substances tend to have small molecular structures, such as H2, H2O or CO2
These small molecules are known as simple molecules
Small covalent molecules can be represented by dot and cross diagrams
You need to be able to describe and draw the structures of the following molecules using dot-and-
cross diagrams: hydrogen (H2), hydrogen chloride (HCl), water (H2O), methane (CH4), oxygen (O2) and
carbon dioxide (CO2)
The correct dot and cross diagrams for these molecules are shown below:

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of hydrogen

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Your notes

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of hydrogen chloride

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of water

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Your notes

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of methane

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Your notes

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of oxygen

Dot & cross representation of a molecule of carbon dioxide

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Exam Tip
Your notes
Simple covalent molecules are small and can be separated into individual molecular units without
breaking any chemical bonds (although there will still be strong covalent bonds holding the atoms in
each individual molecule together). Giant ionic and covalent structures form huge continuous
networks of atoms that are bonded together and cannot be separated into individual units without
breaking bonds.

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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

1.5 Types of Substance

Contents
1.5.1 Types of Substance
1.5.2 Comparing Ionic & Covalent Compounds
1.5.3 Giant Covalent Substances
1.5.4 Fullerenes & Graphene
1.5.5 Polymers
1.5.6 Metals
1.5.7 Representing Structures

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1.5.1 Types of Substance

Your notes
Classifying Substances
All matter is composed of atoms which are bonded together, either by ionic, covalent or metallic
bonds
The identity of the elements and bonding present influences the structure and physical properties of a
substance
The vast majority of known substances can be classified by their type of bonding and hence their
structures into four main categories
These are:
Ionic
Simple molecular (covalent)
Giant covalent
Metallic
Ionic compounds
Bonding
Ionic compounds consist of a metal bonded to a non-metal via electron transfer
They form regular shaped giant ionic lattices in which strong electrostatic forces act in all directions
Properties
A lot of energy is required to break so many strong bonds hence they
have high melting and boiling points, so ionic compounds are usually solid at room temperature and
are non-volatile
They are usually water soluble
Ionic compounds can conduct electricity in the molten state or in solution as they have ions that can
move and carry charge
They cannot conduct electricity in the solid state

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A giant ionic lattice

Simple covalent molecules
Bonding
Small covalent compounds consist of non-metal elements which have bonded together via electron
sharing
Properties
They have low melting and boiling points so covalent compounds are usually liquids or gases at room
temperature.
This is because the weak intermolecular forces are easily overcome, meaning that these compounds
are usually volatile, which is why many covalent organic compounds have distinct aromas
The intermolecular forces increase with molecular size, hence large molecules have higher melting and
boiling points
Most covalent compounds are insoluble as they tend to be non-polar but can dissolve
in organic solvents
Some do dissolve in water by forming intermolecular attractions between the water molecules
They cannot conduct electricity as all electrons are involved in bonding so there are no free electrons
or ions to carry the charge

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Your notes

Simple molecules like water have low melting and boiling points
Giant covalent structures
Bonding
Giant covalent structures consist of many non-metals atoms bonded to other non-metal atoms via
strong covalent bonds
Properties
They have high melting and boiling points as they have many strong covalent bonds
Large amounts of heat energy are needed to overcome these forces and break down bonds
Most cannot conduct electricity as they do not have free electrons but there are some exceptions
such as graphite

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Your notes

Giant covalent structures have very high melting and boiling points
Metals
Bonding
Metals consist of metal atoms are held together strongly by metallic bonding
Within the metal lattice, the atoms lose their valence electrons and become positively charged
The valence electrons no longer belong to any metal atom and are said to be delocalised, creating
what is known as a sea of free electrons
The free electrons move freely in between the positive metal atoms
Properties

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Metallic bonds are very strong and are a result of the attraction between the positive metal ions and
the negatively charged delocalised electrons
Metals thus have very high melting and boiling points Your notes
They are usually insoluble in water although some do react with water
They can conduct heat and electricity due to the delocalised electrons
The layers of atoms in metals can slide over each other meaning metals are malleable and can be
hammered and bent into shapes

Metallic structures have high melting and boiling points, are malleable and conduct electricity

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1.5.2 Comparing Ionic & Covalent Compounds

Your notes
Comparing Ionic & Covalent Compounds
Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points
This is because the oppositely charged ions in the lattice structure are attracted to each other by
strong electrostatic forces which hold them firmly in place
Large amounts of energy are needed to overcome these forces so the m.p. and b.p. are high
Ionic substances can conduct electricity when in either the molten state or when dissolved in solution.
In both cases the ions must be able to move and carry the charge
In solid ionic substances the ions are in fixed positions and cannot move, hence they do not conduct
electricity

Particles in solution/molten form can move and conduct electricity but in solid form they are in fixed
positions and are unable to conduct
Simple covalent substances, such as carbon dioxide and methane, have very strong covalent bonds
between the atoms in each molecule, but much weaker intermolecular forces between individual
molecules
When one of these substances melts or boils, it is these weak intermolecular forces that break, not the
strong covalent bonds
Less energy is needed to break the molecules apart, so they have lower m.p. and b.p. than ionic
compounds

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They are poor conductors of electricity as there are no free ions or electrons to move and carry charge
Most covalent compounds do not conduct at all in the solid state and are thus insulators
Common insulators include the plastic coating around household electrical wiring, rubber and wood Your notes

Diagram showing the plastic coating surrounding the conducting metal wires in an electric cable

Exam Tip
Simple molecules are small and can be separated into individual units without breaking any
bonds.Giant ionic and covalent structures form huge continuous networks of atoms that are bonded
together and which cannot be separated into individual units without breaking bonds.

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1.5.3 Giant Covalent Substances

Your notes
Diamond & Graphite
Diamond
Diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon
Both substances contain only carbon atoms but due to the differences in bonding arrangements they
are physically completely different
In diamond, each carbon atom bonds with four other carbons, forming a tetrahedron
All the covalent bonds are identical, very strong and there are no intermolecular forces

Diagram showing the structure and bonding arrangement in diamond

Properties of Diamond

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Diamond has the following physical properties:

It does not conduct electricity
It has a very high melting point Your notes
It is extremely hard and has a density of 3.51 g / cm3 – a little higher than that of aluminium
All the outer shell electrons in carbon are held in the four covalent bonds around each carbon atom, so
there are no freely moving charged particles to the current
The four covalent bonds are very strong and extend in a giant lattice, so a very large amount of heat
energy is needed to break the lattice
Diamond ́s hardness makes it very useful for purposes where extremely tough material is required
Diamond is used in jewellery and for coating blades in cutting tools
The cutting edges of discs used to cut bricks and concrete are tipped with diamonds
Heavy-duty drill bits and tooling equipment are also diamond tipped

Exam Tip
Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring mineral, but it is by no means the strongest. Students often
confuse hard with strong, thinking it is the opposites of weak. Diamonds are hard, but brittle – that is,
they can be smashed fairly easily with a hammer. The opposite of saying a material is hard is to describe
it as soft.

Graphite
Each carbon atom in graphite is bonded to three others forming layers of hexagons, leaving one free
electron per carbon atom
These free electrons migrate along the layers and are free to move and carry charge, hence graphite
can conduct electricity
The covalent bonds within the layers are very strong, but the layers are attracted to each other by
weak intermolecular forces, so the layers can slide over each other making graphite soft and slippery

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Your notes

The structure and bonding in graphite

Properties of Graphite
Graphite has the following physical properties:
It conducts electricity and heat
It has a very high melting point
It is soft and slippery and less dense than diamond (2.25 g / cm3)
The weak intermolecular forces make it a useful material
It is used in pencils and as an industrial lubricant, in engines and in locks

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It is also used to make inert electrodes for electrolysis, which is particularly important in the extraction
of metals such as aluminium
Your notes
Exam Tip
Don’t confuse pencil lead with the metal lead – they have nothing in common. Pencil lead is actually
graphite, and historical research suggests that in the past, lead miners sometimes confused the
mineral galena (lead sulfide) with graphite; since the two looked similar they termed both minerals
‘lead’.The word graphite derives from the Latin word ‘grapho’ meaning ‘I write’, so it is a well named
mineral!

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1.5.4 Fullerenes & Graphene

Your notes
Fullerenes & Graphene
C60 fullerene
Fullerenes are a group of carbon allotropes which consist of molecules that form hollow
tubes or spheres
Fullerenes can be used to trap other molecules by forming around the target molecule and capturing it,
making them useful for targeted drug delivery systems
They also have a huge surface area and are useful for trapping catalyst molecules onto their surfaces
making them easily accessible to reactants so catalysis can take place
Some fullerenes are excellent lubricants and are starting to be used in many industrial processes
The first fullerene to be discovered was buckminsterfullerene which is affectionately referred to as a
“buckyball”
In this fullerene, 60 carbon atoms are joined together forming 20 hexagons and 12 pentagons which
produce a hollow sphere that is the exact shape of a soccer ball

The structure and bonding in C60 fullerene - the football shaped molecule
Graphene
Graphene consists of a single layer of graphite which is a sheet of carbon atoms covalently bonded
forming a continuous hexagonal layer
It is essentially a 2D molecule since it is only one atom thick

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It has very unusual properties make it useful in fabricating composite materials and in electronics

Your notes

Graphene is a truly remarkable material that has some unexpected properties

Graphene has the following properties:
It is extremely strong but also amazingly light
It conducts heat and electricity
It is transparent
It is flexible
Strength: It would take an elephant with excellent balance to break through a sheet of graphene
It is very strong due to its unbroken pattern and the strong covalent bonds between the carbon
atoms. Even when patches of graphene are stitched together, it remains the strongest material out
there
Conductivity: It has free electrons which can move along its surface allowing it to conduct electricity
It is known to move electrons 200 times faster than silicon
It is also an excellent conductor of heat
Flexibility: Those strong bonds between graphene’s carbon atoms are also very flexible. They can be
twisted, pulled and curved to a certain extent without breaking, which means graphene is bendable
and stretchable
Transparent: Graphene absorbs 2.3% of the visible light that hits it, which means you can see through it
without having to deal with any glare
This gives it the potential to be used for making computer screens of the future

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Exam Tip
Your notes
Questions often ask you to state and explain the use of graphene or fullerenes, so make sure you can
state their uses and link them to their bonding arrangements.

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1.5.5 Polymers
Your notes
Polymers
Polymers are very large molecules which are built up by linking together 50 or more smaller molecules
called monomers
Each repeat unit is connected to the adjacent units via covalent bonds
Some polymers called homopolymers contain just one type of monomer unit
Examples of these include poly(ethene) and poly(chloroethene), commonly known as PVC
Others contain two or more different types of monomer units which are called copolymers which have
interesting and useful properties
Examples of these include ABS, a copolymer used in producing water pipes and musical
instruments
Poly(ethene) is a very common type of polymer which is formed from the addition of many ethene
monomers together
The intermolecular forces between the molecules in a polymer tend to be strong hence many of these
substances are solid at room temperature

Polymerisation of ethene monomers produces poly(ethene). The small n signifies that there is a large
number of repeat units

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Exam Tip
Your notes
Simply polymers consist of large molecules containing chains of carbon atoms.

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1.5.6 Metals
Your notes
Properties of Metals
The link between metallic bonding and the properties of metals
Metals have high melting and boiling points
There are many strong metallic bonds in giant metallic structures
A lot of heat energy is needed to overcome forces and break these bonds
Metals conduct electricity
There are free electrons available to move and carry charge
Electrons entering one end of the metal cause a delocalised electron to displace itself from the
other end
Hence electrons can flow so electricity is conducted
Metals are malleable and ductile
Layers of positive ions can slide over one another and take up different positions
Metallic bonding is not disrupted as the valence electrons do not belong to any particular metal
atom so the delocalised electrons will move with them
Metallic bonds are thus not broken and as a result metals are strong but flexible
They can be hammered and bent into different shapes without breaking
Summary Table of the Physical Properties of Metals

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Your notes

Metals and non-metals

The Periodic Table contains over 100 different elements
They can be divided into two broad types: metals and non-metals
Most of the elements are metals and a small number of elements display properties of both types.
These elements are called metalloids or semi-metals

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Your notes

The metallic character diminishes moving left to right across the Periodic Table
The typical properties of metals and non-metals can be compared side-by-side:
Comparison Table of Metals and Non-metals

Metals Non-metals

Solids at room temperature (except mercury) Different states at room temperature

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Shiny Dull (when solid)

Your notes
High density Low density

Good conductors of electricity Poor conductors of electricity

Good conductors of heat Poor conductors of heat

High melting points Low melting points

Malleable (can be bent and shaped)

Brittle (when solid)
Ductile (can be drawn into wires)

Exam Tip
Most metals are shiny solids which have high melting points, high density and are good conductors of
electricity whereas most non-metals have low boiling points and are poor conductors of electricity

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1.5.7 Representing Structures

Your notes
Limitations of Models
Dot and Cross Diagrams
Advantages:
Useful for illustrating the transfer of electrons
Indicates from which atom the bonding electrons come from
Disadvantages:
Fails to illustrate the 3D arrangements of the atoms and electron shells
Doesn’t indicate the relative sizes of the atoms

A dot & cross diagram of ammonia

Ball and Stick Model
Advantages:
Useful for illustrating the arrangement of atoms in 3D space
Especially useful for visualizing the shape of a molecule
Disadvantages:

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Fails at indicating the movement of electrons

The atoms are placed far apart from each other, which in reality is not the case as the gaps
between atoms are much smaller Your notes

Ball and stick model of ammonia which illustrates the 3D arrangement of the atoms in space and the
shape of the molecule
2D Representations of Molecules
Advantages:
Displayed formulae are 2D representations and are basically simpler versions of the ball and stick
model
Adequately indicate what atoms are in a molecule and how they are connected
Disadvantages:
Fail to illustrate the relative sizes of the atoms and bonds
Cannot give you an idea of the shape of a molecule and what it looks like in 3D space

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Your notes

Displayed formula of ammonia

3D Representations of Ionic Solids
Advantages:
3D drawings and models depict the arrangement in space of the ions
Also show the repeating pattern in giant lattice structures
Disadvantages:
Only illustrate the outermost layer of the compound
Are difficult and time-consuming to draw

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3D representation of the ionic lattice structure of silver fluoride. The silver atoms are in blue/grey and
the fluorine atoms in green
Your notes
Exam Tip
You should be able to confidently describe the limitations of particular representations and models,
including dot and cross, ball and stick models and two- and three-dimensional representations.

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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

1.6 Calculations Involving Masses

Contents
1.6.1 Relative Formula Mass
1.6.2 Empirical Formulae
1.6.3 Determine an Empirical Formula
1.6.4 Conservation of Mass
1.6.5 Reacting Masses
1.6.6 Concentration
1.6.7 The Mole
1.6.8 Limiting Reagent
1.6.9 Deducing Stoichiometry

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1.6.1 Relative Formula Mass

Your notes
Relative Formula Mass
We have seen previously that the symbol for the relative atomic mass is Ar
This is calculated from the mass number and relative abundances of all the isotopes of a particular
element
The symbol for the relative formula mass is Mr and it refers to the total mass of the substance
If the substance is molecular you can use the term relative molecular mass, but this term should not be
used for ionic compounds such as sodium chloride
To calculate the Mr of a substance, you have to add up the relative atomic masses of all the atoms
present in the formula
Relative Formula Mass Calculations Table

In accordance with the Law of Conservation of Mass, the sum of the relative formula masses of the
reactants will be the same as the sum of the relative formula masses of the products

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Exam Tip
Your notes
If you are in any doubt about whether to use the term relative molecular mass or relative formula mass,
use the latter because it applies to all compounds whether they are ionic or covalent.

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1.6.2 Empirical Formulae

Your notes
Empirical Formulae
Empirical Formula from Reacting Masses
An empirical formula gives the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element in the
compound
It is calculated from knowledge of the ratio of masses of each element in the compound
Suppose a compound contains 10 g of hydrogen and 80 g of oxygen. We can calculate the empirical
formula by
1. Dividing the reacting masses by the relative atomic mass of each element (this gives the moles)
2. Divide each result by the lowest number obtained to give the simplest ratio
This can be shown by the following calculations:
Amount of hydrogen atoms = Mass in grams ÷ Ar of hydrogen = (10 ÷ 1) = 10 moles
Amount of oxygen atoms = Mass in grams ÷ Ar of oxygen = (80 ÷ 16) = 5 moles
The ratio of moles of hydrogen atoms to moles of oxygen atoms:

Since equal numbers of moles of atoms contain the same number of atoms, the ratio of hydrogen
atoms to oxygen atoms is 2:1
Hence the empirical formula is H2O
Empirical Formula from Molecular Formula
By inspection you simply reduce the molecular formula to the simplest ratio and you have the empirical
formula
Sometimes the empirical formula is the same as the molecular formula, as in the example of methane
The formula of ionic compounds is always the empirical formula
Relationship between Empirical and Molecular Formula

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Your notes

Molecular Formula from Empirical Formula

To find the molecular formula from the empirical formula you need to know the relative formula mass of
the substance
The steps involved are:
1. Find the empirical formula mass
2. Divide the relative formula mass by the empirical formula mass to obtain the multiple
3. Multiple this number by the empirical formula to obtain the molecular formula

Worked example
The empirical formula of X is C4H10S1 and the relative formula mass of X is 180. What is the molecular
formula of X?
Relative Formula Masses: carbon : 12 hydrogen : 1 sulfur : 32
Answer:
Step 1 - Calculate the relative empirical formula mass
(C x 4) + (H x 10) + (S x 1) = (12 x 4) + (1 x 10) + (32 x 1) = 90
Step 2 - Divide relative formula mass of X by the relative empirical mass
180 / 90 = 2
Step 3 - Multiply each number of elements by 2
(C4 x 2) + (H10 x 2) + (S1 x 2) = (C8) + (H20) + (S2)
Molecular formula of X = C8H20S2

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Exam Tip
Your notes
Sometimes when you are finding the empirical formula from the reacting masses of two elements you
do not get an exact whole number in step 2 after dividing by the relative atomic masses. However, it
should be close to a whole number, so just round up or down to get the answer.

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1.6.3 Determine an Empirical Formula

Your notes
Determine an Empirical Formula
Aim:
To determine the empirical formula of magnesium oxide by combustion of magnesium
Diagram:

Finding the empirical formula of magnesium oxide involves heating magnesium ribbon very strongly in a
crucible. A lid is used to trap any smoke (not shown)
Method:
Measure mass of crucible with lid
Add sample of magnesium into crucible and measure mass with lid (calculate the mass of the metal by
subtracting the mass of empty crucible)
Strongly heat the crucible over a Bunsen burner for several minutes
Lift the lid frequently to allow sufficient air into the crucible for the magnesium to fully oxidise without
letting magnesium oxide smoke escape
Continue heating until the mass of crucible remains constant (maximum mass), indicating that the
reaction is complete

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Measure the mass of crucible and contents (calculate the mass of metal oxide by subtracting the mass
of empty crucible)
Working out the empirical formula: Your notes
Mass of metal:
Subtract mass of crucible from magnesium and the mass of the empty crucible
Mass of oxygen:
Subtract mass of the magnesium used from the mass of magnesium oxide
Step 1 – Divide each of the two masses by the relative atomic masses of the elements
Step 2 – Simplify the ratio
magnesium oxygen
Mass a b
Moles a / Ar b / Ar
=x =y
Ratio x : y
Step 3 – Represent the ratio into the form ‘MxOy‘ E.g, MgO

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1.6.4 Conservation of Mass

Your notes
Conservation of Mass
The Law of Conservation of Mass states that no matter is lost or gained during a chemical reaction.
Mass is always conserved, therefore the total mass of the reactants is equal to the total mass of
the products, which is why all chemical equations must be balanced
The sum of the relative atomic/molecular masses of the reactants will be the same as the sum of the
relative atomic/molecular masses of the products
A precipitation reaction is one in which two solutions react to form an insoluble solid called a
precipitate
If the reaction flask is closed and no other substance can enter or leave the system, then the total mass
of the reaction flask will remain constant
For example, the reaction between calcium chloride and sodium sulfate produces a precipitate of
calcium sulfate.
If carried out in a closed system then the mass before and after the reaction will be the same
The balanced equation is:
CaCl2 (aq) + Na2SO4 (aq) ⟶ CaSO4 (s) + 2NaCl (aq)

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Your notes

Diagram showing the conservation of mass in a precipitation reaction

If the reaction flask is open and a gaseous product is allowed to escape, then the total mass of the
reaction flask will change as product mass is lost when the gas leaves the system
For example, the reaction between hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate produces carbon dioxide
gas:
2HCl (aq) + CaCO3 (s) ⟶ CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
Mass will be lost from the reaction flask unless it is closed
If the mass of a reaction flask is found to increase then it may be due to one of the reactants being a
gas found in the air and all of the products are either solids or liquids

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Exam Tip
Your notes
Matter cannot be created or destroyed, so the total amount of matter before and after a reaction is the
same. What changes is the chemical and physical properties of the reactants as they transform into
products.

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1.6.5 Reacting Masses

Your notes
Reacting Masses
Chemical equations can be used to calculate the reacting masses of reactants and products
The mass ratio between the substances is identified using the balanced chemical equation
The steps are:
1. Write down the balanced equation for the reaction
2. Write the relative formula masses under the substances and add the units in the question
3. Multiply the relative formula masses by the coefficients in the equation
4. Find the mass of product for 1 g of reactant
5. Scale up for the mass given in the question

Worked example
Example 1
Calculate the mass of magnesium oxide that can be made by completely burning 6.0 g of magnesium
in oxygen.
Answer:
Step 1: Write the balanced equation
2Mg (s) + O2 (g) ⟶ 2MgO (s)
Step 2: Add RFMs and units
24 g 40 g
Step 3: Multiply by coefficients
2 x 24 = 48 g 2 x 40 = 80 g
Step 4: Cross multiply for 1 g
1g 80 / 48 = 1.66 g
Step 5: Scale up to mass in question
6g 6 x 1.66 = 10 g

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Worked example
Your notes
Example 2
Calculate the mass of aluminium, in tonnes, that can be produced from 51 tonnes of aluminium oxide.
Answer:
Step 1: Write the balanced equation
2Al2O3 ⟶ 4Al + 3O2
Step 2: Add the RFMs and units
102 tonnes 27 tonnes

Step 3: Multiply by coefficients

2 x 102 = 204 tonnes 4 x 27 = 108 tonnes

Step 4: Cross multiply for 1 tonne

108 / 204 = 0.53
1 tonne
tonne

Step 5: Scale up to mass in question

51 x 0.53 = 27 tonnes of
51 tonnes
Al

Exam Tip
As long as you are consistent it doesn't matter whether you work in grams or tonnes or any other mass
unit as the reacting masses will always be in proportion to the balanced equation.

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Percentage Composition
The percentage by mass of an element in a compound can be calculated using the following equation: Your notes
Ar × number of atoms of the element
% mass of an element = × 100
Mr of the compound

Worked example
Calculate the percentage by mass of calcium in calcium carbonate, CaCO3.
Answer:

Exam Tip
Don’t forget to multiply your answer by 100 in order to convert it to a percentage.

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1.6.6 Concentration
Your notes
Calculating Concentration
A solid substance that dissolves in a liquid is called a solute, the liquid is called a solvent and the two
when mixed together form a solution
Most chemical reactions occur between solutes which are dissolved in solvents, such as water or an
organic solvent
Concentration simply refers to the amount of solute there is in a specific volume of the solvent
The greater the amount of solute in a given volume then the greater the concentration
A general formula for concentration is thus:

Concentration can be measured in grams per cubic decimetre

1 decimetre cubed (dm3) = 1000 cm3
1 decimetre cubed (dm3) is the same as 1 litre
You may be given data in a question which needs to be converted from cm3 to dm3 or the other way
around
To go from cm3 to dm3 :
Divide by 1000
To go from dm3 to cm3 :
Multiply by 1000

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Worked example
Your notes
A student dissolved 10 g of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, in 2 dm3 of distilled water. Calculate the
concentration of the solution.
Answer:

Exam Tip
Be careful when doing volume unit conversions as it is easy to multiply instead of dividing by 1000 and
vice-versa. Always ask yourself – is the result going to be a bigger or smaller number than I started
with? Do I get more or fewer cubic decimetres when I convert from cubic centimetres?

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1.6.7 The Mole

Your notes
The Mole
Chemical amounts are measured in moles
The symbol for the unit mole is mol
One mole of a substance contains the same number of the stated particles, atoms, molecules, or ions
as one mole of any other substance
The number of atoms, molecules or ions in a mole (1 mol) of a given substance is the Avogadro
constant. The value of the Avogadro constant is 6.02 x 1023 per mole
For example:
One mole of sodium (Na) contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms of sodium
One mole of hydrogen (H2) contains 6.02 x 1023 molecules of hydrogen
One mole of sodium chloride (NaCl) contains 6.02 x 1023 formula units of sodium chloride

The formula triangle showing the relationship between moles, particles and the Avogadro constant

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Worked example
Your notes
Particles from Moles: How many hydrogen atoms are in 0.010 moles of CH3CHO?
Answer:
There are 4 H atoms in 1 molecule of CH3CHO
So, there are 0.040 moles of H atoms in 0.010 moles of CH3CHO
The number of H atoms is the amount in moles x L
This comes to 0.040 x (6.02 x 1023) = 2.4 x 1022 atoms

Worked example
Moles from Particles: How many moles of hydrogen atoms are in 3.612 x 1023 molecules of H2O2?

Answer:
In 3.612 x 1023 molecules of H2O2 there are 2 x (3.612 x 1023) atoms of H
So, there are 7.224 x 1023 atoms of H
The number of moles of H atoms is the number of particles ÷ L
This comes to 7.224 x 1023 ÷ (6.02 x 1023) = 1.20 moles of H atoms

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Linking the Mole and Relative Atomic Mass

Linking the Mole and Relative Atomic Mass Your notes
One mole of any element is equal to the relative atomic mass of that element in grams or for a
compound the relative formula mass in grams
This is called the molar mass
If you had 6.02 x 1023 atoms of carbon in your hand, that number of carbon atoms would have a mass of
12 g (because the Ar of carbon is 12)
So one mole of helium atoms would have a mass of 4 g (Ar of He is 4), one mole of lithium would have a
mass of 7 g (Ar of Li is 7) and so on
To find the mass of one mole of a compound, we add up the relative atomic masses
So one mole of water would have a mass of (2 x 1) + 16 = 18 g
So one carbon atom has the same mass as 12 hydrogen atoms
Moles and Molar Mass
Although elements and chemicals react with each other in molar ratios, in the laboratory we use digital
balances and grams to measure quantities of chemicals as it is impractical to try and measure out
moles
Therefore we have to be able to convert between moles and grams
We can use the following formula to convert between moles, mass in grams and the molar mass:

Formula triangle for moles, mass and molar mass

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Your notes
Worked example
Mass from Moles: What is the mass of 0.250 moles of zinc?
Answer:
From the periodic table the relative atomic mass of Zn is 65.38
So, the molar mass is 65.38 g mol-1
The mass is calculated by moles x molar mass
This comes to 0.250 mol x 65.38 g mol-1 = 16.3 g

Worked example
Moles from Mass: How many moles are in 2.64 g of sucrose, C12H22O11 (Mr = 342.3)?
Answer:
The molar mass of sucrose is 342.3 g mol-1
The number of moles is found by mass ÷ molar mass
This comes to 2.64 g ÷ 342.3 g mol-1 = 7.71 x 10-3 mol

Exam Tip
Always show your workings in calculations as its easier to check for errors and you may pick up credit if
you get the final answer wrong.

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1.6.8 Limiting Reagent

Your notes
Limiting Reagents
A chemical reaction stops when one of the reagents is used up
The reagent that is used up first is the limiting reagent, as it limits the duration and hence the amount of
product that a reaction can produce
The amount of product is therefore directly proportional to the amount of the limiting reagent added
at the beginning of a reaction
The limiting reagent is the reactant which is not present in excess in a reaction
In order to determine which reactant is the limiting reagent in a reaction, we have to consider the ratios
of each reactant in the balanced equation
When performing reacting mass calculations, the limiting reagent is always the number that should be
used as it indicates the maximum possible amount of product
The steps are:
1. Write the balanced equation for the reaction
2. Calculate the moles of each reactant
3. Compare the moles & deduce the limiting reactant

Worked example
9.2 g of sodium is reacted with 8.0 g of sulfur to produce sodium sulfide, NaS. Which reactant is in
excess and which is the limiting reactant?
Answer:
Step 1: Write the balanced equation and determine the molar ratio
2Na + S → Na2S so the molar ratios is 2 : 1
Step 2: Calculate the moles of each reactant
Moles = Mass ÷ Ar
Moles Na = 9.2/23 = 0.40
Moles S = 8.0/32 = 0.25
Step 3: Compare the moles
To react completely 0.40 moles of Na requires 0.20 moles of S and since there are 0.25
moles of S, then S is in excess. Na is therefore the limiting reactant.

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Exam Tip
Your notes
An easy way to determine the limiting reactant is to find the moles of each substance and divide the
moles by the coefficient in the equation. The lowest number resulting is the limiting reactant
In the example above:
divide 0.40 moles of Na by 2, giving 0.20
divide 0.25 moles of S by 1, giving 0.25, so Na is limiting

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1.6.9 Deducing Stoichiometry

Your notes
Writing & Balancing Equations
Nothing created - nothing destroyed
New substances are made during chemical reactions
However, the same atoms are always present before and after reaction
They have just joined up in different ways
Atoms cannot be created or destroyed, so if they exist in the reactants then they absolutely must
be in the products!
Because of this the total mass of reactants is always equal to the total mass of products
This idea is known as the Law of Conservation of Mass
Conservation of Mass
The Law of Conservation of Mass enables us to balance chemical equations, since no atoms can be
lost or created
You should be able to:
Write word equations for reactions outlined in these notes
Write formulae and balanced chemical equations for the reactions in these notes
Word Equations
These show the reactants and products of a chemical reaction using their full chemical names
The reactants are those substances on the left-hand side of the arrow and can be thought of as the
chemical ingredients of the reaction
They react with each other and form new substances
The products are the new substances which are on the right-hand side of the arrow
The arrow (which is spoken as “goes to” or “produces”) implies the conversion of reactants into
products
Reaction conditions or the name of a catalyst (a substance added to make a reaction go faster) can be
written above the arrow
An example is the reaction of sodium hydroxide (a base) and hydrochloric acid produces sodium
chloride (common table salt) and water:
sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid ⟶ sodium chloride + water
Balancing equations
A symbol equation is a shorthand way of describing a chemical reaction using chemical symbols to
show the number and type of each atom in the reactants and products
During chemical reactions as atoms cannot be created or destroyed, the number of each atom on
each side of the reaction must therefore be the same

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E.g. the reaction needs to be balanced

When balancing equations remember:
Not to change any of the formulae Your notes
To put the numbers used to balance the equation in front of the formulae
To balance firstly the carbon, then the hydrogen and finally the oxygen in combustion reactions of
organic compounds
When balancing equations follow the following the steps:
Write the formulae of the reactants and products
Count the numbers of atoms in each reactant and product
Balance the atoms one at a time until all the atoms are balanced
Use appropriate state symbols in the equation
The physical state of reactants and products in a chemical reaction is specified by using state symbols
(s) solid
(l) liquid
(g) gas
(aq) aqueous

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Worked example
Your notes
Balance the following equation:
magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
Answer:
Step 1: Write out the symbol equation showing reactants and products
Mg + O2 → MgO
Step 2: Count the numbers of atoms in each reactant and product

Step 3: Balance the atoms one at a time until all the atoms are balanced
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
This is now showing that 2 moles of magnesium react with 1 mole of oxygen to form 2 moles of
magnesium oxide
Step 4: Use appropriate state symbols in the fully balanced equation
2Mg (s) + O2 (g) → 2MgO (s)

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Ionic Equations
Higher Only Your notes
Ionic equations
In aqueous solutions ionic compounds dissociate into their ions
Many chemical reactions in aqueous solutions involve ionic compounds, however only some of the ions
in solution take part in the reactions
The ions that do not take part in the reaction are called spectator ions
An ionic equation shows only the ions or other particles taking part in a reaction, and not the spectator
ions

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Worked example
Your notes
1. Balance the following equation
zinc + copper(II) sulfate → zinc sulfate + copper
2. Write down the ionic equation for the above reaction
Answer 1:
Step 1: To balance the equation, write out the symbol equation showing reactants and products
Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu
Step 2: Count the numbers of atoms in each reactant and product. The equation is already
balanced

Step 3: Use appropriate state symbols in the equation

Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
Answer 2:
Step 1: The full chemical equation for the reaction is
Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
Step 2: Break down reactants into their respective ions
Zn (s) + Cu2+ + SO42- (aq) → Zn2++ SO42- (aq) + Cu (s)
Step 3: Cancel the spectator ions on both sides to give the ionic equation
Zn (s) + Cu2+ + SO42- (aq) → Zn2++ SO42- (aq) + Cu (s)
Zn (s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+ (aq) + Cu (s)

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Deducing Stoichiometry
Higher Only Your notes
Stoichiometry refers to the numbers in front of the reactants and products in an equation, which must
be adjusted to make sure that the equation is balanced
These numbers are called coefficients (or multipliers) and if we know the masses of reactants and
products, the balanced chemical equation for a given reaction can be found by determining the
coefficients
First, convert the masses of each reactant and product in to moles by dividing by the molar masses
using the periodic table
If the result yields uneven numbers, then multiply all of the numbers by the same number, to find the
smallest whole number for the coefficient of each species
For example, if the resulting numbers initially were 1, 2 and 2.5, then you would multiply all of the
numbers by 2, to give the whole numbers 2, 4 and 5
Then, use the molar ratio to write out the balanced equation

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Worked example
Your notes
64 g of methanol, CH3OH, reacts with 96 g of oxygen gas to produce 88 g of carbon dioxide and 72 g
of water. Deduce the balanced equation for the reaction.(C = 12, H = 1, O = 16).
Answer:
Calculate the molar masses of the substances in the equation

CH3OH = 32 g mol-1 O2 = 32 g mol-1

CO2 = 44 g mol-1 H2O = 18 g mol-1
Divide the masses present by the molar mass to obtain the number of moles

CH3OH = 64 g ÷ 32 g mol-1 = 2 mol

O2 = 96 g ÷ 32 g mol-1 = 3 mol
CO2 = 88 g ÷ 44 g mol-1 = 2 mol
H2O = 72 g ÷ 18 gmol-1 = 4 mol
The mole ratios are the same as the coefficients in the balanced equation

2CH3OH + 3O2 ⟶ 2CO2 + 4H2O

Exam Tip
The molar ratio of a balanced equation gives you the ratio of the amounts of each substance in the
reaction.

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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

2.1 States of Matter

Contents
2.1.1 States of Matter

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2.1.1 States of Matter

Your notes
The Three States of Matter
The three states of matter are solids, liquids and gases
A substance can usually exist in all three states, dependent on temperature (and pressure)
State changes occur at the melting point (solid to liquid, liquid to solid) and at the freezing point (liquid
to gas and gas to liquid)
Melting and freezing occur at the melting point
Boiling and condensing take place at the boiling point
Individual atoms themselves do not share the same properties as bulk matter
The three states of matter can be represented by a simple model
In this model, the particles are represented by small solid spheres
Summary of the Properties of Solids, Liquids and Gases

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Interconversions
The amount of energy needed to change state from solid to liquid and from liquid to gas depends on Your notes
the strength of the forces between the particles
The stronger the forces of attraction, the more energy that is needed to overcome them for a state
change to occur
Therefore, the stronger the forces between the particles the higher the melting point and boiling
point of the substance
When matter changes from one state to another due to changes in temperature or pressure, the
change is called an interconversion of state
It is a physical change involving changes in the forces between the particles of the substances, the
particles themselves remain the same, as do the chemical properties of the substance
Physical changes are relatively easy to reverse as no new substance is formed during interconversions
of state
The interconversions have specific terms to describe them:
A Summary of State Changes

Melting
Melting is when a solid changes into a liquid

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The process requires heat energy which transforms into kinetic energy, allowing the particles to move
It occurs at a specific temperature known as the melting point which is unique to each pure solid
Your notes
Boiling
Boiling is when a liquid changes into a gas
This requires heat which causes bubbles of gas to form below the surface of a liquid, allowing for liquid
particles to escape from the surface and from within the liquid
It occurs at a specific temperature known as the boiling point which is unique to each pure liquid
Freezing
Freezing is when a liquid changes into a solid
This is the reverse of melting and occurs at exactly the same temperature as melting, hence the
melting point and freezing point of a pure substance are the same
Water for example freezes and melts at 0 ºC
It requires a significant decrease in temperature (or loss of thermal energy) and occurs at a specific
temperature which is unique for each pure substance
Evaporation
When a liquid changes into a gas
Evaporation occurs only at the surface of liquids where high energy particles can escape from the
liquids surface at low temperatures, below the boiling point of the liquid
The larger the surface area and the warmer the liquid/surface, the more quickly a liquid can evaporate
Evaporation occurs over a range of temperatures, but heating will speed up the process as particles
need energy to escape from the surface
Condensation
When a gas changes into a liquid, usually on cooling
When a gas is cooled its particles lose energy and when they bump into each other, they lack energy to
bounce away again, instead grouping together to form a liquid
Sublimation
When a solid changes directly into a gas
This happens to only a few solids, such as iodine or solid carbon dioxide
The reverse reaction also happens and is called desublimation or deposition

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Your notes

Interconversion between the three states of matter

Exam Tip
Solids, liquids and gases have different physical properties. The difference in these properties comes
from differences in how the particles are arranged in each state.

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Predicting Physical State

The physical state of a substance under certain conditions can be predicted from a given set of data. Your notes
Normally you are given melting and boiling point data for a substance and asked to predict its physical
state in specified conditions.
At temperatures below the melting point:
The substance is will be in the solid state
At temperatures above the melting point but below the boiling point:
The substance will be in the liquid state
At temperatures above the boiling point:
The substance will be in the gaseous state.

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Worked example
Your notes
Predicting the state
The table below indicates melting and boiling point data for four different substances named A, B, C
and D. Predict the states of the following substances:
Substance A at -150 ºC
Substance B at 50 ºC
Substance C at 1400 ºC
Substance D at 400 ºC
Melting & Boiling Points Table

Answer
A boils at temperatures above -173 ºC so at -150 ºC A is a gas
B melts at 1736 ºC so at 50 ºC it is a solid
C melts at 1105 ºC and boils at 1450 ºC so at 1400 ºC it is a liquid
D melts at 650 ºC so at 400 ºC it is a solid

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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

2.2 Methods of Separating & Purifying Substances

Contents
2.2.1 Pure Substances & Mixtures
2.2.2 Separation Techniques
2.2.3 Interpreting Chromatograms
2.2.4 Core Practical: Investigating Inks
2.2.5 Purifying Water

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2.2.1 Pure Substances & Mixtures

Your notes
Pure Substance vs Mixture
In everyday language we use the word pure to describe when something is natural or clean and to
which nothing else has been added
In chemistry a pure substance may consist of a single element or compound which contains no other
substances
For example a beaker of a sample of pure water contains only H2O molecules and nothing else
If salt were added to the beaker then a mixture is produced
A mixture consists of two or more elements or compounds that are physically mixed together, they
are not chemically combined
The chemical properties of the substances in a mixture remain unchanged
Substances in mixtures can be separated by physical means
Air for example is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen and some other gases such as carbon dioxide and
argon

Diagram showing how to represent elements, compounds and mixtures using particle diagrams
Distinguishing Purity
Pure substances melt and boil at specific and sharp temperatures e.g. pure water has a boiling point of
100°C and a melting point of 0°C
Mixtures have a range of melting and boiling points as they consist of different substances that tend to
lower the melting point and broaden the melting point range
Melting and boiling points data can therefore be used to distinguish pure substances from mixtures

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Melting point analysis is routinely used to assess the purity of drugs

This is done using a melting point apparatus which allows you to slowly heat up a small amount of the
sample, making it easier to observe the exact melting point Your notes
This is then compared to data tables
The closer the measured value is to the actual melting or boiling point then the purer the sample is
Cooling Curves
The influence of impurities can be more clearly seen on a heating / cooling curve
If the temperature of a liquid is measured as it cools and freezes the data can be used to produce a
graph
The following graph shows the cooling curve for a sample of a compound
The horizontal part of the graph shows that the compound has a sharp melting point, so the compound
is pure

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Your notes

Cooling curve for a pure substance

An impure sample of the compound would produce a gradual decrease in temperature as it freezes as
shown in the graph below

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Your notes

Cooling curve for an impure substance

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2.2.2 Separation Techniques

Your notes
Simple Distillation
Methods of purification
The choice of the method of separation depends on the nature of the substances being separated.
All methods rely on there being a difference of some sort, usually in a physical property such as boiling
point, between the substances being separated
Five common techniques are distillation, fractional distillation, filtration, crystallisation and
chromatography
Simple Distillation
This is used to separate a liquid and soluble solid from a solution (e.g., water from a solution of salt
water) or a pure liquid from a mixture of liquids
The solution is heated, and pure water evaporates producing a vapour which rises through the neck of
the round bottomed flask
The vapour passes through the condenser, where it cools and condenses, turning into the pure liquid
that is collected in a beaker
After all the water is evaporated from the solution, only the solid solute will be left behind

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Diagram showing the distillation of a mixture of salt and water

Your notes
Exam Tip
If asked to draw or label a diagram of simple distillation, make sure that the water goes in at the bottom
of the condenser near the collecting beaker, and comes out at the top near the column.

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Fractional Distillation
This is used to separate two or more liquids that are miscible with one another (e.g., ethanol and water Your notes
from a mixture of the two)
The solution is heated to the temperature of the substance with the lowest boiling point
This substance will rise and evaporate first, and vapours will pass through a condenser, where they cool
and condense, turning into a liquid that will be collected in a beaker
All of the substance is evaporated and collected, leaving behind the other components(s) of the
mixture
For water and ethanol
Ethanol has a boiling point of 78 ºC and water of 100 ºC
The mixture is heated until it reaches 78 ºC, at which point the ethanol boils and distills out of the
mixture and condenses into the beaker
When the temperature starts to increase to 100 ºC heating should be stopped. Water and ethanol are
now separated

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Your notes

Fractional distillation of a mixture of ethanol and water

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Filtration
Used to separate an undissolved solid from a mixture of the solid and a liquid / solution ( e.g., sand Your notes
from a mixture of sand and water)
Centrifugation can also be used for this mixture
A piece of filter paper is placed in a filter funnel above a beaker
A mixture of insoluble solid and liquid is poured into the filter funnel
The filter paper will only allow small liquid particles to pass through as filtrate
Solid particles are too large to pass through the filter paper so will stay behind as a residue

Filtration of a mixture of sand and water

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Crystallisation
Used to separate a dissolved solid from a solution, when the solid is much more soluble in hot solvent Your notes
than in cold (e.g., copper sulphate from a solution of copper (II) sulphate in water)
The solution is heated, allowing the solvent to evaporate, leaving a saturated solution behind
Test if the solution is saturated by dipping a clean, dry, cold glass rod into the solution
If the solution is saturated, crystals will form on the glass rod
The saturated solution is allowed to cool slowly
Crystals begin to grow as solids will come out of solution due to decreasing solubility
The crystals are collected by filtering the solution, they are washed with cold distilled water to remove
impurities and are then allowed to dry

Diagram showing the process of crystallisation

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Paper Chromatography
This technique is used to separate substances that have different solubilities in a given solvent (e.g., Your notes
different coloured inks that have been mixed to make black ink)
A pencil line is drawn on chromatography paper and spots of the sample are placed on it. Pencil is used
for this as ink would run into the chromatogram along with the samples
The paper is then lowered into the solvent container, making sure that the pencil line sits above the
level of the solvent, so the samples don’t wash into the solvent container
The solvent travels up the paper by capillary action, taking some of the coloured substances with it
Different substances have different solubilities so will travel at different rates, causing the substances
to spread apart
Those substances with higher solubility will travel further than the others
This will show the different components of the ink / dye
If two or more substances are the same, they will produce identical chromatograms
If the substance is a mixture, it will separate on the paper to show all the different components as
separate spots
An impure substance will show up with more than one spot, a pure substance should only show up with
one spot

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Your notes

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Your notes

Analysis of the composition of ink using paper chromatography

Exam Tip
Paper chromatography is the name given to the overall separation technique while a chromatogram is
the name given to the visual output of a chromatography run. This is the piece of chromatography
paper with the visibly separated components after the run has finished.
The initial line must be drawn in pencil because if you used ink this would smudge or run in the water!
The solvent level must not start above the pencil line, or this will ruin the chromatogram.

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2.2.3 Interpreting Chromatograms

Your notes
Interpreting Chromatograms
Identifying Mixtures
Pure substances will produce only one spot on the chromatogram
If two or more substances are the same, they will produce identical chromatograms
If the substance is a mixture, it will separate on the paper to show all
the different components as separate spots
An impure substance therefore will produce a chromatogram with more than one spot

Diagram showing the analysis of a mixture and pure substances using chromatography
Rf Values
These values are used to identify the components of mixtures
Rf stands for retention factor

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The Rf value of a particular compound is always the same but it is dependent, however, on the solvent
used
If the solvent is changed then the value changes Your notes
Calculating the Rf value allows chemists to identify unknown substances because it can be compared
with Rf values of known substances under the same conditions
These values are known as reference values
Calculation
The Retention factor is found using the following calculation:
Rf = distance travelled by substance ÷ distance travelled by solvent
The Rf value will always lie between 0 and 1; the closer it is to 1, the more soluble is that component in
the solvent
The Rf value is a ratio and therefore has no units

Using Rf values to identify components of a mixture

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Exam Tip
Your notes
For the Rf calculations, both distances are measured from the baseline.

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2.2.4 Core Practical: Investigating Inks

Your notes
Core Practical: Investigating Inks
Aim:
Investigate how simple distillation and paper chromatography can be used to separate and identify a
mixture of food colourings
Part 1- Simple Distillation
Ink consists of a solvent which has different dyes dissolved in it
The investigation must thus include analysis of both the solvent and the dyes used
The solvent must first be separated which can be done by simple distillation
Solvents tend to have low boiling points than the dyes which tend to be more viscous so it will
evaporate first.
Add anti-bumping granules and heat gently so as not to go past the boiling point
Record the temperature of boiling point
Part 2- Paper ChromatographyMaterials:
A 250 cm3 beaker
A wooden spill
A rectangle of chromatography paper
Four known food colourings labelled A–D
An unknown mixture of food colourings labelled U
Five glass capillary tubes
Paper clip
Ruler & pencil

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Your notes

Diagram of the apparatus needed for paper chromatography

Practical Tip:
The pencil line must never be below the level of the solvent as the samples will be washed away
Method:
1. Use a ruler to draw a horizontal pencil line 2 cm from the end of the chromatography paper
2. Use a different capillary tube to put a tiny spot of each colouring A, B, C and D on the line
3. Use the fifth tube to put a small spot of the unknown mixture U on the line
4. Make sure each spot is no more than 2-3 mm in diameter and label each spot in pencil
5. Pour water into the beaker to a depth of no more than 1 cm and clip the top of the chromatography
paper to the wooden spill. The top end is the furthest from the spots
6. Carefully rest the wooden spill on the top edge of the beaker. The bottom edge of the paper
should dip into the solvent
7. Allow the solvent to travel undisturbed at least three quarters of the way up the paper
8. Remove the paper and draw another pencil line on the dry part of the paper as close to the wet edge as
possible. This is called the solvent front line

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9. Measure the distance in mm between the two pencil lines. This is the distance travelled by the water
solvent
10. For each of food colour A, B, C and D measure the distance in mm from the start line to the middle of Your notes
the spot
Results:
Record your results in a suitable table

Evaluation:
The Rf values of food colours A, B, C and D should be compared to that for the unknown sample as well as a
visual comparison being made
Conclusion:
The use of chromatography and Rf values is a viable method of identifying unknown mixtures given
reference material
Hazards, risks and precautions

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Your notes

Hazard symbols to show substances that are flammable and harmful to health
The solvents used in chromatography are often flammable and harmful to health, e.g. ethanol, propan-
2-ol or propanone
The solvents should be kept away from naked flames, e.g. a Bunsen burner
Avoid contact with the skin and breathing in the vapour
A fume cupboard can be used for harmful solvents

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2.2.5 Purifying Water

Your notes
Purifying Water
Making Water Potable
Ground water from aquifers is relatively clean but surface water (from rivers & lakes) and waste water
need significant treatment in order to be fit for human consumption
Untreated water contains soluble and insoluble impurities
Insoluble impurities include soil, pieces of plants and other organic matter and soluble impurities
include calcium, metallic compounds and inorganic pollutants
Unclean water also contains microbes which can cause illness
Potable water means water that is clean enough for human consumption
Filtration
This process removes large insoluble particles by passing the water through layers of sand and gravel
filters that trap larger particles
Wire mesh filters are sometimes used, depending on the level of impurities in the water
Sedimentation
Large insoluble particles sink to the bottom of a tank of water that has been left still for some time
Iron sulfate or aluminium sulfate is sometimes added to help the fine particles clump together
Chlorination
This process is used to kill bacteria and microorganisms which are too small to be trapped by the filters
Cholera and typhoid are examples of bacterial diseases which can arise by the consumption of
untreated water

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Your notes

Water treatment involves filtration, sedimentation and chlorination

Making Sea Water Potable
This process is done in some areas of the world where very hot and dry climates prevail and where a
lack of water.
Sea water contains mainly salts and can therefore be distilled to separate the water and the salts.
The salt remains in the liquid while the steam is cooled and condensed to make potable water.
The process is extremely expensive as a lot of energy is required to heat the large volumes of water to
100 ºC.
The wastewater produced is also extremely toxic due to the very high concentration of salts and must
be disposed of correctly

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Your notes

Simple distillation of seawater to make it potable

Water in Chemical Analysis
Most chemical investigations involve the use of water at some stage of the process
Normally deionised water is used, which is water that has had metallic ions such as calcium or copper
removed
Deionisation uses specifically designed ion-exchange resins that remove ions by exchange with
hydrogen and hydroxide ions in water, which then recombine to form water molecules
Deionised water is used as the ions could react with the substances under analysis and would give the
experiment a false result

Exam Tip
Waste and ground water can be made potable by sedimentation, filtration and chlorination. Sea water
can be made potable by using simple distillation. Water used in analysis must not contain any
dissolved salts which would interfere with the sensitivity of the tests.

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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

3.1 Acids
Contents
3.1.1 Acids & Bases
3.1.2 Hydrogen Ions & pH
3.1.3 Core Practical: Investigating pH
3.1.4 Acid Strength & Concentration
3.1.5 Bases
3.1.6 Reactions of Acids
3.1.7 Test for Hydrogen & Carbon Dioxide
3.1.8 Core Practical: Preparing Copper Sulfate
3.1.9 Prepare a Salt by Titration
3.1.10 Solubility Rules
3.1.11 Preparing an Insoluble Salt

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3.1.1 Acids & Bases

Your notes
Defining Acids & Bases
When acids are added to water, they form positively charged hydrogen ions (H+)
The presence of H+ ions is what makes a solution acidic
When alkalis are added to water, they form negative hydroxide ions (OH–)
The presence of the OH– ions is what makes the aqueous solution an alkali
The pH scale is a numerical scale which is used to show how acidic or alkaline a solution is, in other
words it is a measure of the amount of the ions present in solution

The pH Scale
The pH scale goes from 0 – 14 (extremely acidic substances can have values of below 0)
All acids have pH values of below 7, all alkalis have pH values of above 7
The lower the pH then the more acidic the solution is
The higher the pH then the more alkaline the solution is
A solution of pH 7 is described as being neutral

The pH scale showing acidity, neutrality and alkalinity

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Indicators
Two colour indicators are used to distinguish between acids and alkalis Your notes
Many plants contain substances that can act as indicators and the most common one is litmus which is
extracted from lichens
Synthetic indicators are organic compounds that are sensitive to changes in acidity and appear
different colours in acids and alkalis
Phenolphthalein and methyl orange are synthetic indicators frequently used in acid-alkali titrations
Two Colour Indicators Table

Synthetic indicators are used to show the endpoint in titrations as they have a very sharp change of
colour when an acid has been neutralised by an alkali and vice-versa
Litmus is not suitable for titrations as the colour change is not sharp and it goes through a purple
transition colour in neutral solutions making it difficult to determine an endpoint
Litmus is very useful as an an indicator paper and comes in red and blue versions, for dipping into
solutions or testing gases

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3.1.2 Hydrogen Ions & pH

Your notes
Hydrogen Ions & pH
We have already seen that acids are substances that contain hydrogen ions in solution
The more hydrogen ions the stronger the acid, but the lower the pH
The higher the concentration of hydroxide ions in a solution the higher the pH
So pH is a measure of the concentration of H+ ions in solution, but they have an inverse relationship

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Your notes

The pH scale is logarithmic so that each change in pH is a tenfold change in hydrogen ion concentration
The pH scale is logarithmic, meaning that each change of 1 on the scale represents a change in
concentration by a factor of 10
Therefore an acid with a pH of 3 has ten times the concentration of H+ ions than an acid of pH 4

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An acid with a pH of 2 has 10 x 10 = 100 times the concentration of H+ ions than an acid with a pH of 4
From this we can summarize that for two acids of equal concentration, where one is strong and the
other is weak, then the strong acid will have a lower pH due to its capacity to dissociate more and Your notes
hence put more H+ ions into solution than the weak acid

Exam Tip
Acid strength is reflected in how many hydrogen ions are in solution. The more hydrogen ions the lower
the pH and vice-versa.

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3.1.3 Core Practical: Investigating pH

Your notes
Core Practical: Investigating pH
Aim:
To investigate the changes in pH of a fixed volume of dilute HCl on addition of varying amounts of a
solid base
Materials:
Dilute HCl (0.5M or 1M), solid base such as CaO or Ca(OH)2
Conical flask, 25 cm3 or 50 cm3 volumetric pipette, glass rod
Spatula and weighing boat
pH probe or Universal Indicator paper
Method:
Use a pipette to measure a fixed volume of dilute HCl into a conical flask
Add one spatula of calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide to the flask and swirl
When all the base has reacted record the pH of the solution
If using U.I. paper use the glass rod to extract a sample from the flask
Repeat for different numbers of spatula (1-10) of solid but the same volume of HCl
Record your results neatly in table format
Analysis of results:
Plot a graph of the amount of the base on the X-axis against the pH recorded on the Y-axis
The resulting graph should look something like the one below

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Your notes

Investigating the change in pH during neutralisation of an acid

Conclusion:
The graph indicates a sudden change in pH which corresponds to the vertical section of the graph
This indicates that the more solid base is added the higher the pH, therefore the base is neutralising the
acid
From the sample graph it can be seen that 6 spatulas of the base are required to completely neutralise
the acid
Hazards, risks and precautions

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Your notes

Hazard symbols to show substances that are corrosive, harmful to health and hazardous to the
environment
Copper(II) oxide can cause serious eye irritation and is a skin irritant. It is harmful if swallowed or inhaled
and is toxic to aquatic life
Dilute hydrochloric acid is not classified as hazardous at the concentrations typically used in this
practical, however it may still cause harm to the eyes or the skin
For both substances, avoid contact with the skin and use safety goggles
For copper(II) oxide, care should be taken not to inhale the powder

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3.1.4 Acid Strength & Concentration

Your notes
Acid Strength & Concentration
Strong & Weak
Acids can be either strong or weak, depending on how many ions they produce when they dissolve in
water
When added to water, acids ionise or dissociate to produce H+ ions:
Hydrochloric acid: HCl ⟶ H+ + Cl–
Nitric acid: HNO3 ⟶ H+ + NO3–
Strong acids such as HCl and H2SO4 dissociate completely in water, producing solutions with a high
concentration of H+ ions and thus a very low pH
Weak acids such as ethanoic acid, CH3COOH and hydrofluoric acid, HF only partially ionize in water,
producing solutions of pH values between 4 – 6
This data is summarized in the table below:
Strong & Weak Acids Table

For weak acids there is an equilibrium set-up between the molecules and their ions once they have
been added to water
Propanoic acid for example dissociates as follows:
CH3CH2COOH ⇌ H+ + CH3CH2COO–
The ⇌ symbol indicates that the process is reversible, as the products can react together forming the
original reactants
The equilibrium lies to the left, meaning there is a high concentration of intact acid molecules and
therefore a low concentration of ions in solution, hence the pH is that of a weak acid and closer to 7
than a strong acid
Concentrated & Dilute

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A solution is formed when a solute is dissolved in a solvent

A dilute solution contains a small amount of solute in a given volume of solution
A concentrated solution contains a large amount of solute in a given volume of solution Your notes
A concentrated solution of either an acid or a base is one that contains a high number of acid or
base molecules per dm3 of solution
A dilute acid or base solution is therefore one that has much fewer acid or base molecules per dm3 of
solution

Diagram illustrating how the concentration of a solution increases as more solute is added

Exam Tip
The terms strong and weak refer to the ability to dissociate and not concentration. A dilute solution of a
strong acid can have a lower pH than a concentrated solution of a weak acid, due to the stronger acid
undergoing complete dissociation.

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3.1.5 Bases
Your notes
Bases
What makes a base act like a base?
Bases are substances which can neutralise an acid, forming a salt and water
The term base and alkali are not the same
A base which is water-soluble is referred to as an alkali
So, all alkalis are bases, but not all bases are alkalis
Alkalis have pH values of above 7
In basic (alkaline) conditions red litmus paper turns blue
Bases are usually oxides, hydroxides or carbonates of metals
The presence of the OH- ions is what makes the aqueous solution an alkali
One unusual base is ammonia solution
When ammonia reacts with water it produces hydroxide ions
Some Common Alkalis and the Ions they Contain

Exam Tip
Aqueous ammonia and ammonium hydroxide are the same thing. When ammonia gas dissolves in
water it forms ammonium hydroxide. Be careful to use the correct terminology: ammonia is the gas,
NH3, ammonium is the ion present in ammonium compounds, NH4+

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3.1.6 Reactions of Acids

Your notes
Reactions of Acids
Reactions of acids with metals
Only metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series will react with dilute acids
The more reactive the metal then the more vigorous the reaction will be
Metals that are placed high on the reactivity series such as potassium and sodium are very dangerous
and react explosively with acids
When acids react with metals they form a salt and hydrogen gas:
The general equation is:
metal + acid ⟶ salt + hydrogen
Some examples of metal-acid reactions and their equations are given below:
Acid-Metals Reactions Table

In general, we can summarise the reaction of a metal that forms a +2 ion as follows:
Acids-Metals Summary Table

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Your notes

Reaction of acids with oxides & hydroxides

When an acid reacts with an oxide or hydroxide, a neutralisation reaction occurs
Metal oxides and metal hydroxides act as bases
In all acid-base neutralisation reactions, a salt and water are produced:
acid + base ⟶ salt + water
The identity of the salt produced depends on the acid used and the positive ions in the base
Hydrochloric acid produces chlorides, sulfuric acid produces sulfate salts and nitric acid
produces nitrates
The following are some specific examples of reactions between acids and metal oxides / hydroxides:
2HCl + CuO ⟶ CuCl2 + H2O
H2SO4 + 2NaOH ⟶ Na2SO4 + 2H2O
HNO3 + KOH ⟶ KNO3 + H2O
In general, we can summarise the reaction of metals and bases as follows:
Acids and Metals Oxides or Hydroxides Summary Table

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Your notes

Reactions of Acids with Metal Carbonates

Acids will react with metal carbonates to form the corresponding metal salt, carbon dioxide and water
These reactions are easily distinguishable from acid – metal oxide/hydroxide reactions due to the
presence of effervescence caused by the carbon dioxide gas
Acids & Metal Carbonates Reactions Table

The following are some specific examples of reactions between acids and metal carbonates:

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2HCl + Na2CO3 ⟶ 2NaCl + H2O + CO2

H2SO4 + CaCO3⟶ CaSO4 + H2O + CO2 Your notes

Exam Tip
If in an acid-base reaction there is effervescence produced then the base must be a metal carbonate
which produces carbon dioxide gas.

Neutralisation
The chemistry of neutralisation reactions can be explained using ionic equations
Ionic equations are used to show only the particles that chemically participate in a reaction
The other ions present are not involved and are called spectator ions
For example the neutralisation reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide:
HCl + NaOH ⟶ NaCl + H2O
If we write out all of the ions present in the equation we get:
H+ + Cl- + Na+ + OH- ⟶ Na+ + Cl- + H2O
The spectator ions are thus Na+ and Cl–.
Removing these from the previous equation leaves the overall net ionic equation:
H+ + OH- ⟶ H2O
The H+ ions come from the acid and the OH– ions come from the base, both combine to form the
product water molecules
This ionic equation is the same for all acid-base neutralisation

Exam Tip
Remember that although acids react with metals to form salts, that reaction is not neutralisation, but it
counts as a redox reaction.

Hazards

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Your notes

Hazard symbols you may see in relation to acids

The hazards associated with acids depend on the type and concentration of the acid
Most dilute acids either require no hazard symbol or they are an irritant, so require the symbol to show
they are harmful to health
Eye protection should be worn when handling
Moderately concentrated acids are often corrosive
In addition to eye protection, gloves should also be worn
Some concentrated acids, e.g. nitric acid, are oxidising which can cause or intensify a fire in contact
with combustible materials
Eye protection and gloves are necessary when handling concentrated acids and the use of a fume
cupboard is often required

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3.1.7 Test for Hydrogen & Carbon Dioxide

Your notes
Test for Hydrogen & Carbon Dioxide
Testing Hydrogen
The test for hydrogen consists of holding a burning splint held at the open end of a test tube of gas
If the gas is hydrogen it burns with a loud “squeaky pop” which is the result of the rapid combustion of
hydrogen with oxygen to produce water
Be sure not to insert the splint right into the tube, just at the mouth, as the gas needs air to burn

Diagram showing the test for hydrogen gas

Exam Tip
It is easy to confuse the tests for hydrogen and oxygen. Try to remember that a ligHted splint has a H
for Hydrogen, while a glOwing splint has an O for Oxygen.

Testing Carbon Dioxide

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The test for carbon dioxide involves bubbling the gas through an aqueous solution of calcium
hydroxide (limewater)
If the gas is carbon dioxide, the limewater turns milky or cloudy Your notes

Diagram showing the test for carbon dioxide gas

Exam Tip
Sometimes students think that extinguishing a burning splint indicates carbon dioxide gas. However,
while it is a property of carbon dioxide, other gases, such as nitrogen, will also do this, so the test is not
definitive and should not be quoted in an exam answer.

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3.1.8 Core Practical: Preparing Copper Sulfate

Your notes
Core Practical: Preparing Copper Sulfate
Aim:
To prepare a pure, dry sample of hydrated copper(II) sulfate crystals
Materials:
1.0 mol / dm3 dilute sulfuric acid
Copper(II) oxide
Spatula & glass rod
Measuring cylinder & 100 cm3 beaker
Bunsen burner
Tripod, gauze & heatproof mat
Filter funnel & paper, conical flask
Evaporating basin and dish.

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Your notes

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Your notes

The preparation of copper(II) sulfate by the insoluble base method

Practical Tip:

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The base is added in excess to use up all of the acid, which would become dangerously concentrated
during the evaporation and crystallisation stages
Your notes
Method:
1. Add 50 cm3 dilute acid into a beaker and warm gently using a Bunsen burner
2. Add the copper(II) oxide slowly to the hot dilute acid and stir until the base is in excess (i.e. until the base
stops dissolving and a suspension of the base forms in the acid)
3. Filter the mixture into an evaporating basin to remove the excess base
4. Gently heat the solution in a water bath or with an electric heater to evaporate the water and to make
the solution saturated
5. Check the solution is saturated by dipping a cold glass rod into the solution and seeing if crystals form
on the end
6. Leave the filtrate in a warm place to dry and crystallise
7. Decant excess solution and allow the crystals to dry
Results:
Hydrated copper(II) sulfate crystals should be bright blue and regularly shaped

Exam Tip
Make sure you learn the names of all the laboratory apparatus used in the preparation of salts.

Hazards, risks and precautions

Hazard symbols to show substances that are corrosive, harmful to health and hazardous to the
environment
Copper(II) oxide and solid copper(II) sulfate can cause serious eye irritation and is a skin irritant. It is
harmful if swallowed or inhaled and is toxic to aquatic life

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For all substances, avoid contact with the skin and use safety goggles
For copper(II) oxide, care should be taken not to breathe in the powder
Your notes

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3.1.9 Prepare a Salt by Titration

Your notes
Prepare a Salt by Titration
If salts are prepared from an acid and a soluble reactant then a titration technique must be used
In a titration, the exact volume of acid and soluble reactant are mixed in the correct proportions so that
all that remains is the salt and water
Preparing a Salt by Titration
Aim:
To prepare a sample of a dry salt starting from an acid and an alkali
Diagram:

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Your notes

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Your notes

Diagram showing the apparatus needed to prepare a salt by titration

Method:
Use a pipette to measure the alkali into a conical flask and add a few drops of indicator
(phenolphthalein or methyl orange)
Add the acid into the burette and note the starting volume

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Add the acid very slowly from the burette to the conical flask until the indicator changes to appropriate
colour
Note and record the final volume of acid in burette and calculate the volume of acid added (starting Your notes
volume of acid - final volume of acid)
Add this same volume of acid into the same volume of alkali without the indicator
Heat to partially evaporate, leaving a saturated solution
Leave to crystallise decant excess solution and allow crystals to dry
Results:
A dry sample of a salt is obtained

Exam Tip
When evaporating the solution some water is left behind to allow for water of crystallisation in some
salts and also to prevent the salt from overheating and decomposing.

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3.1.10 Solubility Rules

Your notes
Solubility Rules
Ionic compounds are generally soluble in water compared to covalent substances, but there are
exceptions
A knowledge of the solubility of ionic compounds helps us to determine the most appropriate method
for the preparation of salts
The solubility of common ionic compounds is shown below:
Solubility of Ionic Compounds Table

Calcium hydroxide is slightly soluble in water

Exam Tip
Calcium hydroxide solution is more commonly know as limewater and is used to test for carbon
dioxide.

Predicting Precipitates
Some salts can be extracted by mining but others need to be prepared in the laboratory
How the salt is made in the laboratory depends on whether the salt being formed is soluble or insoluble
in water

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To do this the balanced equation is written down to determine the identify of the salt product
Then check the solubility of the salt using the solubility table
If it is soluble in water, then it can be prepared by titration Your notes
If it is insoluble then it can be prepared by precipitation
For example a silver nitrate solution is mixed with a sodium chloride solution:
AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) ⟶ AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)
From the table both AgNO3 and NaCl are water soluble but AgCl, silver chloride, is not and hence forms
a precipitate

Exam Tip
The precipitation reaction by combining two soluble salts is also known as a double decomposition or
double displacement reaction.

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3.1.11 Preparing an Insoluble Salt

Your notes
Preparing an Insoluble Salt
Aim:
To prepare a dry sample of an insoluble salt, lead(II) sulfate
Diagram:

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Your notes

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Your notes

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Your notes

The preparation of lead(II)sulfate by precipitation from two soluble salts

Method:
Measure out 25 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm3 lead(II) nitrate solution and add it to a small beaker
Measure out 25 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm3 of potassium sulfate add it to the beaker and mix together using a
stirring rod
Filter to remove the precipitate from mixture
Wash the filtrate with distilled water to remove traces of other solutions
Leave in an oven to dry
Soluble salt 1 = lead(II) nitrate Soluble salt 2 = potassium sulfateEquation for the reaction:
Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + K2SO4 (aq) → PbSO4 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)
lead(II) nitrate + potassium sulfate → lead(II) sulfate + potassium nitrate

Exam Tip
Care should be taken with handling lead salts as they are toxic.

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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

3.2 Electrolytic Processes

Contents
3.2.1 Electrolysis
3.2.2 Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions
3.2.3 Electrolysis of Molten Compounds
3.2.4 Electrolysis & Redox
3.2.5 Core Practical: Electrolysis of Copper(II)Sulfate

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3.2.1 Electrolysis
Your notes
Electrolysis
When an electric current is passed through a molten or aqueous ionic compound the
compound decomposes or breaks down
Liquids and solutions that are able to conduct electricity are called electrolytes
Covalent compounds cannot conduct electricity hence they do not undergo electrolysis
An electrolytic cell is the name given to the set-up used in electrolysis and which consists of the
following:
Electrode: a rod of metal or graphite through which an electric current flows into or out of an
electrolyte
Electrolyte: ionic compound in molten or dissolved solution that conducts the electricity
Anode: the positive electrode of an electrolysis cell
Anion: negatively charged ion which is attracted to the anode
Cathode: the negative electrode of an electrolysis cell
Cation: positively charged ion which is attracted to the cathode

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Your notes

Diagram showing the direction of movement of electrons and ions in the electrolysis of NaCl
During electrolysis the electrons move from the power supply towards the cathode
Electron flow in electrochemistry thus occurs in alphabetical order as electrons flow from the anode to
the cathode
Positive ions within the electrolyte migrate towards the negatively charged electrode which is
the cathode
Negative ions within the electrolyte migrate towards the positively charged electrode which is
the anode

Exam Tip
When a metal conducts it is the electrons that are moving through the metal. When a salt solution
conducts it is the ions in the solution that move towards the electrodes while carrying the electrons.

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3.2.2 Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions

Your notes
Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions
Rules:
Aqueous solutions will always have water present
Some water molecules split up into hydrogen and hydroxide ions, H+ and OH–, which participate in the
electrolysis reactions
Positive Electrode
Negatively charged OH– ions and non-metal ions are attracted to the positive electrode
If halide ions (Cl-, Br-, I-) and OH- are present then the halide ion is discharged at the anode, loses
electrons and forms a halogen (chlorine, bromine or iodine)
If no halide ions are present, then OH- is discharged at the anode, loses electrons and forms oxygen
gas
In both cases, the other negative ion remains in solution
Negative Electrode
H+ ions and metal ions are attracted to the negative electrode but only one will gain electrons
Either hydrogen or a metal will be produced
If the metal is above hydrogen in reactivity series, hydrogen will be produced – bubbling will be seen at
the cathode

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Your notes

The reactivity series of metals enables chemists to predict the products at the cathode in the
electrolysis of aqueous solutions
Electrolysing aqueous solution where there are gaseous products
The apparatus can be modified for the collection of gases by using inverted test tubes over the
electrodes
The electrodes are made from graphite which is inert and does not interfere with the electrolysis
reactions

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Your notes

The electrolysis of aqueous solutions using inverted test tubes to collect gases at the electrodes
Using Named Electrolytes
The products at the electrodes from solutions of copper chloride, sodium chloride, sodium sulfate and
water acidified with sulfuric acid are as follows:
The Products of Electrolysing Aqueous Solutions

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Your notes

Explaining the products

copper chloride:
copper is below hydrogen so copper(II) ions are preferentially discharged at the cathode;
chlorine is a halogen, so is preferentially discharged at the anode
sodium chloride:
sodium is above hydrogen so hydrogen ions are preferentially discharged at the cathode;
chlorine is a halogen, so is preferentially discharged at the anode
sodium sulfate:
sodium is above hydrogen so hydrogen ions are preferentially discharged at the cathode;
hydroxide ions are preferentially discharged over sulfate ions, so oxygen is produced at the anode
acidified water:
hydrogen ions are discharged at the cathode; oxygen from water molecules is preferentially
discharged at the anode

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Exam Tip
Your notes
Once you have identified the ions, the next step is to decide towards which electrode will they be
drawn and identify the product formed. It helps if you recall the reactivity series.

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3.2.3 Electrolysis of Molten Compounds

Your notes
Electrolysis of Molten Compounds
Binary ionic compounds consists of just two elements joined together by ionic bonding
When these compounds are heated beyond their melting point, they become molten and can conduct
electricity as their ions can move freely and carry the charge
These compounds undergo electrolysis and decompose into their constituent elements
Lead(II) bromide is an ionic solid with a relatively low melting point and can be used to illustrate the
electrolysis of a molten compound

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Diagram showing the electrolysis of lead(II) bromide

Method: Your notes
Add lead(II) bromide into a crucible and heat so it will turn molten, allowing ions to be free to move and
conduct an electric charge
Add two graphite rods as the electrodes and connect this to a power pack or battery
Turn on the power pack or battery and allow electrolysis to take place
Negative bromide ions move to the positive electrode (anode) and lose two electrons to form bromine
molecules. There is bubbling at the anode as brown bromine gas is given off
Positive lead ions move to the negative electrode (cathode) and gain electrons to form grey lead metal
which deposits on the bottom of the electrode
Electrode Products:
Anode: Brown fumes of bromine gas
Cathode: A grey bead of molten lead is formed
Predicting the Products
To predict the products of any binary molten compound first identify the ions present
The positive ion will migrate towards the cathode and the negative ion will migrate towards the anode
Therefore the cathode product will always be the metal and the product formed at the anode will
always be the non-metal
For example,
Zinc chloride will produce zinc at the cathode and chlorine at the anode

Exam Tip
Remember electrodes need to be inert such as graphite or platinum so that they don’t participate in a
side reaction with the electrolyte.

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3.2.4 Electrolysis & Redox

Your notes
Electrolysis & Redox
In electrochemistry we are mostly concerned with the transfer of electrons, hence the definitions of
oxidation and reduction are applied in terms of electron loss or gain rather than the addition or removal
of oxygen
Oxidation is when a substance loses electrons and reduction is when a substance gains electrons
As the ions come into contact with the electrode, electrons are either lost or gained and they
form neutral substances
These are then discharged as products at the electrodes
At the anode, negatively charged ions lose electrons and are thus oxidised
At the cathode, the positively charged ions gain electrons and are thus reduced
This can be illustrated using half equations which describe the movement of electrons at each
electrode
Electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide
In the electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide the half equation at the negative electrode (cathode) is:
Pb2+ + 2e– ⟶ Pb Reduction
At the positive electrode (anode) bromine gas is produced by the discharge of bromide ions:
2Br– – 2e– ⟶ Br2 Oxidation
or
2Br– ⟶ Br2 + 2e–

Exam Tip
At the anode, it doesn't matter whether you subtract the electrons on the left or add them on the right.
Most chemists prefer to add them on the right, because chemical equations, by convention, generally
involve the addition of materials rather than the subtraction.

Electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride

In the electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride the half equation at the negative electrode (cathode) is:
2H+ + 2e– ⟶ H2 Reduction
At the positive electrode (anode) chlorine gas is produced by the discharge of chloride ions:

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2Cl– – 2e– ⟶ Cl2 Oxidation

or Your notes
2Cl– ⟶ Cl2 + 2e–
Electrolysis of dilute sulfuric acid
In the electrolysis of dilute sulfuric acid the half equation at the negative electrode (cathode) is:
2H+ + 2e– ⟶ H2 Reduction
At the positive electrode (anode) oxygen gas is produced by the discharge of water molecules:
2H2O – 2e– ⟶ O2 + 2H+ Oxidation
or

2H2O ⟶ O2 + 2H+ + 2e–

Electrolysis of aqueous copper(II) chloride

In the electrolysis of aqueous copper(II) sulfate the half equation at the negative electrode (cathode)
is:
Cu2+ + 2e– ⟶ Cu Reduction
At the positive electrode (anode) chlorine gas is produced by the discharge of chloride ions:
2Cl– – 2e– ⟶ Cl2 Oxidation
or
2Cl– ⟶ Cl2 + 2e–

Exam Tip
In electrode half equations the charges on each side of the equation should always balance.It may
seem odd that water molecules are discharged and not hydroxide ions, but remember that acidic
solutions will not contain any hydroxide ions.

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3.2.5 Core Practical: Electrolysis of Copper(II)Sulfate

Your notes
Core Practical: Electrolysis of Copper(II)Sulfate
Part 1- Electrolysis with Passive Electrodes
Aim:
To electrolyse copper(II) sulfate solution using inert(graphite) electrodes
Diagram:

Apparatus for the electrolysis of copper(II)sulfate using passive(inert) electrodes

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Method: (Graphite electrodes)

Pour copper sulfate solution into a beaker
Your notes
Place two graphite rods into the copper sulfate solution. Attach one electrode to the negative terminal
of a DC supply, and the other electrode to the positive terminal
Completely fill two small test tubes with copper sulfate solution and position a test tube over each
electrode as shown in the diagram
Turn on the power supply and observe what happens at each electrode
Test any gas produced with a glowing splint and a burning splint
Record your observations and the results of your tests
Analysis of results:
Record observations of what happens at each electrode, including the results of the gas tests
Conclusion:
Copper metal is formed at the negative electrode and oxygen gas is formed at the positive electrode
Part 2: Electrolysis with Active Electrodes
Aim:
To electrolyse copper(II) sulfate solution using active( copper) electrodesDiagram:

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Your notes

Apparatus for the electrolysis of copper(II)sulfate using active electrodes

Method: (copper electrodes)
Pour copper sulfate solution into a beaker
Measure and record the mass of a piece of copper foil. Attach it to the negative terminal of a DC
supply, and dip the copper foil into the copper sulfate solution
Repeat with another piece of copper foil, but this time attach it to the positive terminal
Make sure the electrodes do not touch each other, then turn on the power supply
Adjust the power supply to achieve a constant current and leave for 20 minutes
Remove one of the electrodes and wash it with distilled water, then dip it into propanone
Lift the electrode out and allow all the liquid to evaporate. Do not wipe the electrodes clean. Measure
and record the mass of the electrode
Repeat with the other electrode making sure you can identify which electrode is which
Repeat the experiment with fresh electrodes and different currents.
Analysis of results:
Record the currents used and the masses of each electrode in suitable table format

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Calculate the change in mass of each electrode

Conclusion:
Your notes
The cathode increases in mass while the anode decreases
This occurs as copper atoms are oxidised at the anode and form ions while copper ions are reduced at
the cathode, forming copper atoms
The gain in mass by the negative electrode is the same as the loss in mass by the positive electrode
Therefore the copper deposited on the negative electrode must be the same copper ions that are lost
from the positive electrode
That implies that the concentration of the Cu2+ ions in the solution remains constant
Hazards, risks and precautions

Hazard symbols to show substances that are corrosive, harmful to health and flammable
Copper(II) sulfate solution is corrosive and harmful to health as it is a skin irritant and can cause serious
eye damage
Propanone, which is often used to clean the electrodes, is flammable
Avoid contact with the skin and use safety goggles when handling copper(II) sulfate solution
Propanone should be kept away from naked flames, e.g. a Bunsen burner

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Explaining the Electrolysis of Copper(II)Sulfate

Copper refining Your notes
The electrolysis of CuSO4 using graphite rods produces oxygen and copper
By changing the electrodes from graphite to pure and impure copper, the products can be changed at
each electrode
Electrolysis can be used to purify metals by separating them from their impurities
In the set-up, the impure metal is always the anode, in this case the impure copper
The cathode is a thin sheet of pure copper
The electrolyte used is an aqueous solution of a soluble salt of the pure metal at the anode, e.g. CuSO4
Copper atoms at the anode lose electrons, go into solution as ions:
Cu ⟶ Cu2+ + 2e
The anode thus becomes thinner due to loss of atoms and the impurities fall to the bottom of the cell
as sludge
The copper(II) ions are attracted to the cathode where they gain electrons and form now purified
copper atoms
The cathode gradually becomes thicker
Cu2+ + 2e- ⟶ Cu
The anode sludge is a highly valuable material and is further refined as it often contains small quantities
of precious metals like silver which are found as impurities in the unrefined copper

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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

4.1 Obtaining & Using Metals

Contents
4.1.1 Reactivity of Metals
4.1.2 Metal Displacement Reactions & Redox
4.1.3 Extracting Metals
4.1.4 Bioleaching & Phytomining
4.1.5 Recycling Metals
4.1.6 Life Cycle Assessment

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4.1.1 Reactivity of Metals

Your notes
Reactivity of Metals
The chemistry of the metals is seen by comparing their characteristic reactions
Based on these reactions a reactivity series of metals can be produced
The series can be used to place a group of metals in order of reactivity based on the observations of
their reactions with water, acids and salts
The Relative Reactivity of Metals with Water and Acids

Reaction with water

In general, when a metal reacts with water it produces a metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas

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The reactions of potassium and sodium are covered in more detail in another section, but the reaction
with calcium and water is given here for reference:
Your notes
Ca (s) + 2H2O (l) ⟶ Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
calcium + water ⟶ calcium hydroxide + hydrogen
The reactions with magnesium, iron and zinc and cold water are very slow
Reaction with dilute acids
Only metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series will react with dilute acids
The more reactive the metal then the more vigorous the reaction will be
Metals that are placed high on the reactivity series such as potassium and sodium are very dangerous
and react explosively with acids
When acids react with metals they form a salt and hydrogen gas:
The general equation is:
metal + acid ⟶ salt + hydrogen
Some examples of metal-acid reactions and their equations are given below:
Acid-Metal Reactions Table

Reaction with metal salts

The reactivity between two metals can be compared using displacement reactions in salt solutions of
one of the metals
This is easily seen as the more reactive metal slowly disappears from the solution, displacing the less
reactive metal
For example, magnesium is a reactive metal and can displace copper from a copper sulfate solution:
Mg + CuSO4→ MgSO4 + Cu

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The blue color of the CuSO4 solution fades as colourless magnesium sulfate solution is formed
Copper coats the surface of the magnesium and also forms solid metal which falls to the bottom of the
beaker Your notes

Diagram showing the colour change when magnesium displaces copper from copper sulfate
By combining different metals and metal salts solutions it is possible to come up with a relative
reactivity order
Metal Solutions Displacement Table

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Your notes

From this table we can see that the relative reactivity of the pairs of metals is
Mg > Fe
Pb > Ag
Fe > Cu
Explaining Reactivity
In all these reactions the more reactive metals lose electrons to become cations
The more reactive the metal the more easily it becomes a cation:
M ⟶ Mn+ + ne-
The loss of electrons is oxidation
The higher up the metal is in the reactivity series the more easily it will undergo oxidation
Unreactive metals are therefore more resistant to oxidation

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Exam Tip
Your notes

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4.1.2 Metal Displacement Reactions & Redox

Your notes
Displacement Reactions & Redox
Using the principles of electron loss and gain it is possible to identify which species undergo oxidation
and reduction in metal displacement reactions
We have seen previously that the more reactive metals displace the less reactive metals, but how does
this relate to redox?
Remember that:
Oxidation is the loss of electrons
Reduction is the gain of electrons
By identifying what has happened to the electrons in displacement reaction we can deduce the redox
changes taking place
Using the reaction between zinc and copper(II) sulfate as an example:
Zinc displaces copper from a solution of copper(II) sulfate
Using ionic equations, determine which species undergoes oxidation and which species
undergoes reduction:
Deducing Redox Change in Displacement Reactions

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Exam Tip
Your notes
After writing half equations, you can see if they are correct by checking that the number of electrons
on either side is the same, which should combine to give 0 charge.

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4.1.3 Extracting Metals

Your notes
Sources of Metals
The Earth’s crust contains metals and metal compounds such as gold, copper, iron oxide and
aluminium oxide
Useful metals are often chemically combined with other substances forming ores
A metal ore is a rock that contains enough of the metal to make it worthwhile extracting
They have to be extracted from their ores through processes such as electrolysis, using
a blast furnace or by reacting with more reactive material
In many cases the ore is an oxide of the metal, therefore the extraction of these metals is a reduction
process since oxygen is being removed
Common examples of oxide ores are iron and aluminium ores which are called haematite and bauxite
respectively
Unreactive metals do not have to be extracted chemically as they are often found as the uncombined
element
They are known as native metals
This occurs as they do not easily react with other substances due to their chemical stability
Examples include gold and platinum which can both be mined directly from the Earth’s crust

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Extracting Metals
Extraction of metals and the reactivity series Your notes
The most reactive metals are at the top of the series
The tendency to become oxidised is thus linked to how reactive a metal is and therefore its position on
the reactivity series
Metals higher up are therefore less resistant to oxidation than the metals placed lower down which
are more resistant to oxidation
The position of the metal on the reactivity series determines the method of extraction
Higher placed metals (above carbon) have to be extracted using electrolysis as they are too reactive
and cannot be reduced by carbon
Lower placed metals can be extracted by heating with carbon which reduces them
Metals Extraction Method Table

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Your notes

The extraction method depends on the position of a metal in the reactivity series

Exam Tip
Make sure you can explain why aluminium is extracted by electrolysis while iron is extracted by
reduction as it is a question that often comes up.

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4.1.4 Bioleaching & Phytomining

Your notes
Bioleaching & Phytomining
Extraction of metal ores from the ground is only economically viable when the ore contains sufficiently
high proportions of the useful metal, such as iron ores and aluminium ores
For low grade ores (ores with lower quantities of metals) other techniques are being developed to
meet global demand
This is happening in particular with nickel and copper as their ores are becoming more and more scarce
Phytoextraction and bioleaching (bacterial) are two relatively new methods of extracting metals that
rely on biological processes
Both of these methods avoid the significant environmental damage caused by the more traditional
methods of mining
Traditional mining involves a great deal of digging, moving and disposing of large amounts of rock
Biological methods are, however, very slow and also require either displacement or electrolysis to
purify the extracted metal
Both techniques are also used to extract metals from mining wastes, which may contain small
quantities of metals or toxic metals that need to be removed from that environment
Phytomining
This process takes advantage of how some plants absorb metals through their roots
The plants are grown in areas known to contain metals of interest in the soil
As the plants grow the metals are taken up through the plants vascular system and
become concentrated in specific parts such as their shoots and leaves
These parts of the plant are harvested, dried and burned
The resulting ash contains metal compounds from which the useful metals can be extracted by
displacement reactions or electrolysis

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Your notes

Copper in soil can be extracted by phytoextraction

Bioleaching
Bioleaching is a technique that makes use of bacteria to extract metals from metal ores
Some strains of bacteria are capable of breaking down ores to form acidic solutions containing metals
ions such as copper(II)
The solution is called a leachate which contains significant quantities of metal ions
The ions can then be reduced to the solid metal form and extracted by displacement reactions or
electrolysis
This method is often used to extract metals from sulfides e.g. CuS or Fe2S
Although bioleaching does not require high temperatures, it does produce toxic substances which
need to be treated so they don’t contaminate the environment
Bioleaching is not only used for the primary extraction of metals, but it is also used in mining waste
clean up operations

Exam Tip
Phytoextraction and bioleaching are principally used for copper extraction due to the high global
demand for copper, but these methods can be applied to other metals.

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4.1.5 Recycling Metals

Your notes
Recycling Metals
Everyday materials such as metals are produced from natural but finite sources
Some products made from these materials can be reused which saves energy and decreases the
environmental impact
Metals can be melted and recast into new shapes
Sometimes the materials being recycled need to be kept separate, depending on what the use of the
recycled material will be
Iron for example can be recycled together with waste steel as both materials can be added to a blast
furnace, reducing the use of iron ore
Recycling has advantages and disadvantages
Economic Implications
It is economically beneficial to recycle metals, especially those that are costly to extract such as
aluminium
Recycling is fast becoming a major industry and provides employment which feeds back into the
economy
Environment
Mining and extracting metal from ores has detrimental effects on the environment and ecosystems
It is much more energy efficient to recycle metals than it is to extract them as melting and re-
moulding requires less energy
Recycling decreases the amount of waste produced, hence saving space at landfill sites and energy
in transport

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Your notes

Iron & steel are metals widely used in construction

Raw Materials
There is a limited supply of every material on Earth
As global populations increase there is greater need for effective recycling methods to
attain sustainable development
Mining and extraction use up valuable fossil fuels, which contributes to climate change

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Your notes

Iron ore supplies can be conserved and will last longer if iron is recycled
Disadvantages
Collection and transport of material to be recycled requires energy and fuel
Workers, vehicles and worksites need to be organised and maintained
Materials need to be sorted before they can be recycled which also requires energy and labour
Products made from recycled materials may not always be of the same quality as the original

Exam Tip
You should be able to evaluate the advantages of recycling metals and how recycling can preserve
both the environment and the supply of valuable raw materials.

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4.1.6 Life Cycle Assessment

Your notes
Life Cycle Assessment
A life cycle assessment (LCA) is an analysis of the overall environmental impact that a product may have
throughout its lifetime
The cycle is broken down into four main stages which are:
Raw Materials
Manufacture
Usage
Disposal

Diagram showing the four stages in a life-cycle assessment

Obtaining the necessary raw materials has an impact on the environment which may include:
Using up limited resources such as ores and crude oil
Damaging habitats through deforestation or mining

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Manufacturing processes also have an impact on the environment which may include:
Using up land for factories
The use of fossil fuelled machines for production and transport Your notes
Usage of a product may also affect the environment although it depends on the type of product
For example, a wooden desk has very little impact whereas a car will have a significant impact (air
pollution)
The disposal of outdated products has an impact on the environment which may include:
Using up space at landfill sites
Whether the product or its parts can be recycled
A life cycle assessment is carried out using the data of a given product and the criteria of the
assessment
Rarely is there a perfect product with zero environmental impact, so often a compromise is made
between environmental impact and economical factors

Exam Tip
Life cycle assessments are objective exercises as it is difficult to quantify each stage. LCA’s can
therefore be biased.

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Evaluating LCA
Example Your notes
An LCA can be carried out on plastic and paper shopping bags.

Conclusion
Considering both life-cycle assessments, the plastic bag may be the better option. Even though they
aren’t biodegradable, they do have a much longer lifespan and thus are less harmful than paper bags
Much depends on the usage of the item:
If the paper bag is recycled then it could be more favourable to use it
If the plastic bag is used only once, then then the argument for using plastic bags is less favourable

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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

4.2 Reversible Reactions & Equilibria

Contents
4.2.1 Reversible Reactions & Equilibrium
4.2.2 The Haber Process
4.2.3 The Position of Equilibrium

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4.2.1 Reversible Reactions & Equilibrium

Your notes
Reversible Reactions
Some reactions go to completion, where the reactants are used up to form the product molecules and
the reaction stops when the reactants have been exhausted
In reversible reactions, the product molecules can themselves react with each other or decompose
and form the reactant molecules again
It is said that the reaction can occur in both directions: the forward reaction (which forms the products)
and the reverse direction (which forms the reactants)
When writing chemical equations for reversible reactions, two opposing arrows are used to indicate
the forward and reverse reactions occurring at the same time
Each one is drawn with just half an arrowhead – the top one points to the right, and the bottom one
points to the left
The direction a reversible reaction takes can be changed by changing the reaction conditions
Thermal Decomposition of Ammonium Chloride
Heating ammonium chloride produces ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases:
NH4Cl (s) → NH3 (g) + HCl (g)
As the hot gases cool down they recombine to form solid ammonium chloride

NH3 (g) + HCl (g) → NH4Cl (s)

So, the reversible reaction is represented like this:

NH4Cl (s) ⇌ NH3 (g) + HCl (g)
Dehydration of Hydrated Copper(II) Sulfate
Reversible reactions can be seen in some hydrated salts
These are salts that contain water of crystallisation which affects their shape and colour
Water of crystallisation is the water that is included in the structure of some salts during the
crystallisation process
A common example is copper(II) sulfate which crystallises forming the salt copper(II) sulfate
pentahydrate, CuSO4.5H2O
Water of crystallisation is indicated with a dot written in between the salt and the surrounding water
molecules
Anhydrous salts are those that have lost their water of crystallisation, usually by heating, in which the
salt becomes dehydrated

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When anhydrous copper(II) sulfate is added to water, it turns blue and heat is given off so the reaction is
exothermic
When hydrated copper(II) sulfate crystals are heated in a test tube, the blue crystals turn into Your notes
a white powder and a clear, colourless liquid (water) collects at the top of the test tube
The equation for the reaction is:
CuSO4.5H2O (s) ⇌ CuSO4 (s) + 5H2O (l)

The dehydration of hydrated salts is often a reversible reaction

Exam Tip
The reverse reaction may also be called the backwards reaction. A generic reversible reaction is shown
as
A+B⇌C+D

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Dynamic Equilibrium
We have already seen that a reversible reaction is one that occurs in both directions Your notes
When during the course of reaction, the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse
reaction, then the overall reaction is said to be in a state of equilibrium
Equilibrium is dynamic i.e. the molecules on the left and right of the equation are changing into each
other by chemical reactions constantly and at the same rate
The concentration of reactants and products remains constant (given there is no other change to the
system such as temperature and pressure)
It only occurs in a closed system so that none of the participating chemical species are able to leave
the reaction vessel

Equilibrium can only be reached in a closed container

An example of a dynamic equilibrium is the reaction between H2 and N2 in the Haber process

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When only nitrogen and hydrogen are present at the beginning of the reaction, the rate of the forward
reaction is at its highest, since the concentrations of hydrogen and nitrogen are at their highest
As the reaction proceeds, the concentrations of hydrogen and nitrogen gradually decrease, so the Your notes
rate of the forward reaction will decrease
However, the concentration of ammonia is gradually increasing and so the rate of the backward
reaction will increase (ammonia will decompose to reform hydrogen and nitrogen)
Since the two reactions are interlinked and none of the gas can escape, the rate of the forward reaction
and the rate of the backward reaction will eventually become equal and equilibrium is reached:

Diagram showing when the rates of forward and backward reactions become equal

Exam Tip
Remember equilibrium is only reached in a closed vessel.

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4.2.2 The Haber Process

Your notes
The Haber Process
Ammonia is manufactured using The Haber Process which occurs in five stages
Stage 1: H2 and N2 are obtained from natural gas and the air respectively and are pumped into the
compressor through pipe
Stage 2: the gases are compressed to about 200 atmospheres inside the compressor
Stage 3: the pressurised gases are pumped into a tank containing layers of catalytic iron beds at a
temperature of 450°C. Some of the hydrogen and nitrogen react to form ammonia:
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g)
Stage 4: unreacted H2 and N2 and product ammonia pass into a cooling tank. The ammonia is liquefied
and removed to pressurised storage vessels
Stage 5: the unreacted H2 and N2 gases are recycled back into the system and start over again

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Your notes

The production of ammonia by the Haber Process

Conditions
Temperature: 450ºC
A higher temperature would favour the reverse reaction as it is endothermic (takes in heat) so a higher
yield of reactants would be made
If a lower temperature is used it favours the forward reaction as it is exothermic (releases heat) so a
higher yield of products will be made
However at a lower temperature the rate of reaction is very slow
So 450ºC is a compromise temperature between having a lower yield of products but being made
more quickly
Pressure: 200 atm

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A lower pressure would favour the reverse reaction as the system will try to increase the pressure by
creating more molecules (4 molecules of gaseous reactants) so a higher yield of reactants will be
made Your notes
A higher pressure would favour the forward reaction as it will try to decrease the pressure by creating
less molecules (2 molecules of gaseous products) so a higher yield of products will be made
However high pressures can be dangerous and very expensive equipment is needed
So 200 atm is a compromise pressure between a lower yield of products being made safely and
economically
Catalyst
A catalyst of iron is used to speed up the reaction

Choosing the conditions for the Haber Process

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Exam Tip
Your notes
The reaction conditions chosen for the Haber process are not ideal in terms of the yield but do provide
balance between product yield, reaction rate and production cost. These are called compromise
conditions as they are chosen to give a good compromise between the yield, rate and cost.

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4.2.3 The Position of Equilibrium

Your notes
The Position of Equilibrium
The relative amounts of all the reactants and products at equilibrium depend on the conditions of the
reaction
This balance is framed in an important concept known as Le Chaterlier's Principle, named after Henri Le
Chatelier who was a French military engineer in the 19th century
This principle states that when a change is made to the conditions of a system at equilibrium, the
system automatically moves to oppose the change
The principle is used to predict changes to the position of equilibrium when there are changes in
temperature, pressure or concentration
Knowing the energy changes, states and concentrations involved allows us to use the principle to
manipulate the outcome of reversible reactions
Changes in Temperature
Le Chatelier’s Principle can be used to predict the effect of changes in temperature on systems in
equilibrium
To make this prediction it is necessary to know whether the reaction is exothermic or endothermic
The following table summarises how a temperature change alters the position of equilibrium:
Effect of Temperature Changes on an Equilibrium Table

Changes in Pressure
Changes in pressure only affects gases so firstly you have to identify all gaseous reactants and
products
The following table summarises how a pressure change alters the position of equilibrium:
Effect of Pressure Changes on an Equilibrium Table

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Your notes

Changes in Concentration
The following table summarises how a concentration change alters the position of equilibrium:
Effect of Concentration Changes on an Equilibrium Table

Exam Tip
You do not need to learn the name Le Chatelier's Principle for an exam but you do need to make
qualitative predictions about the effect of changes on systems at equilibrium when given appropriate
information.

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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

5.1 Transition Metals, Alloys & Corrosion

Contents
5.1.1 Transition Metals
5.1.2 Corrosion of Metals
5.1.3 Alloys
5.1.4 Using Metals

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5.1.1 Transition Metals

Your notes
Transition Metals
Properties
Most of the known metals are transition metals and they have typical properties of metals
They are very lustrous, they are hard, strong and are good conductors of heat and electricity
They are highly dense metals and have very high melting points
Transition metals can have more than one oxidation state as they can lose a different number of
electrons, depending on the chemical environment they are in
The melting point, density and common ions of the elements Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni and Cu are shown below
Transition Metals Table

Compounds containing transition elements in different oxidation states will have

different properties and colours in aqueous solutions

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Your notes

The colours produced by ions of the transition elements

Exam Tip
Note that transition metals themselves do not display a range of colours, it is the compounds they
form that are colourful

Applications
Catalysis
The transition elements are used extensively as catalysts which are substances that speed up the rate
of a reaction without being used up in the process
They do not take part in the reaction
Their catalytic characteristics stem from their ability to interchange between a range of oxidation
states
This allows them to form complexes with reagents which can easily donate and accept electrons from
other chemical species within a reaction system
Common transition metal catalysts include:
Iron which is used in the Haber Process
Vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) which is used in the Contact Process to produce sulfuric acid
Nickel which is used in the hydrogenation of alkenes
Medicine
The transition metals are also used in medicine and surgical applications such as limb and joint
replacement

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Titanium in particular is useful as it is the only element that can bond with bones due to its high
biocompatibility
Your notes
Other Industrial Applications
They are also used to form coloured compounds in dyes and paints for both household and industrial
applications
They are used in creating stained glass, jewellery and in anti-corrosive materials

Exam Tip
You should be able to recall the typical properties of the transition elements including melting points,
density, coloured compounds and catalytic activity.

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5.1.2 Corrosion of Metals

Your notes
Oxidation of Metals
Corrosion is the destruction of materials by chemical substances in their environment which act on
them over a period of time
Most metals can corrode in the presence of oxygen to form the corresponding metal oxide
Corrosion is caused by redox reactions:
The metal loses electrons and is oxidised while the oxygen gains electrons and is reduced
Rusting is the name given specifically to the corrosion of iron in the presence of water and oxygen from
the air:
iron + water + oxygen ⟶ hydrated iron(III)oxide

Exam Tip
Corrosion and rusting are not the same process. Corrosion is the general term used to describe the
degradation of metal surfaces. Rusting is the specific type of corrosion that happens only to iron.

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Rusting of Iron
Barrier Methods Your notes
Rust can be prevented by coating iron with barriers that prevent the iron from coming into contact with
water and oxygen
However, if the coatings are washed away or scratched, the iron is once again exposed to water and
oxygen and will rust
Unlike some other metals, once iron begins to rust it will continue to corrode internally as rust is porous
and allows both air and water to come into contact with fresh metal underneath any barrier surfaces
that have been broken or scratched
Common barrier methods include: paint, oil, grease and plastic
Barrier Methods for Preventing Corrosion of Metals

Galvanising / Sacrificial protection

Iron can be prevented from rusting making use of metals higher in reactivity than iron
Galvanising is a process where the iron to be protected is coated with a layer of zinc
ZnCO3 is formed when zinc reacts with oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air and protects the iron by the
barrier method
If the coating is damaged or scratched, the iron is still protected from rusting because zinc
preferentially corrodes as it is higher up the reactivity series than iron
Compared to iron it loses its electrons more readily:
Zn → Zn2+ + 2e-
The iron stays protected as it accepts the electrons released by zinc, remaining in the reduced state
and thus it does not undergo oxidation
The electrons donated by the zinc react with hydrogen ions in the water producing hydrogen gas:
2H+ + 2e– → H2
Zinc therefore reacts with oxygen and water and corrodes instead of the iron

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Sacrificial corrosion
Sacrificial corrosion occurs when a more reactive metal is intentionally allowed to corrode Your notes
An example of this occurs with ships' hulls which sometimes have large blocks of magnesium or
magnesium alloys attached
The blocks slowly corrode and provide protection to the hull in the same way the zinc does by pushing
electrons onto the iron which prevents it from being oxidised to iron(III) ions

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Electroplating
Electroplating is a process where the surface of one metal is coated with a layer of a different metal Your notes
The metal being used to coat is a less reactive metal than the one it is covering
The anode is made from the pure metal used to coat
The cathode is the object to be electroplated
The electrolyte is an aqueous solution of a soluble salt of the pure metal at the anode

A piece of iron being electroplated with tin. The electrolyte is tin(II) chloride, a water-soluble salt of tin
Uses of electroplating

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Electroplating is done to make metals more resistant to corrosion or damage, e.g. chromium and
nickel plating
When people talk about a 'tin can', the amount of tin is very small (only about 1%). The can is made from Your notes
steel and has a very thin coat of tin on the interior surface that resists corrosion from the liquids inside
It is also done to improve the appearance of metals, e.g. silver plating cutlery and jewellery

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5.1.3 Alloys
Your notes
Alloys
Alloys are mixtures of metals, where the metals are mixed together physically but are not chemically
combined
They can also be made from metals mixed with nonmetals such as carbon
Alloys often have properties that can be very different to the metals they contain, for example they can
have greater strength, hardness or resistance to corrosion or extreme temperatures
Alloys contain atoms of different sizes, which distorts the regular arrangements of atoms
This makes it more difficult for the layers to slide over each other, so they are usually much harder than
the pure metal
Brass is a common example of an alloy which contains 70% copper and 30% zinc

Particle diagram showing a mixture of elements in an alloy. The different sizes of the two types of atoms
prevent the layers of atoms from sliding over each other, so the alloy becomes less malleable than the
pure metal

Exam Tip
Questions on this topic often give you a selection of particle diagrams and ask you to choose the one
which represents an alloy. It will be the diagram with uneven sized particles and distorted layers or rows
of particles.

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Steel Alloys
Steel Alloys Your notes
Iron from a blast furnace is an alloy of 96% iron, with carbon, phosphorus, silicon and sulfur impurities
It is called cast iron and is too brittle for many uses, so most of it is converted into steel by removing
some of the impurities
Not all of the carbon is removed as steel contains some carbon, the percentage of which depends on
the use of the steel
Alloys of steel are made from adding other metals to steel such as chromium, manganese or nickel
By carefully controlling the amounts added, the particular type of alloy required can be produced
Steel alloys are used in construction, transport, manufacturing and other industries
Steel Alloys & their Uses

Exam Tip
Alloys are mixtures of substances, they are not chemically combined and an alloy is not a compound.

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5.1.4 Using Metals

Your notes
Using Metals
Aluminium Alloys
Aluminium is mixed with copper, manganese and silicon for aircraft body production as aluminium
alloys tend to be stronger and lighter than pure aluminium
Aluminium and magnesium (5%) make an interesting alloy called magnalium which is also used
extensively in automobile and aircraft construction
As well as being lighter and stronger, it is also more corrosion resistant than aluminium.
Magnalium with 50% magnesium is used in the production of fireworks as it is more stable than pure
magnesium but still burns brightly
Uses of Aluminium

Copper Alloys
Bronze is an alloy made of copper and tin. It is harder than copper and is used to make ornaments and
medals
Brass is a common example of an alloy which contains 70% copper and 30% zinc. It is decorative and
corrosion resistant and is used for low friction ornamental purposes such as plumbing and carpentry
fittings

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Your notes

Brass is used extensively in modern kitchen and bathroom fittings

Uses of Copper

Gold Alloys
Gold alloys are used to make jewellery
Gold metal is relatively soft and malleable so other metals such as copper, zinc and silver are added to
provide strength and toughness

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Carats are used to express the purity of gold jewellery

Pure gold with nothing else added is said to be 24 carat
A 12 carat piece of gold jewellery therefore contains 50% gold Your notes
For example a 12 carat necklace that weighs 50 g contains 25 grams of gold

Rose, yellow and white gold are alloys of gold with varying proportions of copper, silver and other
metals. White gold is a good imitation of platinum which is a very expensive precious metal

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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

5.2 Quantitative Analysis

Contents
5.2.1 Using Concentrations in mol/dm3
5.2.2 Core Practical: Acid-Alkali Titration
5.2.3 Titration Calculations
5.2.4 Yield
5.2.5 Atom Economy
5.2.6 Choosing a Reaction Pathway
5.2.7 Molar Volume
5.2.8 Avogadro's Law

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5.2.1 Using Concentrations in mol/dm3

Your notes
Using Concentrations in mol/dm3
It is more useful to a chemist to express concentration in terms of moles per unit volume rather than
mass per unit volume
Concentration can therfore be expressed in moles per decimetre cubed
We can modify the concentration formula to include moles
The units in the answer can be written as mol dm-3 or mol / dm3:

You may have to convert from g dm-3 into mol dm-3 and vice versa depending on the question
To go from g dm-3 to mol dm-3:
Divide by the molar mass in grams
To go from mol dm-3 to g dm-3:
Multiply by the molar mass in grams

Exam Tip
Don't forget your unit conversions:
To go from cm3 to dm3 : divide by 1000
To go from dm3 to cm3 : multiply by 1000

The Concentration Formula Triangle

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Your notes

The concentration-moles formula triangle can help you solve these problems
The following examples show how to do this step-by-step

Worked example
Calculate the amount of solute, in moles, present in 2.5 dm3 of a solution whose concentration is 0.2
mol dm-3.
Answer:

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Worked example
Your notes
Calculate the concentration of a solution of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, in mol dm-3, when 80 g is
dissolved in 400 cm3 of water.(Na= 23, H= 1, O= 16).
Answer:

Exam Tip
You are not given the concentration-moles formula triangle in exams so you have to learn it. It is a good
idea to write it down before you start a problem, so you get all the parts in the correct place.

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5.2.2 Core Practical: Acid-Alkali Titration

Your notes
Core Practical: Acid-Alkali Titration
Titrations are a method of analysing the concentration of solutions
Acid-base titrations are one of the most important kinds of titrations
They can determine exactly how much alkali is needed to neutralise a quantity of acid – and vice versa
You may be asked to calculate the moles present in a given amount,
the concentration or volume required to neutralise an acid or a base
Titrations can also be used to prepare salts
How to carry out a titration

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Your notes

Performing a titration
Method:
1. Use the pipette and pipette filler and place exactly 25 cm3 sodium hydroxide solution into the conical
flask
2. Place the conical flask on a white tile so the tip of the burette is inside the flask
3. Add a few drops of a suitable indicator to the solution in the conical flask
4. Perform a rough titration by taking the burette reading and running in the solution in 1 – 3 cm3 portions,
while swirling the flask vigorously
5. Quickly close the tap when the end-point is reached (sharp colour change) and record the volume,
placing your eye level with the meniscus
6. Now repeat the titration with a fresh batch of sodium hydroxide
7. As the rough end-point volume is approached, add the solution from the burette one drop at a time
until the indicator just changes colour
8. Record the volume to the nearest 0.05 cm3
9. Repeat until you achieve two concordant results (two results that are within 0.1 cm3 of each other) to
increase accuracy
Results:

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Record your results in a suitable table, e.g:

Your notes

Exam Tip
Use a funnel to fill the burette but be sure to remove it before starting the practical as it can drip liquid
into the burette, making the initial reading false.

Hazards, risks and precautions

Hazard symbol to show substances that are harmful to health

Dilute hydrochloric acid is not classified as hazardous at the concentrations typically used in this
practical, however it may still cause harm to the eyes or the skin
Sodium hydroxide may be considered to be harmful to health, depending on the concentration used
as it is irritating to the eyes and skin
For both sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid, avoid contact with the skin and use safety goggles

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5.2.3 Titration Calculations

Your notes
Titration Calculations
Once a titration is completed and the average titre has been calculated, you can now proceed to
calculate the unknown variable using the formula triangle as shown below

Formula triangle showing the relationship between concentration, number of moles and volume of
liquid
The steps in a titration calculation are:
Step 1: Write out the balanced equation for the reaction
Step 2: Calculate the moles of the known solution given the volume and concentration
Step 3: Use the equation to deduce the moles of the unknown solution
Step 4: Use the moles and volume of the unknown solution to calculate the concentration

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Worked example
Your notes
A solution of 25.0 cm3 of hydrochloric acid was titrated against a solution of 0.100 mol dm-3 NaOH
and 12.1 cm3 were required for a complete reaction. Determine the concentration of the acid.
Answer:
Step 1: Write the equation for the reaction:
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
Step 2: Calculate the number of moles of the NaOH
Moles = (volume ÷ 1000) x concentration
Moles of NaOH = 0.012 dm3 x 0.100 mol dm-3 = 1.21 x 10-3 mol
Step 3: Deduce the number of moles of the acid
Since the acid reacts in a 1:1 ratio with the alkali, the number of moles of HCl is also 1.21 x
10-3 mol
This is present in 25.0 cm3 of the solution
Step 4: Find the concentration of the acid
Concentration = moles ÷ volume
Concentration of HCl =1.21 x 10-3 mol ÷ 0.025 dm3 = 0.0484 mol dm-3

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5.2.4 Yield
Your notes
Yield
Yield
Yield is the term used to describe the amount of product you get from a reaction
In practice, you never get 100% yield in a chemical process for several reasons
These include:
Some reactants may be left behind in the equipment
The reaction may be reversible and in these reactions a high yield is never possible as the products
are continually turning back into the reactants
Some products may also be lost during separation and purification stages such as filtration or
distillation
There may be side reactions occurring where a substance reacts with a gas in the air or
an impurity in one of the reactants
Products can also be lost during transfer from one container to another
Actual & Theoretical Yield
The actual yield is the recorded amount of product obtained
The theoretical yield is the amount of product that would be obtained under perfect practical and
chemical conditions
It is calculated from the balanced equation and the reacting masses
The percentage yield compares the actual yield to the theoretical yield
For economic reasons, the objective of every chemical producing company is to have as high a
percentage yield as possible to increase profits and reduce costs and waste
Percentage Yield
The percentage yield is a good way of measuring how successful a chemical process is
There are often several methods of creating a compound and each method is called a reaction
pathway
Reaction pathways consist of a sequence of reactions which must occur to produce the required
product
Companies often investigate and try out different reaction pathways and these are
then compared and evaluated so that a manufacturing process can be chosen
The percentage yield of each pathway is a significant factor in this decision making process
The equation to calculate the percentage yield is:

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Worked example
Your notes
Copper(II) sulfate may be prepared by the reaction of dilute sulfuric acid on copper(II) oxide. A student
prepared 1.6 g of dry copper(II) sulfate crystals. Calculate the percentage yield if the theoretical yield
is 2.0 g.
Answer:
Actual yield of copper(II) sulfate = 1.6 g
Percentage yield of copper(II) sulfate = (1.6 / 2.0) x 100
Percentage yield = 80%

Exam Tip
The actual yield can be determined by experiment only, while the theoretical yield can be calculated
assuming there is 100% conversion of reactants to products.

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5.2.5 Atom Economy

Your notes
Atom Economy
Along with the percentage yield, atom economy is used to analyse the efficiency of reactions
Most reactions produce more than one product and very often some of them are not useful
Atom economy studies the amount of reactants that get turned into useful products
It illustrates what percentage of the mass of reactants become useful products
It is used extensively in the analysis of systems and procedures in industries, in an effort to
obtain sustainable development
It is also a very important analysis for economic reasons as companies prefer to use processes with
higher atom economies
The higher the atom economy of a process then the more sustainable that process is
The equation for calculating atom economy is:

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Worked example
Your notes
Hydrogen gas is obtained from methane in a process called steam-methane reforming. The reaction is
as follows:
CH4 (g) + H2O (g) → CO (g) + 3H2 (g)
Calculate the atom economy of this reaction, assuming hydrogen is the only desired product.
Answer:

Exam Tip
Unwanted byproducts can sometimes be put to use so although a low atom economy is a sign that a
process is not green (sustainable) it doesn’t necessarily imply that the process is not economically
viable.

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5.2.6 Choosing a Reaction Pathway

Your notes
Choosing a Reaction Pathway
Reactions that have low atom economies use up a lot of resources and produce a lot of waste
material which then needs to be disposed of, a very expensive procedure
These reactions are thus unsustainable as they use up too much raw material to manufacture only a
small amount of product
They are not economically attractive as raw materials tend to be expensive, as does waste disposal
which requires chemicals, equipment, space and transport
Companies continually analyse reactions and processes and evaluate several factors in an effort to
improve efficiency
Atom economy, percentage yield, rates of reaction and equilibrium position are important factors
which need to be considered when choosing a reaction pathway
High percentage yields and fast reaction rates are desirable attributes in industrial chemical processes
In reversible reactions, the position of the equilibrium may need to be changed in favour of the
products by altering reaction conditions
If the waste products can be sold or reused in some way that would improve the atom economy
Alternative methods of production could also be considered that may produce a more useful by-
product

Exam Tip
Look for information on percentage yield, atom economy, rate and equilibria in questions on this topic.
Your answer should then be based on evaluating (for example by comparing the pros and cons of) this
information.

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5.2.7 Molar Volume

Your notes
Molar Volume
At room temperature and pressure, the volume occupied by one mole of any gas was found to
be 24 dm3 or 24,000 cm3
This is known as the molar gas volume at RTP
RTP stands for “room temperature and pressure” and the conditions are 20 ºC and 1 atmosphere (atm)
From the molar gas volume the following formula triangle can be derived:
The Molar Volume Formula Triangle

Formula triangle showing the relationship between moles of gas, volume in dm3 and the molar volume
If the volume is given in cm3 instead of dm3, then divide by 24,000 instead of 24:

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Your notes

Formula triangle showing the relationship between moles of gas, volume in cm3 and the molar volume

Moles into Volume

Here are some examples of how you can manipulate the relationship to find the volume of gas from a
given number of moles
Volume = Moles x Molar Volume
Examples of Converting Moles into Volumes Table

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Your notes

Volume into Moles

Rearranging the formula allows you to calculate the amount of gas in moles from a given volume at RTP
Moles = Volume ÷ Molar Volume
Examples of Converting Volumes into Moles Table

Reacting Masses into Gas Volumes

Sometimes in problem-solving we have to convert between the mass of a gas and its volume
This is a two step problem which requires first converting the mass into moles and then from moles into
gas volume
The following example illustrates this:

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Worked example
Your notes
What is the volume of 154 g of nitrogen gas at RTP?
Answer:

Exam Tip
Make sure you use the correct units as asked by the question when working through reacting gas
volume questions.

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5.2.8 Avogadro's Law

Your notes
Avogadro's Law
Volumes of gases
In 1811 the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro developed a theory about the volume of gases
Avogadro’s law (also called Avogadro’s hypothesis) enables the mole ratio of reacting gases to be
determined from volumes of the gases
Avogadro deduced that equal volumes of gases must contain the same number of molecules
At room temperature and pressure(RTP) one mole of any gas has a volume of 24 dm3
The units are normally written as dm3 mol-1(since it is ‘per mole’)
The conditions of RTP are
a temperature of 20 oC
pressure of 1 atmosphere
Stoichiometric relationships
The stoichiometry of a reaction and Avogadro’s Law can be used to deduce the exact volumes of
gaseous reactants and products
Remember that if the gas volumes are not in the same ratio as the coefficients then the amount of
product is determined by the limiting reactant so it is essential to identify it first

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Worked example
Your notes
Example 1
What is the total volume of gases remaining when 70 cm3 of ammonia is combusted completely with
50 cm3 of oxygen according to the equation shown?
4NH3 (g) + 5O2 (g) → 4NO (g) + 6H2O
Answer:
Step 1: From the equation deduce the molar ratio of the gases, which is NH3 :O2 :NO or 4:5:4
(water is not included as it is in the liquid state)

Step 2: We can see that oxygen will run out first (the limiting reactant) and so 50 cm3 of
O2 requires 4/5 x 50 cm3 of NH3 to react = 40 cm3

Step 3: Using Avogadro’s Law, we can say 40 cm3 of NO will be produced

Step 4: There will be of 70-40 = 30 cm3 of NH3 left over

Therefore the total remaining volume will be 40 + 30 = 70 cm3 of gases

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Worked example
Your notes
Example 2
The complete combustion of propane gives carbon dioxide and water vapour as the products:
C3H8 (g) + 5O2 (g) → 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (g)
Determine the volume of oxygen needed to react with 150 cm3 of propane and the total volume of the
gaseous products.
Answer
Step 1: The balanced equation shows that 5 moles of oxygen are needed to completely react
with 1 mole of propane
Step 2: Therefore the volume of oxygen needed would be = 5 moles x 150 cm3 = 750 cm3
Step 3: The total number of moles of gaseous products is = 3 + 4 = 7 moles
Step 4: The total volume of gaseous products would be = 7 moles x 150 cm3 = 1050 cm3

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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

5.3 Dynamic Equilibria

Contents
5.3.1 Reaching Equilibrium
5.3.2 Fertilisers

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5.3.1 Reaching Equilibrium

Your notes
Predicting the Conditions
Predicting the Ideal Conditions
We have previously seen that ammonia is manufactured using the Haber Process
The hydrogen and nitrogen react to form ammonia in the following reversible reaction:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g) ∆H = -92 kJ mol-1

The formation of ammonia is exothermic, so using Le Chatelier's Principle we would predict that
The reaction will produce a higher yield at low temperatures
Using a high pressure would increase the yield as there are fewer moles of gas on the right than the
left of the equation
Reaching Equilibrium
Equilibrium occurs when during the course of a reversible reaction, the rate of the forward
reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction
This means that products are being formed in the forward reaction as fast as reactants are being
formed in the reverse reaction
It is reached at a faster rate when:
A higher pressure is used as there are more successful collisions
A higher temperature is used as the particles have greater kinetic energy
A higher concentration is used as there are more particles per given volume, hence there are more
collisions
A catalyst is used as it speeds up the rate of reaction, allowing it to reach equilibrium faster

Exam Tip
Remember that Le Chatelier's Principle tell us that any change to a system at equilibrium results in the
equilibrium responding by opposing the effect of that change. Cooling an exothermic reaction results
in the equilibrium shifting in the exothermic direction (to produce more heat and raise the
temperature). Increasing pressure results in the equilibrium shifting to the side with the fewer gas
molecules (to decrease the gas pressure).

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Choosing the Conditions

Economic Considerations Your notes
Like all industries, companies that manufacture and sell chemical goods do so to make a profit
Part of the industrial process is the economic decision on how and where to design and implement a
manufacturing site
The availability and cost of raw materials is a major consideration which must be studied well before
any decisions are taken
In the Haber Process the raw materials are readily available and inexpensive to purify:
Nitrogen - from the air
Hydrogen- from natural gas
If the cost of extraction of raw materials is too high or they are unavailable then the process is no
longer economically viable
Many industrial processes require huge amounts of heat and pressure which is very expensive to
maintain
Production energy costs are also a factor to be considered carefully and alongside the raw materials
issue
Temperature: 450ºC
A higher temperature would favour the reverse reaction as it is endothermic (takes in heat) so a higher
yield of reactants would be made
If a lower temperature is used it favours the forward reaction as it is exothermic (releases heat) so a
higher yield of products will be made
However at a lower temperature the rate of reaction is very slow
So 450ºC is a compromise temperature between having a lower yield of products but being made
more quickly
Pressure: 200 atm
A lower pressure would favour the reverse reaction as the system will try to increase the pressure by
creating more molecules (4 molecules of gaseous reactants) so a higher yield of reactants will be
made
A higher pressure would favour the forward reaction as it will try to decrease the pressure by creating
fewer molecules (2 molecules of gaseous products) so a higher yield of products will be made
However, high pressures can be dangerous and very expensive equipment is needed
So 200 atm is a compromise pressure between a lower yield of products being
made safely and economically

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Your notes

Choosing the conditions for the Haber Process

Catalyst
The presence of a catalyst does not affect the position of equilibrium but it does increase the rate at
which equilibrium is reached
This is because the catalyst increases the rate of both the forward and backward reactions by the same
amount (by providing an alternative pathway requiring lower activation energy)
As a result, the concentration of reactants and products is nevertheless the same at equilibrium as it
would be without the catalyst.
So a catalyst is used as it helps the reaction reach equilibrium quicker
It allows for an acceptable yield to be achieved at a lower temperature by lowering the activation
energy required
Without it the process would have to be carried out at an even higher temperature,
increasing costs and decreasing yield as the higher temperature decomposes more of the NH3
molecules

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Your notes

Diagram showing the effect of catalyst on equilibrium position

Exam Tip
The reaction conditions chosen for the Haber process are not ideal in terms of the yield but do provide
balance between product yield, reaction rate and production cost. These are called compromise
conditions as they are chosen to give a good compromise between the yield, rate and cost.

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5.3.2 Fertilisers
Your notes
Fertilisers
Compounds containing nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus are used as fertilisers to increase crop
yields
NPK fertilisers are formulations containing appropriate ratios of all three elements
From these three essential elements:
Nitrogen promotes healthy leaves,
Potassium promotes growth, healthy fruit and flowers
Phosphorus promotes healthy roots
A distinct advantage of artificial fertilisers is that they can be designed for specific needs whereas in
natural fertilizers, such seaweed or manure, the proportions of elements cannot be controlled
Fertiliser compounds contain the following water soluble ions:
Ammonium ions, NH4+ and nitrate ions, NO3–, which are sources of soluble nitrogen
Phosphate ions, PO43-, which are a source of soluble phosphorus
Most common potassium compounds dissolve in water to produce potassium ions, K+

Ammonia is an alkaline substance and neutralises acids producing a salt and water
The salt it produces contains the ammonium ion, NH4+, which is a component of several fertilisers
Ammonia also undergoes oxidation to produce nitric acid, HNO3
Nitric acid is used as the source of the nitrate ion, NO3–, which is another important ion found in
fertilisers
Ammonium nitrate, a fertiliser and one of the most important ammonium salts, is made by reacting
ammonia with nitric acid:

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NH3 (aq) + HNO3 (aq) → NH4NO3 (aq)

Your notes
Exam Tip
Fertilisers must be water soluble so the nutrients they provide can be effectively absorbed and
transported by the plant.

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Making Fertilisers
Preparation of Ammonium Sulfate in the Laboratory Your notes
Aim:
To prepare ammonium sulfate by titration:
2NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4
Materials:
Dilute ammonia solution, dilute solution of sulfuric acid, methyl orange indicator
Clamp and stand, burette and volumetric pipette, conical flask, white tile

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Your notes

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Your notes

Steps in the laboratory preparation of ammonium sulfate

Method:
Add an exact volume of ammonia to the conical flask and place on the white tile
Add a few drops of indicator and swirl, it should turn yellow
Add the acid to the flask solution drop by drop, swirling the flask in between
Continue until the colour turns red sharply and record the titre

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Repeat by adding exactly the same amount of acid but this time without the indicator which is
an impurity
Pour the reaction mixture in an evaporating dish and gently heat in a water bath to remove some of the Your notes
water
Stop heating when the volume has been reduced to roughly one third of its volume
Leave in a dry place so the remaining water evaporates, allowing crystallisation to occur
This may take a few days depending on ambient conditions
Analysis of results:
After a few days ammonium sulfate crystals should appear
Filter to remove any remaining water
Industrial Preparation
The industrial preparation of ammonium sulfate is a large scale operation consisting of several stages
Ammonia is prepared by the Haber process and sulfuric acid by the Contact process
Both processes require their own supplies of raw materials, energy and equipment
The most common industrial process of manufacturing ammonium sulfate involves filling a large
reactor chamber with ammonia gas.
Sulfuric acid is sprayed into the chamber from above and ammonium sulfate powder is produced
Another method involves pumping a mixture of ammonia gas and steam in a reactor which contains
some sulfuric acid and a concentrated solution of ammonium sulfate
The reaction is carried out at 60 ºC and concentrated sulfuric is added gradually
Comparing the laboratory preparation & industrial production of ammonium sulfate
Comparing the two processes highlights the challenges of scaling up laboratory preparations to
industrial levels
Different Ways to Make Ammonium Sulfate

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Your notes

Exam Tip
Notice that when writing ammonia solution as NH3 (aq), water does not appear to be a product of the
neutralisation reaction. However, ammonia solution may also be written as, NH4OH (aq), ammonium
hydroxide, in which case water is produced:
NH4OH (aq) + HNO3 (aq) → NH4NO3 (aq) + H2O (l)
Either formula may be used to show the reactions.

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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

5.4 Chemical Cells & Fuel Cells

Contents
5.4.1 Electrochemical Cells
5.4.2 Fuel Cells

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5.4.1 Electrochemical Cells

Your notes
Electrochemical Cells
A simple cell is a source of electrical energy
The simplest design consists of two electrodes made from metals of different reactivity immersed in
an electrolyte and connected to an external voltmeter by wire, creating a complete circuit
A common example is zinc and copper
Zinc is the more reactive metal and forms ions more easily, readily releasing electrons
The electrons give the more reactive electrode a negative charge and sets up a charge difference
between the electrodes
The electrons then flow around the circuit to the copper electrode which is now the more positive
electrode
The difference in the ability of the electrodes to release electrons causes a voltage to be produced
The greater the difference in the metals reactivity then the greater the voltage produced
The electrolyte used also affects the voltage as different ions react with the electrodes in different
ways
Cells produce a voltage until one of the reactants is used up

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Your notes

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Your notes

Simple cell made with Cu and Mg. These metals are further apart on the reactivity series than Cu and Zn
and produce a greater voltage

Exam Tip
Use the reactivity series of metals to compare different cells and deduce the relative voltages.

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5.4.2 Fuel Cells

Your notes
Fuel Cells
A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell in which a fuel donates electrons at one electrode and
oxygen gains electrons at the other electrode
These cells are becoming more common in the automotive industry to replace petrol or diesel engines
As the fuel enters the cell it becomes oxidised which sets up a potential difference or voltage within
the cell
Different electrolytes and fuels can be used to set up different types of fuel cells
An important cell is the hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell which combines both elements to release energy
and water

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Your notes

Diagram showing the movement of hydrogen, oxygen and electrons in a Hydrogen-Oxygen fuel cell

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Exam Tip
Your notes
In fuel cells the polarity on the electrodes are the other way around: the anode is the negative
electrode and the cathode is the positive electrode.

Evaluating Fuel Cells

Advantages
They do not produce any pollution: the only product is water
They produce more energy per kilogram than either petrol or diesel
No power is lost in transmission as there are no moving parts, unlike an internal combustion engine
No batteries to dispose of which is better for the environment
Continuous process and will keep producing energy as long as fuel is supplied
Quieter so less noise pollution
Disadvantages
Materials used in producing fuel cells are expensive
High pressure tanks are needed to store the oxygen and hydrogen in sufficient amounts which are
dangerous and difficult to handle
Fuel cells are affected by low temperatures, becoming less efficient
Hydrogen is expensive to produce and store
Quieter so potential danger to pedestrians if used in cars and lorries

Exam Tip
You should be able to state advantages and disadvantages of the hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells.

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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

6.1 Group 1
Contents
6.1.1 Group 1 (Alkali Metals)
6.1.2 Group 1: Reactivity & Electronic Configurations

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6.1.1 Group 1 (Alkali Metals)

Your notes
Group Classification
Elements are arranged on the Periodic table in order of increasing atomic number where each element
has one proton more than the element preceding it
The table is arranged in vertical columns called groups numbered I – VIII and in rows called periods
The period number tells you the number of electron shells an atom has:
E.g. elements in period 3 have 3 electron shells
The group number tells you how many outer electrons each atom has:
E.g. group 6 elements have atoms with 6 electrons in the outermost shell
The periodic table positions elements based on their properties which are linked to their electronic
configurations
Elements with the same number of electrons in the outer shell and hence similar chemical properties
are placed in the same group
This allows us to use the table to predict the properties of elements based on their position
Groups 1, 7 and 0 are elements which have been classified into their respective groups using the
periodic table

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Your notes

The periodic table is a road map of all the elements

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Physical Properties in Group 1

The group 1 metals are known as the alkali metals Your notes
They form alkaline solutions when they react with water
The group 1 metals are lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium and francium and they are found
in the first column of the periodic table

The alkali metals lie on the far left of the periodic table, in the very first group
The alkali metals share similar characteristic physical properties
Some of these properties are:
They are all soft metals which can easily be cut with a knife
They have relatively low densities and low melting points
They are very reactive (they only need to lose one electron to become highly stable)

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Your notes

The melting points of the alkali metals

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How Alkali Metals React with Water

Reaction with water Your notes
The reaction of the group 1 metals with water provides evidence for categorising these elements into
the same chemical family
The general pattern shown is:
group 1 metal + water ⟶ metal hydroxide + hydrogen
2M (s) + 2H2O (l) ⟶ 2MOH (aq) + H2 (g)
where M is Li, Na, K, Rb or Cs
The hydroxides formed all have the same general formula and are colourless, aqueous solutions
The metals are so named because they form alkalis in water

Sodium reacts vigorously with cold water

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Exam Tip
Your notes
Remember the group 1 metals all produce alkaline solutions (>pH 7) when they react with water.Lithium
will produce a solution of lithium hydroxide; sodium will produce a solution of sodium hydroxide and so
on.Make sure you can give the reaction equations with the correct state symbols to show what is
happening during the reactions!

Trends in Group 1
Trends are patterns of behaviour in physical or chemical properties
Following these trends seen in lithium, sodium and potassium, we can say that:
Rubidium, caesium and francium will react even more vigorously with air and water than the first
three alkali metals
Of the alkali metals, lithium is the least reactive (as it is at the top of group 1) and francium would be the
most reactive (as it’s at the bottom of group 1)
Using the information given in the trends we would predict that rubidium:
would be a soft grey solid
would appear shiny when freshly cut
would be more dense than potassium (> 0.86 g cm-3)
would have a lower melting point than potassium (< 63.5 oC)

Exam Tip
You could be asked to make predictions about how rubidium would be expected to react with water,
knowing that it lies below potassium in group 1. Words like 'explosively' and 'violently' would be good
ones to choose when describing the reaction.

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6.1.2 Group 1: Reactivity & Electronic Configurations

Your notes
Group 1: Reactivity & Electronic Configurations
The reactivity of the group 1 metals increases as you go down the group
When a group 1 element reacts its atoms only need to lose electron, as there is only 1 electron in the
outer shell
When this happens, 1+ ions are formed
The next shell down automatically becomes the outermost shell and since it is already full, a group 1 ion
obtains noble gas configuration
As you go down group 1, the number of shells of electrons increases by 1
This means that the outermost electron gets further away from the nucleus, so there are weaker
forces of attraction between the outermost electron and the nucleus
Less energy is required to overcome the force of attraction as it gets weaker, so the outer electron
is lost more easily
So, the alkali metals get more reactive as you descend the group

These electron shell diagrams of the first 3 alkali metals show that the group 1 metals have 1 electron in
their outer shell

Exam Tip
In your exams, you could be asked to explain the trend in reactivity of the alkali metals - make sure you
answer this question using their electronic configuration to support your answer.

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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

6.2 Group 7
Contents
6.2.1 Group 7 (Halogens)
6.2.2 Reactions of the Halogens
6.2.3 Halogen Displacement & Redox
6.2.4 Group 7: Reactivity & Electronic Configurations

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6.2.1 Group 7 (Halogens)

Your notes
Physical Properties in Group 7
The elements in group 7 are known as the halogens
These are fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine
These elements are non-metals that are poisonous
All halogens have similar reactions as they each have seven electrons in their outermost shell
Halogens are diatomic, meaning they form molecules made of pairs of atoms sharing electrons
(forming a single covalent bond between the two halogen atoms)
Trends in Physical Properties
At room temperature, the halogens exist in different states and colours, with different characteristics
The Appearance, Characteristics and Colour in Solution of the Halogens

The melting and boiling points of the halogens increase as you go down the group
This is due to increasing intermolecular forces as the atoms become larger, so more energy is required
to overcome these forces

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This graph shows the melting and boiling points of the group 7 halogens
At room temperature (20 °C), the physical state of the halogens changes as you go down the group
Fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid and iodine is crumbly solid
The colours of the halogens also change as you descend the group - they become darker

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Your notes

The physical states and colours of chlorine, bromine and iodine at room temperature

Exam Tip
Exam questions on this topic occur often so make sure you know and can state the trends of the group
7 elements in detail.

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Testing Chlorine
The test for chlorine makes use of litmus paper Your notes
If chlorine gas is present, damp blue litmus paper will be bleached white
It may turn red briefly before bleaching, as acids are produced when chlorine comes into contact with
water
Chlorine should always be handled in a fume cupboard due to its toxicity

Diagram showing the test for chlorine gas

Exam Tip
You should distinguish between properties of gases and tests for gases. Chlorine 'smells like
swimming pools' is a characteristic, but not an acceptable means of identification. You can use blue,
red or universal indicator paper to show the bleaching effect.

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6.2.2 Reactions of the Halogens

Your notes
Reactions with Metals
Metal Halides
The halogens react with some metals to form ionic compounds which are metal halide salts
The halide ion carries a -1 charge so the ionic compound formed will have different numbers of halogen
atoms, depending on the valency of the metal
E.g., sodium is a group 1 metal:
2 Na + Cl2 → 2 NaCl
Calcium is a group 2 metal:
Ca + Br2 → CaBr2
The halogens decrease in reactivity moving down the group, but they still form halide salts with some
metals including iron
The rate of reaction is slower for halogens which are further down the group such as bromine and
iodine

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Your notes

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Sodium donates its single outer electron to a chlorine atom and an ionic bond is formed between the
positive sodium ion and the negative chloride ion

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Hydrogen Halides
The halogens react with nonmetals to form simple molecular covalent structures Your notes
For example, the halogens react with hydrogen to form hydrogen halides (e.g., hydrogen chloride)

Hydrogen chloride is a simple covalent molecules made by direct combination of hydrogen and chlorine
Hydrogen halides are steamy acidic gases that dissolve very well in water to form strongly acidic
solutions
For example, hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in water to form hydrochloric acid:
HCl (g) ⟶ HCl (aq)
The other hydrogen halides will do the same, although strangely enough, hydrofluoric acid is actually a
weak acid in water
Trends in reactivity and stability
Reactivity decreases down the group, so iodine reacts less vigorously with hydrogen than chlorine
(which requires light or a high temperature to react with hydrogen)
Fluorine is the most reactive (reacting with hydrogen at low temperatures in the absence of light)

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The hydrogen halides becomes less stable as you go down the group, so much so that hydrogen
iodide decomposes quite readily on heating:
Your notes
2HI (g) ⇌ H2 (g) + I2 (g)
This pattern illustrates an important principle in chemistry about stability and reactivity: the more
vigorous and energetic a reaction forming a compound is, the more stable in the product, and vice
versa

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Displacement Reactions
A halogen displacement reaction occurs when a more reactive halogen displaces a less reactive Your notes
halogen from an aqueous solution of its halide
The reactivity of group 7 elements decreases as you move down the group
You only need to learn the displacement reactions with chlorine, bromine and iodine
Chlorine is the most reactive and iodine is the least reactive
Chlorine with Bromides & Iodides
If you add chlorine solution to colourless potassium bromide or potassium iodide solution a
displacement reaction occurs:
The solution becomes orange as bromine is formed or
The solution becomes brown as iodine is formed
Chlorine is above bromine and iodine in group 7 so it is more reactive
Chlorine will displace bromine or iodine from an aqueous solution of the metal halide:
Cl2 + 2KBr → 2KCl + Br2
chlorine + potassium bromide → potassium chloride + bromine
Cl2 + 2KI → 2KCl + I2
chlorine + potassium iodide → potassium chloride + iodine
Bromine with Iodides
Bromine is above iodine in group 7 so it is more reactive
Bromine will displace iodine from an aqueous solution of the metal iodide
bromine + potassium iodide → potassium bromide + iodine
Br2 + 2KI → 2KBr + I2
This table shows a summary of the displacement reactions of the halogens: chlorine, bromine and
iodine

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Your notes

From this pattern of reaction we can predict that:

Fluorine will displace all other halogens from their compounds
Astatine will be displaced by all the halogens from its compounds
Having said that, astatine is the rarest naturally occurring element so there is not enough around to
actually test!

Exam Tip
Displacement reactions are sometimes known as single replacement reactions.

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6.2.3 Halogen Displacement & Redox

Your notes
Halogen Displacement & Redox
Recall that oxidation and reduction take place together at the same time in the same reaction
Oxidation is loss of electrons and reduction is the gain of electrons
Halogen displacement reactions are redox reactions
This can be seen if we analyse in more detail the displacement of iodine by chlorine in the following
reaction:
CI2 + 2Kl ⟶ 2KCI + l2
chlorine + potassium iodide ⟶ potassium chloride + iodine
The full ionic equation is:
CI2 + 2K+ + 2l- ⟶ 2K+ + 2CI- + l2
The K+ ions are spectator ions as they appear on both sides of the equation unchanged so can be
eliminated. The net ionic equation is thus:
CI2 + 2l- ⟶ 2CI- + l2
If we now analyse each half equation, we can see that each chlorine atom has been reduced as an
electron is gained on changing from the chlorine molecule to chloride ions:
CI2 + 2e- ⟶ 2CI- REDUCTION
Each iodide ion has been oxidised as an electron is lost on changing from iodide ions to the iodine
molecule:
2l- ⟶ I2 + 2e- OXIDATION
This shows that halogen displacement reactions are redox processes

Exam Tip
The more reactive halogen undergoes reduction, the less reactive one undergoes oxidation.

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6.2.4 Group 7: Reactivity & Electronic Configurations

Your notes
Group 7: Reactivity & Electronic Configurations
When halogen atoms gain an electron during reactions, they form -1 ions called halide ions
We can use electronic configuration to explain the trends in chemical reactivity down group 7

The atoms of the elements of group 7 all have 7 electrons in their outer shell
Reactivity of group 7 non-metals decreases as you go down the group
As you go down group 7, the number of shells of electrons increases, the same as with all other
groups
However, halogen atoms form negative ions when they gain an electron to obtain a full outer shell
This means that the increased distance from the outer shell to the nucleus as you go down a group
makes the halogens become less reactive
Fluorine is the smallest halogen, which means its outermost shell is the closest to the positive nucleus
of all the halogen
Therefore, the ability to attract an electron is strongest in fluorine making it the most reactive
As you move down the group, the forces of attraction between the nucleus and the outermost
shell decreases
This makes it harder for the atoms to gain electrons as you descend the group
Therefore, the halogens are less reactive the further down the group you go

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Exam Tip
Your notes
Exam questions on this topic occur often so make sure you know and can explain the reactivity trends
of the group 7 elements in detail, using their electron configurations.

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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

6.3 Group 0
Contents
6.3.1 Group 0 (Noble Gases)

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6.3.1 Group 0 (Noble Gases)

Your notes
Group 0 (Noble Gases)
The elements in group 0 of the periodic table are called the noble gases
They are all non-metal, monatomic (exist as single atoms), colourless, non-flammable gases at room
temperature
The group 0 elements all have full outer shells of electrons; this electronic configuration is extremely
stable
Elements participate in reactions to complete their outer shells by losing, gaining, or sharing electrons
The Group 0 elements do not need to do this, because of their full outer shells which makes them
unreactive and inert
Other than helium which has 2 electrons in its outer shell, the noble gases have eight valence electrons
(which is why you may see this group labelled “group 8”)
Electronic configurations of the Noble gases:
He = 2
Ne = 2.8
Ar = 2.8.8
Kr = 2.8.18.8
Xe = 2.8.18.18.8

The periodic table highlighting the noble gases - they occupy the group furthest to the right

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Using Noble Gases Your notes

Uses of the Noble gases
Although chemically inert, the noble gases do have several applications and uses
Helium is used for filling balloons and weather balloons as it is less dense than air and does not burn.
Neon, argon and xenon are used in advertising signs
Argon is used to provide an inert atmosphere for welding and to fill electric light bulbs
Apart from older style incandescent light bulbs, argon is used in low energy light bulbs. Like the other
noble gases, it has the unusual property of glowing brightly when a high potential difference is applied
to the gas under low pressure

Argon is used to fill light bulbs

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Trends in Group 0
As with other groups, there are trends in the physical properties of the noble gases Your notes
The noble gases have very low melting and boiling points
They show an increase in boiling point as we move down the group due to an increase in the relative
atomic mass (the atoms get larger as you move down the group)
This leads to an increase in intermolecular forces between atoms, increasing the amount of energy
needed to overcome these forces to change state
Elements further down the group have higher boiling points but these still lie below 0 ºC.
Helium has the lowest boiling point of all known elements at -269 ºC, while radon boils at around -60
ºC.

This graph shows the trend in boiling point of the noble gases
Since the group 0 elements are all gases at room temperature, individual atoms are widely spaced
apart, giving them low densities
Their density increases as you move down the group

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Elements further down the group would be expected to have higher densities
Helium is the lightest noble gas and radon is the heaviest
Your notes

This graph shows the trend in the densities of the noble gases

Exam Tip
Exam questions often give you the boiling point of a noble gas and ask you to estimate the value of
another one, so it is important to remember the general trends in the group 0 elements. You do not
need to learn these values exactly!

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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

7.1 Rates of Reaction

Contents
7.1.1 Core Practical: Investigating Rate of Reaction
7.1.2 Collision Theory
7.1.3 Rate Graphs
7.1.4 Catalysts
7.1.5 Enzymes

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7.1.1 Core Practical: Investigating Rate of Reaction

Your notes
Determining the Rate of a Reaction
To measure the rate of a reaction, we need to be able to measure either how quickly the reactants are
used up or how quickly the products are formed
The method used for measuring depends on the substances involved
There are a number of ways to measure a reaction rate in the lab; they all depend on some property that
changes during the course of the reaction
That property is taken to be proportional to the concentration of the reactant or product, e.g., colour,
mass, volume
Some reaction rates can be measured as the reaction proceeds (this generates more data);
faster reactions can be easier to measure when the reaction is over, by averaging a collected
measurement over the course of the reaction
Three commonly used techniques are:
measuring mass loss on a balance
measuring the volume of a gas produced
measuring a reaction where there is a colour change at the end of the reaction
Changes in Mass
When a gas is produced in a reaction it usually escapes from the reaction vessel, so the mass
decreases
This can be used to measure the rate of reaction
For example, the reaction of calcium carbonate with hydrochloric acid produces CO2
The mass is measured every few seconds and change in mass over time is plotted as the
CO2 escapes

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Your notes

Measuring mass changes on a balance

Volumes of Gases
When a gas is produced in a reaction, it can be trapped and its volume measured over time
This can be used to measure the rate of reaction.
For example, the reaction of magnesium with hydrochloric acid produces hydrogen

Measuring changes in gas volume

Measuring concentration changes

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Measuring concentration changes during a reaction is not easy; the act of taking a sample and
analysing it by titration can affect the rate of reaction (unless the reaction is deliberately stopped- this
is called quenching). Your notes
Often it is more convenient to ‘stop the clock’ when a specific (visible) point in the reaction is reached
For example when a piece of magnesium dissolves completely in hydrochloric acid
Another common rate experiment is the reaction between sodium thiosulfate and hydrochloric
acid which slowly produces a yellow precipitate of sulfur that obscures a cross when viewed
through the solution:
Na2S2O3 (aq) + 2HCl (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + SO2 (g) + H2O (l) + S (s)

The disappearing cross experiment

Calculating rates of reaction
Reactions take place at different rates depending on the identities and conditions
Some are extremely slow e.g. rusting and others are extremely fast e.g. explosives
Rates of reaction can be measured either by how fast a reactant is used up or by how fast the product
is made
Rate is concerned with amounts of substances and time and can be calculated using the formula:

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Your notes

A formula triangle for calculating the rate of reaction

In order to provide sufficient data to establish a conclusion several measurements need to be made
during the reaction
The product is usually the one that is measured as it is usually easier to measure a product forming than
it is a reactant disappearing
The quantity to be measured depends on the reaction and may be in grams for mass or cm3 or dm3 for
volume if the product is a gas
The units of the rate of reaction would therefore be g/s or cm3/s or dm3/s
Time is usually in seconds as many reactions studied in the lab are quite quick
If one of the products is a gas which is given off, then the reaction can be performed in an open flask on
a balance to measure the loss in mass of reactant
Cotton wool is usually placed in the mouth of the flask which allows gas out but prevents any materials
from being ejected from the flask (if the reaction is vigorous)
Calculating Gradients
Often a curved graph is obtained or a graph which starts out as a straight line but then curves to form a
horizontal line as the reaction peters out, usually due to one of the reactants running out
The curved section signifies that the relationship between rate and the factor being measured is
not directly proportional, so the rate of reaction is different along each point of the curve

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For a curve graph a tangent must be drawn to calculate the change in x and y so the rate of reaction at
a particular point during the reaction can be calculated
Place a ruler on the point being studied and adjust its position so the space on either side of the point Your notes
between the ruler and curve are equal:

Drawing a tangent to a curve using a ruler

Use the tangent to calculate the rate of reaction as shown below:

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Your notes

Obtaining a tangent on a curve

The gradient at that point is
GRADIENT = ∆ (PRODUCT) ÷ ∆ (TIME)
You can use this formula to calculate the gradient at any particular point in the curve

Exam Tip
When drawing tangents, the line should be extended as far as is convenient for you to perform the
calculations. Extending the tangent in this way decreases the amount of uncertainty.

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Core Practical: Investigating Rate of Reaction

Part A- Measuring the Production of a Gas Your notes
Aim:
To investigate the effect of changing surface area of marble chips in the reaction between marble chips
and hydrochloric acid
Materials:
Marble chips, small and large
Hydrochloric acid 1 mol dm-3
Conical flask (100 cm3)
Safety goggles
Gas syringe
Stop clock
Diagram:

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Your notes

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Investigating the effect of different size marble chips on the rate of reaction between calcium
carbonate and hydrochloric acid
Your notes
Method:
Add hydrochloric acid into a conical flask
Use a delivery tube to connect this flask to an inverted measuring cylinder
Add marble chips into the conical flask and close the bung
Measure the volume of gas produced in a fixed time using the measuring cylinder
Repeat with different sizes of marble chips
Result:
Increase in the surface area of the marble chip, the rate of reaction will increase
This is because more surface area particles of the marble chips will be exposed to the dilute
hydrochloric acid so there will be more frequent and successful collisions, increasing the rate of
reaction
Part B- Observing a Colour Change
Aim:
To investigate the effect of changing concentration in the reaction between sodium thiosulfate and
hydrochloric acid
Materials:
40 g dm-3 sodium thiosulfate solution
1.0 mol dm-3 dilute hydrochloric acid
Conical flask (100 cm3)
Black cross on paper
White paper or white tile
Stopwatch or timer
Diagram:

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Your notes

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Your notes

Diagram showing the apparatus needed to investigate the effect of concentration on the rate of
reaction
Method:
Measure 50 cm3 of sodium thiosulfate solution into a flask
Measure 5 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid into a measuring cylinder
Draw a cross on a piece of paper and put it underneath the flask
Add the acid into the flask and immediately start the stopwatch
Look down at the cross from above and stop the stopwatch when the cross can no longer be seen
Repeat using different concentrations of sodium thiosulfate solution (mix different volumes of sodium
thiosulfate solution with water to dilute it)
Result:
With an increase in the concentration of a solution, the rate of reaction will increase
This is because there will be more reactant particles in a given volume, allowing more frequent and
successful collisions, increasing the rate of reaction
Hazards, risks and precautions

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Your notes

Hazard symbols to show substances that are flammable and toxic

Magnesium is a flammable metal
Dilute hydrochloric acid is not classified as hazardous at the concentrations typically used in this
practical, however it may still cause harm to the eyes or the skin
The reaction between sodium thiosulfate and hydrochloric acid produces sulfur dioxide which is toxic if
inhaled

Magnesium should be kept away from naked flames, e.g. a Bunsen burner
For dilute hydrochloric acid, avoid contact with the skin and use safety goggles
Take care not to inhale sulfur dioxide gas; asthmatics need to be especially careful and a fume
cupboard can be used to avoid exposure

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7.1.2 Collision Theory

Your notes
Collision Theory
Collision Theory
When reactants come together the kinetic energy they possess means their particles will collide and
some of these collisions will result in chemical bonds being broken and some new bonds being formed
Increasing the number of successful collisions means that a greater proportion of reactant particles
collide to form product molecules
We can use collision theory to explain why these factors influence the reaction rate
Not all collisions result in a chemical reaction
Most collisions just result in the colliding particles bouncing off each other
Collisions which do not result in a reaction are known as unsuccessful collisions
Unsuccessful collisions happen when the colliding species do not have enough energy to break the
necessary bonds
If they do not have sufficient energy, the collision will not result in a chemical reaction
If they have sufficient energy, they will react, and the collision will be successful

Collision theory helps to explain the energy process when particles react in chemical changes

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Explaining Rates
There are several factors that can affect the rate of a reaction. These are: Your notes
Concentration of the reactants in solution
Temperature at which the reaction is carried out
Surface area of solid reactants
Changes in these factors directly influence the rate of a reaction
Concentration of a Solution

The diagram shows a higher concentration of particles in (b) which means that there are more particles
present in the same volume than (a) so the number of collisions between reacting particles is increased
causing an increased rate of reaction
Explanation:
Increasing the concentration of a solution will increase the rate of reaction
This is because there will be more reactant particles in a given volume, allowing more frequent and
successful collisions per second
If you double the number of particles you will double the number of collisions per second
The number of collisions is proportional to the number of particles present
Temperature

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Your notes

An increase in temperature causes an increase in the kinetic energy of the particles. The number of
successful collisions increases
Explanation:
Increase in the temperature, the rate of reaction will increase
This is because the particles will have more kinetic energy than the required activation energy,
therefore there will be more frequent and successful collisions per second, increasing the rate of
reaction
The effect of temperature on collisions is not so straight forward as concentration or surface area; a
small increase in temperature causes a large increase in rate
For aqueous and gaseous systems, a rough rule of thumb is that for every 10 degree (Kelvin) increase in
temperature the rate of reaction approximately doubles
Surface area of a solid

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Your notes

An increase in surface area means more collisions per second

Explanation:
With an increase in the surface area of a solid reactant, the rate of reaction will increase
This is because more surface area of the particles will be exposed to the other reactant, producing a
higher number of collisions per second
If you double the surface area you will double the number of collisions per second
Surface Area and Particle Size

Diagram showing that surface area increase as particle size decreases. A 2 cm3 cube has a surface area
of 24 cm2 and the same cube cut up into 8 cubes has a surface area of 48 cm2

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Exam Tip
Your notes
You should be able to recall how changing the concentration, pressure, temperature and surface area
affect the rate of reactions

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7.1.3 Rate Graphs

Your notes
Rate Graphs
Data recorded in rate studies is used to plot graphs to calculate the rate of a reaction
Time is normally plotted on the x-axis with the concentration of the reactant or product on the y-axis
A number of measurements should be taken to provide a complete set of data
If the relationship between the factor being measured and the amount produced is directly
proportional (i.e. if the concentration of a reactant doubles the rate also doubles) then the resulting
graph will be a straight line graph going through the origin
The gradient of the line is equal to the initial rate of reaction and the steeper the gradient of the line
then the faster the rate of reaction
Initial Rate Graphs

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Your notes

An initial rate graph for the formation of a product shows a straight line with a positive correlation
starting from the origin
A reaction rate graph based on measurements of a reactant being used up will have a negative
correlation

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Your notes

An initial rate graph for a reactant shows a straight line with a negative correlation starting from the y-
axis
Rate Graphs Until Completion
Plotting a graph until the completion of the reaction shows how the rate changes with time
The concentration of a reactant or product may be plotted against time and will produce one of the
following curves:

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Your notes

The concentration of a reactant or product against time

Over time the rate of reaction slows as the reactants are being used up so the line becomes less steep
and eventually becomes horizontal, indicating the reaction has finished
Often it is more practical to measure a property like mass of volume against time
You can plot more than one run of a variable on the same graph making it easier to see how the variable
influences the rate
For Example, plotting the effect of concentration on a reaction between acid and marble chips:

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Your notes

This graph shows how the mass/volume of a product changes over time for a high concentration and a
low concentration
Drawing a tangent to the slope allows you to show the gradient at any point on the curve
The volume of a gaseous product would increase to a maximum over time, so the line levels out
indicating the reaction is over
Since the volume and mass would be proportional, this could also be a graph of mass of product
versus time

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Exam Tip
Your notes
Make sure you can interpret reaction graphs and use them to describe how a reaction proceeds as
questions do come up on this topic.

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7.1.4 Catalysts
Your notes
Catalysts
Catalysts are substances which speed up the rate of a reaction without themselves
being altered or consumed in the reaction
The mass of a catalyst at the beginning and end of a reaction is the same and they do not form part of
the equation
Normally only small amounts of catalysts are needed to have an effect on a reaction
Different processes require different types of catalysts but they all work on the same principle of
providing an alternate route for the reaction to occur
They do this by lowering the activation energy required, hence providing a reaction pathway requiring
less energy
Catalysis is a very important branch of chemistry in commercial terms as catalysts increase the rate of
reaction (hence the production rate) and they reduce energy costs

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Your notes

A catalyst lowers the activation energy of a reaction by providing an alternative reaction pathway

Exam Tip
Although catalysts are not part of the overall reaction, you may see them written over the arrow in
reaction equations in the same way you can add reaction conditions above or below the arrow.

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7.1.5 Enzymes
Your notes
Enzymes
Enzymes are nature’s catalysts
They are biological substances that catalyse reactions in living cells
Enzymes are biological catalysts made from protein
Enzymes speed up chemical reactions in cells, allowing reactions to occur at much faster speeds than
they would without enzymes at relatively low temperatures (such as human body temperature)
Important reactions that are biologically catalysed include
respiration, photosynthesis and protein synthesis
The production of alcohol by the fermentation of sugars occurs in the presence of a biological
catalyst, yeast enzymes:
C6H12O6 + enzymes → 2CO2 + 2C2H5OH
This reaction is very important to the production of alcoholic drinks such as beer and wine
Not only do enzymes work at low temperatures, but they are very selective and will only work on very
specific molecules when presented with a mixture of reactants

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Your notes

Enzymes are very selective which means they will work only on molecules which have exactly the right
shape to fit into the active site of the enzyme

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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

7.2 Heat Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions

Contents
7.2.1 Heat Energy Changes
7.2.2 Bonds & Energy Changes
7.2.3 Bond Energy Calculations
7.2.4 Reaction Profiles

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7.2.1 Heat Energy Changes

Your notes
Heat Energy & Temperature changes
Chemical reactions occur so that elements can achieve a more stable energy state by gaining a full
outer shell of electrons
This is done by chemical bonding (we have already seen ionic and covalent bonding) where old
bonds are broken, and new bonds are formed
This process involves the transfer of energy into and out of reaction mixtures
The terms used to describe this are the system (what happens in the chemical reaction) and
the surroundings
The energy comes from the chemical bonds themselves which could be considered as tiny stores of
chemical energy
In the majority of reactions, the energy is in the form of heat energy, although sometimes other types
of energy are produced such as light or sound
The changes in heat can be observed and measured with a thermometer and simple calorimeter

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Your notes

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Your notes
Diagram showing the apparatus for the calorimetry investigation for displacement, dissolving and
neutralisation
The following are some examples of heat changes in reactions
Salts dissolving in water:
These can either take energy in or give it out
Neutralisation reactions:
These always give energy out
Displacement reactions:
These can either take energy in or give it out
Precipitation reactions:
These always give energy out

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Exothermic Reactions
In exothermic reactions energy is given out to the surroundings so the temperature of the Your notes
surroundings increases
Combustion, oxidation, and neutralisation reactions are typical exothermic reactions
Hand warmers used in the wintertime are based on the release of heat from an exothermic reaction
Self-heating cans of food and drinks such as coffee and hot chocolate also use exothermic reactions
in the bases of the containers

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Your notes

Diagram showing the transfer of heat energy outwards from an exothermic reaction

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Endothermic Reactions
In endothermic reactions energy is taken in from the surroundings so the temperature of the Your notes
surroundings decreases
These types of reactions are much less common than the exothermic reactions
Electrolysis, thermal decomposition reactions and the first stages of photosynthesis are typical
endothermic reactions
Sports injury treatment often use cold packs based on endothermic reactions to take heat away from a
recently injured area to prevent swelling

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Your notes

Diagram showing the transfer of heat energy from the surroundings into an endothermic reaction

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Exam Tip
Your notes
To help you remember whether a chemical system is exothermic or endothermic, in EXothermic
reactions heat Exits the system and in ENdothermic reactions heat ENters the system.Exothermic
reactions always give off heat and they feel hot, whereas endothermic reactions take heat in and they
feel cold.

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7.2.2 Bonds & Energy Changes

Your notes
Bonds & Energy Changes
Energy is needed to break bonds which is absorbed from the reaction surroundings, so bond breaking
is an endothermic process
The opposite occurs for forming bonds as it releases energy back to the surroundings in
an exothermic process
Both processes occur in the same chemical reaction, for example, in the production of ammonia:
N2 + 3H2 ⟶ 2NH3
The bonds in the N-N and H-H molecules must be broken which requires energy while the bonds in the
NH3 molecule are formed which releases energy
Most reactions occur in a number of steps including steps that are exothermic and steps that are
endothermic
Whether a reaction is overall endothermic or exothermic depends on the difference between the sum
of the exothermic steps and the sum of the endothermic steps
Endothermic
If more energy is absorbed than is released, this reaction is endothermic
More energy is required to break the bonds than that gained from making the new bonds
The change in energy is positive since the products have more energy than the reactants
Therefore an endothermic reaction has a positive change in energy

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Your notes

Energy must be absorbed from the surroundings for bonds to be broken

Exothermic
If more energy is released than is absorbed, then the reaction is exothermic
More energy is released when new bonds are formed than energy required to break the bonds in the
reactants
The change in energy is negative since the reactants have more energy than the products
Therefore an exothermic reaction has a negative change in energy

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Your notes

Making new bonds gives off heat from the reaction to the surroundings

Exam Tip
Remember bond breaking is ENDothermic and results in the END of the bond.

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7.2.3 Bond Energy Calculations

Your notes
Bond Energy Calculations
Each chemical bond has a specific bond energy associated with it
This is the amount of energy required to break the bond or the amount of energy given out when the
bond is formed
This energy can be used to calculate how much heat would be released or absorbed in a reaction
To do this it is necessary to know the bonds present in both the reactants and products
We can calculate the total change in energy for a reaction if we know the bond energies of all the
species involved
Add together all the bond energies for all the bonds in the reactants – this is the ‘energy in’
Add together the bond energies for all the bonds in the products – this is the ‘energy out’
Calculate the energy change using the equation:
Energy change = Energy taken in - Energy given out

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Worked example
Your notes
Example 1
Hydrogen and chlorine react to form hydrogen chloride gas:
H2 + Cl2 ⟶ 2HCl
The table below shows the bond energies. Calculate the energy change for the reaction and deduce
whether it is exothermic or endothermic.

Answer:

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Worked example
Your notes
Example 2
Hydrogen bromide decomposes to form hydrogen and bromine:
2HBr ⟶ H2 + Br2
The table below shows the bond energies. Calculate the energy change for the reaction and deduce
whether it is exothermic or endothermic.

Answer:

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Exam Tip
Your notes
For bond energy questions, it is helpful to write down a displayed formula equation for the reaction
before identifying the type and number of bonds, to avoid making mistakes.

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7.2.4 Reaction Profiles

Your notes
Reaction Profiles
Reaction Profiles
Reaction profiles (sometimes called energy level diagrams) are graphical representations of the
relative energies of the reactants and products in chemical reactions
The energy of the reactants and products are displayed on the y-axis and the reaction pathway is
shown on the x-axis
Arrows on the diagrams indicate whether the reaction is exothermic (downwards pointing) or
endothermic (upwards pointing)
The difference in height between the energy of reactants and products represents the overall energy
change of a reaction
The initial increase in energy represents the activation energy required to start the reaction
The greater the initial rise then the more energy that is required to get the reaction going e.g., more
heat needed

Reaction profile of an exothermic reaction and an endothermic reaction

Energy is given out in exothermic reactions
The energy of the products will be lower than the energy of the reactants, so the change in energy
is negative

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This is represented on the reaction profile with a downwards-arrow as the energy of the products is
lower than the reactants
Energy is taken in endothermic reactions Your notes
The energy of the products will be higher than the energy of the reactants, so the change in energy
is positive
This is represented on the reaction profile with an upwards-arrow as the energy of the products is
higher than the reactants

Exam Tip
You should be able to draw clear and fully labelled reaction profile diagrams for both types of
reactions and you should be able to identify a reaction from its reaction profile.

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Activation Energy
The minimum energy the colliding particles need in order to react is known as the activation energy Your notes
The activation energy can be lowered by the addition of a catalyst
This means that a higher percentage of the particles will have the minimum energy required to react,
hence there are a higher number of successful collision
Therefore more product molecules are produced in a shorter time, thus increasing the rate of reaction
Reaction profile graphs show the relative energy levels of reactants and products on a graph
The reaction profile graph below shows the effect of catalysts on reactions
Reaction Profiles Showing ∆H and EA

Diagram shows that a catalyst increases the rate of a reaction by providing an alternative pathway
which has a lower activation energy
Catalysts provide the reactants another pathway which has a lower activation energy
By lowering Ea, a greater proportion of molecules in the reaction mixture have sufficient energy for an
successful collision
As a result of this, the rate of the catalysed reaction is increased compared to the uncatalyzed reaction

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Your notes

Molecules with the activation energy lead to successful collisions

Exam Tip
The activation energy is constant for a particular reaction. Reactions with a low activation energy occur
readily as little energy is needed to break the bonds and initiate the reaction.

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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

8.1 Fuels
Contents
8.1.1 Crude Oil
8.1.2 Fractional Distillation of Crude Oil
8.1.3 Homologous Series
8.1.4 Combustion of Fuels
8.1.5 Acid Rain: Nitrogen Oxides & Sulfur Dioxide
8.1.6 Hydrogen vs Fossil Fuels
8.1.7 Cracking

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8.1.1 Crude Oil

Your notes
Crude Oil
Mixture of Hydrocarbons
Crude oil is a complex mixture of lots of different hydrocarbon compounds of different sizes
Hydrocarbons are compounds that contain hydrogen and carbon atoms only
It is a thick, sticky, black liquid that is found in porous rock (under the ground and under the sea)

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Diagram showing crude oil under the sea

Chains & Rings Your notes
The hydrocarbon molecules in crude oil consist of a carbon backbone which can be in a ring or chain,
with hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon atoms
The mixture contains molecules with many different ring sizes and chain lengths

Crude oil is a mixture containing different sized hydrocarbon molecules

Useful Substances
Crude oil is the main source of hydrocarbons which are used for producing fuels such
as petrol and diesel.
It is also a main source of raw materials (called feedstock) for the petrochemical industry
Finite Resource
Crude oil formed over millions of years from the effects of high pressures and temperatures on the
remains of plants and animals
Since it is being used up much faster than it is being formed crude oil is a finite resource
The petrochemical industry is hugely important for modern society and development
The fuels that are used in most modern methods of transport (cars, trains, airplanes etc.) are all based
on oil products

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Polymers, lubricants, solvents, detergents and adhesives are all products that are obtained from crude
oil
Your notes

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8.1.2 Fractional Distillation of Crude Oil

Your notes
Fractional Distillation of Crude Oil
Crude oil as a mixture is not a very useful substance but the different hydrocarbons that make up the
mixture, called fractions, are enormously valuable, with each fraction having many different
applications
Each fraction consists of groups of hydrocarbons of similar chain lengths
The fractions in petroleum are separated from each other in a process called fractional distillation
The molecules in each fraction have similar properties and boiling points, which depend on the
number of carbon atoms in the chain
The size and length of each hydrocarbon molecule determines in which fraction it will be separated into
The size of each molecule is directly related to how many carbon and hydrogen atoms the molecule
contains
Most fractions contain mainly alkanes, which are compounds of carbon and hydrogen with only single
bonds between them

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Your notes

Diagram showing the process of fractional distillation to separate crude oil in a fractionating column
Fractional distillation is carried out in a fractionating column which is very hot at
the bottom and cool at the top
Crude oil enters the fractionating column and is heated so vapours rise
Vapours of hydrocarbons with very high boiling points will immediately condense into liquid at the
higher temperatures lower down and are tapped off at the bottom of the column
Vapours of hydrocarbons with low boiling points will rise up the column and condense at the top to be
tapped off
The different fractions condense at different heights according to their boiling points and are tapped
off as liquids

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The fractions containing smaller hydrocarbons are collected at the top of the fractionating column as
gases
The fractions containing bigger hydrocarbons are collected at the lower sections of the fractionating Your notes
column

Exam Tip
As you move up a fractionating column the temperature decreases, so the compounds with higher
boiling points come off lower down the column.

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The Main Fractions

Uses of the different fractions obtained from petroleum (crude oil) Your notes
The petrochemical industry is hugely important for modern society and development
The fuels that are used in most modern methods of transport (cars, trains, airplanes etc.) are all based
on oil products
Polymers, lubricants, solvents, detergents and adhesives are all products that are obtained from crude
oil
The array of fractions in crude oil and the huge range of compounds we can produce from them all
stem from carbon’s ability to form multiple strong covalent bonds with itself leading a huge number of
organic compounds
The main fractions and their uses are described in the following table:
Uses of Crude Oil Fractions

Exam Tip
You need to learn the names and uses of the main fractions obtained from crude oil: refinery
gases(also known as liquid petroleum gases), gasoline, kerosene, diesel, fuel oil and bitumen.
Gasoline and petrol are the same thing; gasoline is the term used in the USA.

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Trends in Properties
Properties of the main fractions of crude oil Your notes
Some properties of hydrocarbons depend on the size of their molecules, including boiling point,
viscosity and flammability
These properties influence how hydrocarbons are used as fuels
Number of Carbon & Hydrogen Atoms
The size and length of each hydrocarbon molecule determines in which fraction it will be separated
into
The size of each molecule is directly related to how many carbon and hydrogen atoms the
molecule contains
Most fractions contain mainly alkanes, which are compounds of carbon and hydrogen with
only single bonds between them

Decane is an alkane, C10H22 and is a component in some fuels

Boiling point
As the molecules get larger, the intermolecular forces of attraction between the molecules becomes
greater as there is more surface area contact between them
This means that more heat is needed to separate the molecules, hence with increasing molecular size
there is an increase in boiling point
Viscosity
Viscosity refers to the ease of flow of a liquid
High viscosity liquids are thick and flow less easily
Viscosity also increases with increasing chain length
This is also due to the increased intermolecular forces of attraction as molecular size increases

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Increased viscosity means that higher alkanes are useful as lubricants in machinery as they are less
likely to burn and function to reduce friction between moving parts
Your notes
Trends in the Main Fractions

Ease of Ignition
Molecular size again influences the ease of ignition or flammability of hydrocarbons
Smaller hydrocarbon molecules are more flammable and are easier to ignite than larger molecules
This makes them very useful as fuels, releasing large amounts of energy when they burn

Exam Tip
Makes sure you know the trends in the properties of crude oil fractions.

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8.1.3 Homologous Series

Your notes
Homologous Series
Homologous series are families or groups of organic compounds that have similar features and
chemical properties due to them having the same functional group
All members of a homologous series have:
The same general formula
The difference in the molecular formula between one member and the next is CH2
Gradation in their physical properties
Same functional group
Similar chemical properties
Gradation in the physical properties of a homologous series can be seen in the trend in boiling points
of the alkanes

Boiling Point

A graph of the boiling points of the first eight alkanes showing a gradually increasing trend
Each alkane has a boiling point that is higher than the one before it

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As the molecules get larger, the intermolecular forces of attraction between the molecules becomes
greater as there are more electrons in the molecules and greater surface area contact between them
This means that more heat is needed to separate the molecules, hence with increasing molecular size Your notes
there is an increase in boiling point

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8.1.4 Combustion of Fuels

Your notes
Complete Combustion
The combustion of fossil fuels is the major source of atmospheric pollution
Fossil fuels include: coal, oil, natural gas, oil shales and tar sands
Non-renewable fossil fuels are obtained from crude oil by fractional distillation
Petrol is used as a fuel in cars, kerosene is used to fuel aircraft and diesel oil is used as a fuel in some
cars, trucks and heavy vehicles such as tanks and trains
Coal is used in power stations and also steel production
Natural gas consists mainly of methane, CH4
There are finite amounts of fossil fuels and they all contribute to pollution and global warming
All these fuels contain carbon, hydrogen and small quantities of sulfur
Combustion Products
The burning of fossil fuels releases the gases carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen
and oxides of sulfur
In addition incomplete combustion of the fuels gives rise to unburned hydrocarbons and carbon
particulates
Complete versus Incomplete Combustion
A fuel is a substance which releases energy in an exothermic reaction
When the fuel is a hydrocarbon then water and carbon dioxide are the products formed
Hydrocarbon compounds undergo complete and incomplete combustion
Complete combustion occurs when there is excess oxygen
For example, the combustion equation for propane is:
C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O

Exam Tip
You don't need to learn these equations, but you do need to be able to predict the products of
combustion given the composition of the fuel and the conditions.

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Incomplete Combustion
Incomplete Combustion Your notes
Incomplete combustion occurs when there is insufficient oxygen to burn
It occurs in some appliances such as boilers and stoves as well as in internal combustion engines
The products of these reactions are unburnt fuel (soot), carbon monoxide and water
Methane for example undergoes incomplete combustion in an oxygen-poor environment:
2CH4 + 3O2→ 2CO + 4H2O
CH4 + O2→ C + 2H2O
Carbon monoxide is a toxic and odourless gas which can cause dizziness, loss of consciousness and
eventually death
The CO binds well to haemoglobin which therefore cannot bind oxygen and carbon dioxide
Oxygen is transported to organs
Carbon dioxide is removed as waste material from organs

The high affinity of CO to haemoglobin prevents it from binding to O2 and CO2

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Your notes

TOXIC
The hazard symbol for toxic gases, such as carbon monoxide

Exam Tip
Though CO2 is not a toxic gas, it is still a pollutant causing global warming and climate change.

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8.1.5 Acid Rain: Nitrogen Oxides & Sulfur Dioxide

Your notes
Formation of Sulfur Dioxide
Sulfur dioxide
Sulfur dioxide is a colourless, pungent smelling gas that is a major air pollutant responsible for acid rain
The sulfur dioxide released mixes with clouds and readily dissolves in rainwater
SO2 is a non-metal oxide so it forms an acidic solution in water, hence forming acid rain
Sources: combustion of fossil fuels - especially coal
Fossil fuels are often contaminated with small amounts of sulfur impurities
When these contaminated fossil fuels are combusted, the sulfur in the fuels get oxidised to sulfur
dioxide
S (s) + O2 (g) → SO2 (g)
Adverse effects: acid rain which causes corrosion to metal structures, buildings and statues made of
carbonate rocks, damage to aquatic organisms. Pollutes crops and water supplies, irritates lungs,
throats and eyes

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Acid Rain
Your notes

Formation of acid rain from nitrogen and sulfur oxides

The sulfur dioxide produced from the combustion of fossil fuels dissolves in rainwater droplets to form
sulfuric acid
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) → 2H2SO4 (aq)
Sulfuric acid is one of the components of acid rain which has several damaging impacts on the
environment
Nitrogen dioxide produced from car engines reacts with rain water to form a mixture of
nitrous and nitric acids, which contribute to acid rain:
2NO2 (g) + H2O (l) → HNO2 (aq) + HNO3 (aq)

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Lightning strikes can also trigger the formation of nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxides in air
Nitrogen dioxide gas reacts with rain water and more oxygen to form nitric acid
Your notes
4NO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + O2 (g)→ 4HNO3 (aq)
When the clouds rise, the temperature decreases, and the droplets get larger
When the droplets containing these acids are heavy enough, they will fall down as acid rain

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Formation of Nitrogen Oxides

Nitrogen Oxides Your notes
These compounds (NO and NO2) are formed when nitrogen and oxygen react in the high pressure and
temperature conditions of internal combustion engines and blast furnaces
The temperature in an internal combustion engine can reach over 2000 °C
Here, nitrogen and oxygen, which at normal temperatures don’t react, combine to form nitrogen
monoxide:
N2 (g)+ O2 (g) ⇌ 2NO (g)
Nitrogen monoxide reacts further forming nitrogen dioxide:
2NO (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2NO2 (g)
Nitrogen dioxide gas reacts with rain water to form a mixture of nitrous and nitric acids, which
contribute to acid rain:
2NO2 (g) + H2O (l) → HNO2 (aq) + HNO3 (aq)
Lightning strikes can also trigger the formation of nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxides in air
When the clouds rise, the temperature decreases, and the droplets get larger
When the droplets containing these acids are heavy enough, they will fall down as acid rain
Adverse Effects
Acid rain with similar effects as SO2 as well as producing photochemical smog and breathing
difficulties, in particular for people suffering from asthma
Catalytic Converters
They contain a series of transition metal catalysts including platinum, palladium and rhodium
The metal catalysts are in a honeycomb within the converter to increase the surface area available for
reaction
A series of redox reactions occurs which neutralises the pollutant gases
Carbon monoxide is oxidised to carbon dioxide:
2CO + O2 → 2CO2
Nitrogen oxides are reduced to N2 gas:
2NO → N2 + O2
2NO2 → N2 + 2O2
Unburned hydrocarbons are oxidised to carbon dioxide and water:

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C8H18 + 12½O2 → 8CO2 + 9H2O

Your notes

Catalytic converters are designed to reduce the polluting gases produced in car exhausts

Exam Tip
You don't need to learn all the equations given here. They are shown to illustrate some of the complex
processes and variety of products from polluting sources.

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8.1.6 Hydrogen vs Fossil Fuels

Your notes
Hydrogen as a Fuel
Hydrogen as a fuel
Hydrogen is used in rocket engines and in fuel cells to power some cars and buses
It reacts with oxygen in an exothermic reaction:
2H2 + O2 →2H2O
Hydrogen has a series of advantages and disadvantages regarding its use as a fuel
Advantages:
It releases more energy per kilogram than any other fuel (except for nuclear fuels)
It does not pollute as it only produces water on combustion, no other product is formed
Disadvantages:
Expensive to produce and requires energy for the production process
Difficult and dangerous to store and move around (usually stored as liquid hydrogen in highly
pressurised containers)
The production of hydrogen process releases carbon dioxide

Exam Tip
The economics of hydrogen production still make it an expensive fuel compared to fossil fuels.

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Fossil Fuels
A fuel is a substance which when burned, releases heat energy Your notes
This heat can be transferred into electricity, which we use in our daily lives
Most common fossil fuels include coal, natural gas and hydrocarbons such as methane and propane
which are obtained from crude oil
The main constituent of natural gas is methane, CH4
Most of the world's energy supply still comes from fossil fuels:

Over 80% of the world's energy supply still comes from fossil fuels

Exam Tip
The rate of extraction of fossil fuels outstrips their formation, so fossil fuels are a finite and non-
replenishable resource within a human time scale.

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8.1.7 Cracking
Your notes
Cracking
Saturated molecules contain single bonds only whereas unsaturated molecules contain double bonds
between their carbon atoms
Alkanes are saturated compounds and alkenes are unsaturated compounds
Long chain alkane molecules are further processed to produce other products consisting of smaller
chain molecules
A process called cracking is used to convert them into short chain molecules which are more useful
Small alkenes and hydrogen are produced using this process
Kerosene and diesel oil are often cracked to produce petrol, other alkenes and hydrogen
There are two methods used to crack alkanes: catalytic cracking and steam cracking
As the names suggest, one method uses a catalyst and the other uses steam

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Your notes

Decane is cracked to produce octane for petrol and ethene for ethanol synthesis
Catalytic cracking involves heating the hydrocarbon molecules to around 470 – 550°C to vaporise
them
The vapours then pass over a hot powdered catalyst of aluminium oxide
This process breaks covalent bonds in the molecules as they come into contact with the surface of the
catalyst, causing thermal decomposition reactions
The molecules are broken up in a random way which produces a mixture of smaller alkanes and alkenes
Hydrogen and a higher proportion of alkenes are formed at higher temperatures and higher pressure

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In steam or thermal cracking the process is carried out at slightly higher temperatures and produces
more ring structures and unsaturated compounds
The vaporised hydrocarbons are mixed with steam and heated to a high temperature which induces Your notes
cracking
Why Cracking is Necessary
Crude oils vary considerably in their composition and some need more refining than others
Supply is how much of a particular fraction can be produced from refining the crude oil
Demand is how much customers want to buy
General the demand for certain fractions outstrips the supply so this is why cracking is necessary to
convert surplus unwanted fractions into more useful ones
This is mostly larger, heavier fractions that are cracked into smaller lighter fractions

Supply & demand graph for crude oil fractions

You can see from the chart that fuel oil and bitumen are surplus fractions so they are cracked and
modified to produce petrol, kerosene and diesel

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Exam Tip
Your notes
Remember that cracking is an endothermic reaction.

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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

8.2 Earth & Atmospheric Science

Contents
8.2.1 Evolution of the Atmosphere
8.2.2 Greenhouse Gases
8.2.3 Human Activity & Climate Change

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8.2.1 Evolution of the Atmosphere

Your notes
Earth´s Early Atmosphere
Theories on the development of Earth’s atmosphere have developed over time as instrumental analysis
has improved
The surface of the early Earth was molten for millions of years during which time there was no
atmosphere surrounding the planet
Eventually cooling began to take effect and allow for molten materials to slowly solidify forming land
masses
Volcanoes formed on the land masses and released gases from the Earth’s interior through violent
eruptions
Earth’s gravity prevented the gases from escaping into outer space and they formed the atmosphere
Analysis of the minerals in the earth's crust enables scientists to deduce the gases present millions of
years ago that helped form those minerals
It is thought that the atmosphere at that moment in Earth’s history was similar to that
of Venus or Mars today which consist mainly of CO2
During a period of intense volcanic activity, large amounts of carbon dioxide and water vapour were
released, as well as nitrogen, hydrogen, ammonia, methane and other gases.
The early atmosphere therefore contained mainly CO2 and water vapour
There was little or no oxygen present

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Your notes

Volcanoes spewed out water, carbon dioxide and other gases from the Earth’s interior
While the surface of the Earth was still very hot the large quantities of water vapour remained in
the gaseous state
When conditions cooled sufficiently, the water vapour later condensed and fell to the surface of the
Earth, forming the oceans
Carbon dioxide is a water soluble gas (it is the gas used in fizzy drinks) and dissolves readily
When the water vapour condensed large amounts of CO2 dissolved in the oceans
Carbonate substances were precipitated during this process which later formed sediments

Exam Tip
For this topic you should be able to describe how the atmosphere and oceans came about.

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How Carbon Dioxide Decreased

Carbon dioxide is a water soluble gas (it is the gas used in fizzy drinks) and dissolves readily Your notes
When the water vapour in Earth’s early atmosphere condensed large amounts of CO2 dissolved in the
oceans
Carbonates were precipitated during this process which later formed sediments on the seabed
As marine life began to evolve sea creatures began to appear which used up the carbonates to
form shells and skeletons
Green plants and algae began to evolve and absorbed considerable amounts of carbon dioxide
during photosynthesis

Photosynthesis gradually removed large amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
When these organisms died, their remains locked the atmospheric carbon into the rocks
This is how the large amounts of carbon dioxide in the early atmosphere were reduced

Exam Tip
Exhaled air contains about 4% carbon dioxide and 16% oxygen which is why mouth-to-mouth
resuscitation can save someone who has stopped breathing.

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How Oxygen Increased

Primitive plants and algae began photosynthesizing which used up carbon dioxide from the Your notes
atmosphere and released oxygen:

Carbon dioxide and water producing glucose and oxygen during photosynthesis
Through these processes over a long period of time, the amount of O2 in the atmosphere increased
and the amount of CO2 decreased
Algae first evolved around 2.7 billion years ago and during the next billion years or so small green plants
began to appear
As more and more plants began to appear the levels of oxygen began to increase which allowed for
more complex life forms to evolve
This trend continued until around 200 million years ago the composition of the atmosphere reached
similar characteristics as today: around 20% oxygen, 80% nitrogen and tiny amounts of other gases
Marine algae are throught to be responsible for about 90% of all the atmospheric oxygen produced
Investigating the percentage of oxygen in air
The percentage of oxygen in the air can be investigated by passing a known quantity of air over a metal
The oxygen in the air will react with the metal, forming a metal oxide
The oxygen will be removed from the air and the volume of the air with the oxygen removed can be
measured
An example of the apparatus that can be used to investigate this is shown below:

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Your notes

Method:
Heat the copper using a Bunsen burner
Push the plunger of the syringe containing air, forcing the air into the other plunger until all of the air has
transferred
Push the air back from the now filled plunger to the other plunger
Repeat this several times for about 3 minutes
The copper will turn black as copper reacts with the oxygen in the air and copper oxide is produced
Allow the apparatus to cool
Ensure all the gas is in one syringe and record the volume of gas
The percentage of oxygen in the air can be calculated from the results

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Worked example
Your notes
In the experiment above, the starting volume of air was 50.0 cm3 of air and the final volume of air was
39.5 cm3
Calculate the percentage of oxygen in the air.
Answer:
Step 1 - calculate the volume of oxygen in 50.0 cm3 of air
volume of oxygen in air = starting volume - final volume
= 50.0 - 39.5 = 10.5 cm3
Step 2 - calculate the percentage of oxygen in air
volume of oxygen in air
Percentage of oxygen in air = × 100
starting volume of air

10 . 5
= × 100
50 . 0

= 21.0 %

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The Test for Oxygen

The test for oxygen consists of placing a glowing splint inside a test tube of gas Your notes
If the gas is oxygen the splint will relight

Diagram showing the test for oxygen gas

Exam Tip
Sometimes the splint does not relight, but it glows very brightly, which is also a positive result. In an
exam, however, it is best to state it relights the glowing splint.

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8.2.2 Greenhouse Gases

Your notes
Greenhouse Gases
When shortwave radiation from the sun strikes the Earth’s surface it is absorbed and re-emitted from
the surface of the Earth as infrared radiation
Much of the radiation, however, is trapped inside the Earth’s atmosphere by greenhouse gases which
can absorb and store the energy
Carbon dioxide, methane and water vapour are gases that have this effect
Increasing levels of carbon dioxide and methane, although present in only small amounts, are causing
significant upset to the Earth’s natural conditions by trapping extra heat energy
This process is called the enhanced greenhouse effect

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Your notes

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Greenhouse gases trap some of the Sun's radiation causing the Earth to warm up
Carbon dioxide Your notes
Sources: Combustion of wood and fossil fuels, respiration of plants and animals, thermal
decomposition of carbonate rocks and the effect of acids on carbonates
Methane
Sources: Digestive processes of animals, decomposition of vegetation, bacterial action in swamps
and in rice paddy fields

Exam Tip
It is important to understand the difference between the greenhouse effect and the enhanced
greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect ensures the mean global temperature is around 15 oC and
without greenhouse gases the surface of the Earth would swing between extreme heat and extreme
cold. The enhanced greenhouse effect, due an increase in greenhouse gas concentrations, most
scientists believe, is leading to global warming.

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8.2.3 Human Activity & Climate Change

Your notes
Evaluating the Evidence
Advances in science and technology mean current levels of CO2 and global temperatures can be
determined with a high degree of accuracy
Historical data is much less accurate due to the lack of accurate instrumentation and methods
Fewer locations would also have been measured due to the lack of satellites and transport
There are some methods to estimate past climate conditions, which include:
Analysis of the fossil record and tree rings
Analysis of gas bubbles trapped in ice from hundreds of thousands of years ago
Correlating rising CO2 levels and global temperatures

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Your notes

Graph showing the steady increase in atmospheric CO2 since 1700

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Your notes

Graph showing the steady increase in temperature from when accurate records exist
Unfortunately, historical methods, while providing at least some data, are not as precise as modern day
techniques nor do they provide data which is representative on a global scale
The complexity of the Earth’s climate and contributing factors make it a difficult task to produce a
working model that clearly shows the link between global warming and greenhouse gases
This and other difficulties have led to hype and speculation in the media in recent times in which some
scientists have cast doubts on human activity and climate change
However, academic surveys have shown that about 97% of climate scientists do believe human activity
is causing climate change

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Exam Tip
Your notes
It is important that peer review of research results as well as communication to a wide range of
audiences is carried out to dispell myths and misinformation about climate change

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Human Activity & Climate Change

Human population is increasing and with it the global demand for food, water, consumer goods, Your notes
housing and energy which are supplied with greater and more widespread industrialization
This creates more waste so more landfill sites are needed which increases the amount of methane by
decomposition
The increased energy demands are met in most cases by the burning of fossil fuels which produces
CO2:
Fossil fuel + oxygen → energy + H2O + CO2
Added to this is the effect of deforestation on the amount of CO2 as large areas of forested land are
being destroyed for building and agricultural activities
Plants and trees remove CO2 during photosynthesis:
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
Hence their removal increases the amount of atmospheric CO2 as there are less plants available to
remove it during photosynthesis
Increasing agricultural activities also cause an increase in methane production
Methane is produced in the digestive processes of animals, by the decomposition of vegetation, and
by bacterial action in swamps
Scientists agree that greenhouse gases are causing the average temperature of the Earth to increase
by the enhanced greenhouse effect, which is causing global warming
Climate change is when there is a shift in worldwide weather patterns and conditions
Effects of global warming include difficulties in obtaining fresh drinking water, melting of the
polar ice caps, flooding and flash fires, and the destruction of ecosystems
Dealing with Climate Change
The production of greenhouse gases needs to be reduced drastically to avoid or at least slow climate
change
CO2 emissions can be reduced by using renewable energy supplies such as solar or wind energy
instead of burning fossil fuels
Awareness and being conscientious about reducing energy usage and our carbon footprint is another
way to reduce emissions
Governments and economies in developed nations are slowly switching to greener and sustainable
sources of energy and often offer financial incentives to companies in an effort to convince them to
“go green”
Other ways of mitigating the effects of climate change include:
Constructing flood defence systems in areas of low lying land
Developing new farming methods to include switching to crops that are better adapted to the
new climate
Building more effective irrigation systems to ensure crops can get water during times of drought

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Your notes

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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

9.1 Qualitative Analysis: Tests for Ions

Contents
9.1.1 Flame Tests
9.1.2 Tests for Cations
9.1.3 Testing for Ammonia
9.1.4 Tests for Anions
9.1.5 Core Practical: Identifying Ions
9.1.6 Instrumental Methods of Analysis

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9.1.1 Flame Tests

Your notes
Flame Tests
Metal ions produce a colour if heated strongly in a flame
Ions from different metals produce different colours
The flame test is thus used to identify metal ions by the colour of the flame they produce
Dip the loop of an unreactive metal wire such as nichrome or platinum in dilute acid, and then hold it in
the blue flame of a Bunsen burner until there is no colour change
This cleans the wire loop and avoids contamination
This is an important step as the test will only work if there is just one type of ion present
Two or more ions means the colours will mix, making identification erroneous
Dip the loop into the solid sample and place it in the edge of the blue Bunsen flame
Avoid letting the wire get so hot that it glows red otherwise this can be confused with a flame colour

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Diagram showing the technique for carrying out a flame test

The colour of the flame is observed and used to identify the metal ion present Your notes

Diagram showing the colours formed in the flame test for metal ions

Exam Tip
The sample needs to be heated strongly, so the Bunsen burner flame should be on a blue flame.

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9.1.2 Tests for Cations

Your notes
Tests for Cations
Metal cations in aqueous solution can be identified by the colour of the precipitate they form on
addition of sodium hydroxide
If only a small amount of NaOH is used then normally the metal hydroxide precipitates
In excess NaOH some of the precipitates may dissolve
For this reason just a few drops of NaOH are added at first and very slowly
If it is added too quickly and the precipitate is soluble in excess, then you run the risk of missing the
formation of the initial precipitate which dissolves as quickly as it forms if excess solution is added
A small amount is thus added, very gradually and any colour changes or precipitates formed are noted
Then the NaOH is added in excess and the reaction is observed again
Ca2+ ions can be distinguished from Al3+ as calcium hydroxide does not dissolve in excess NaOH but
aluminium hydroxide does
Most transition metals produce hydroxides with distinctive colours

Testing for ammonium ions, NH4+

Ammonium ions are also tested with sodium hydroxide, but not by a precipitation reaction
To test for the ammonium ion, gentle heating is required after adding the NaOH solution
If the ammonium ion is present, ammonia gas is produced which can be tested with red litmus paper:

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NH4+ (aq) + OH– (aq)→ NH3 (g) + H2O (l)

Your notes
Exam Tip
Be sure to distinguish between the term “colourless” and “clear”. A solution that loses its colour has
become colourless. A clear solution is one that you can see through such as water. Solutions can be
clear and have colour e.g: dilute copper sulphate.

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9.1.3 Testing for Ammonia

Your notes
Testing for Ammonia
Ammonia is a gas with a pungent smell that turns damp red litmus paper blue
Hold the litmus paper near the mouth of the test tube, but be careful to avoid touch the sides of the
test tube
If you are testing for ammonia produced from ammonium ions and sodium hydroxide, avoiding
touching the sides prevents traces of sodium hydroxide from also turning the red litmus paper blue

Diagram showing how to perform the test for ammonia gas using damp red litmus paper
Another test for ammonia is to react the gas with HCl
A white smoke of ammonium chloride is formed if ammonia gas is present:
NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl

Exam Tip
Make sure you understand the difference between ammonium and ammonia. Ammonium refers to the
aqueous cation, NH4+, whereas ammonia is the gas, NH3.

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9.1.4 Tests for Anions

Your notes
Tests for Anions
Carbonate Ion
Add dilute acid and test the gas released.
Effervescence should be seen and the gas produced is CO2 which forms a white precipitate of
calcium carbonate when bubbled through limewater:
CO32- (aq) + 2H+ (aq) → CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 (s) + H2O (l)

Limewater turns milky in the presence of CO2 caused by formation of insoluble calcium carbonate
Sulfate Ion

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Acidify with dilute hydrochloric acid and add aqueous barium chloride.
A white precipitate of barium sulfate is formed:
Your notes
Ba2+ (aq) + SO42- (aq) → BaSO4 (s)

A white precipitate of barium sulfate is a positive result for the presence of sulfate ions
Halide Ions
Acidify with dilute nitric acid (HNO3) followed by the addition of silver nitrate solution (AgNO3).
This forms a silver halide precipitate:

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Testing for halide ions

Depending on the halide present, a different coloured precipitate is formed, allowing for
identification of the halide ion
Silver chloride is white, silver bromide is cream and silver iodide is yellow

Each silver halide produces a precipitate of a different colour

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Exam Tip
Your notes
When it comes to qualitative inorganic analysis, always remember that there will be a test for the metal
cation part of the molecule and another test for the anion part.

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9.1.5 Core Practical: Identifying Ions

Your notes
Core Practical: Identifying Ions
Aim:
To use chemical tests to identify the ions in unknown binary ionic compounds
Materials:
Bunsen burner
Test tubes and test tube rack
Teat pipette
Nichrome wire mounted in handle or cork
Limewater
0.4 mol dm-3 dilute hydrochloric acid
0.1 mol dm-3 barium chloride solution
0.4 mol dm-3 dilute nitric acid
0.05 mol dm-3 silver nitrate solution
Various samples of salts and salt solutions
Practical Tip:
Key to this practical is your level of organisation. You will have many containers, solutions and samples so
your work space and results table must be neat and tidy
Method:
1. There are a number of strategies you could choose in order to identify the ions in unknown salts
2. Common analysis strategies include flame tests, and tests for sulphate, carbonate and halide ions
3. They can be carried out in any particular order, and you will probably not need to carry them all out on
any one sample
4. Only small amounts of each sample and reagent are needed
5. You may need to dissolve a sample of salt in a little distilled water if the salt you are given is in the solid
state
6. Record your observations carefully in a table of results as you work through the tests
7. Repeat any tests that do not provide a clear result i.e. a colour change that was difficult to identify
Results:
Record your results for each test carefully in a suitable table
Evaluation:

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Once you have tabulated the results from the tests you performed, use them to infer the identity of the ions
that the salt containsConclusion:
You can then identify the salt from the cation and anion present. When inferring the formulae and names of Your notes
unknown salts, make sure that you balance the charges on the ions in the formula. E.g. the test for B was
positive for the Fe2+ cation, therefore the anion must be an ion with a -2 charge or two ions each with a
single -1 charge

Worked example
Example
A student was given two salts labelled A and B. The following set of results were obtained from a series
of qualitative tests performed by the student on the samples. Use the results to identify the salts.

Conclusion:
Salt A contains lithium and bromide ions, so it must be lithium bromide, LiBr
Salt B contains iron(II) and sulfate ions, so it must be FeSO4

Hazards, risks and precautions

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Your notes

Hazard symbols to show substances that are harmful to health and toxic

Limewater, dilute nitric acid and sodium hydroxide are harmful to health as they are irritating to the eyes
and skin
Dilute hydrochloric acid is not classified as hazardous at the concentrations typically used in this
practical, however it may still cause harm to the eyes or the skin
Barium chloride and silver nitrate solutions are not classified as hazardous at the concentrations
typically used in this practical (at higher concentrations, barium chloride can be classified as toxic)
For limewater, dilute nitric acid and dilute hydrochloric acid, avoid contact with the skin and use safety
goggles

NOTE: During the test for ammonium ions, ammonia gas is evolved which is toxic if inhaled
As the quantities produced are small, then a fume cupboard is not required, but for reactions where
larger amounts of ammonia gas are produced, a fume cupboard should be used

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9.1.6 Instrumental Methods of Analysis

Your notes
Advantages of Instrumental Methods
Advancements in technology and computing have allowed for the development of instruments
designed to analyse chemical substances
Methods of analysis include X-ray, Infra-Red and Mass Spectroscopy, Gas Chromatography and Flame
Photometry
These analytical techniques require modern day instruments which are a vital part of chemistry
laboratories
The advantage of using these instruments over more traditional methods include:
They provide greater accuracy
They are faster and easier to use
They are automated and can perform multiple simultaneous sampling and testing
Modern instruments are very sensitive and can work with very small sample sizes

Exam Tip
You need to discuss the advantages of instruments over chemical testing in terms of sensitivity,
speed and accuracy.

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Flame Photometry
This technique is used to analyse metal ions in solution Your notes
When substances are heated they often emit energy in the form of light
This is due to electrons falling back to their original energy levels after becoming excited which causes
them to jump up one or more energy levels
Flame emission spectroscopy works by exposing the sample to a very hot flame and then measuring
the intensity and wavelength of the light emitted
The output is an emission spectrum in which different elements produce lines in different parts of the
spectrum

Diagram of an emission spectrum for mercury obtained from flame photometry

The emission spectrum consists of brightly coloured thin lines on a dark background and each element
ion produces a unique spectrum
Flame emission spectroscopy also works for mixtures of ions
This is a major advantage over flame testing which can only analyze one ion at a time
The intensity of the light produced is proportional to the number of ions vaporised, so the technique
can be used to determine the concentration of metal ions in a solution by reference to a standard
solution of known concentration

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Your notes

A calibration curve for solutions containing calcium ions. Different standard solutions have their
intensity measured and plotted on a graph against concentration. This linear relationship allows the
intensity of an unknown solution to be measured and its concentration read off the graph.
Reference Data
Ions in unknown samples can be identified by comparing the sample spectrum to reference spectra
This is particularly useful if the sample contains a number of different ions
The following flame spectrum for example was obtained for solution containing an unknown metal:

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Spectrum for an unknown element

When compared to the reference spectra below we can see that the solution must
contain sodium ions:

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Your notes

Reference spectra for elements

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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

9.2 Hydrocarbons
Contents
9.2.1 Alkanes
9.2.2 Alkenes
9.2.3 Combustion of Hydrocarbons

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9.2.1 Alkanes
Your notes
Alkanes
Alkanes are a group of saturated hydrocarbons
The term saturated means that they only have single carbon-carbon bonds, there are no double
bonds
The general formula of the alkanes is CnH2n+2
They are colourless compounds which have a gradual change in their physical properties as the number
of carbon atoms in the chain increases
Alkanes are generally unreactive compounds but they do undergo combustion reactions, can be
cracked into smaller molecules and can react with halogens in the presence of light
Methane is an alkane and is the major component of natural gas
Table of the First Four Members of the Alkane Homologous Series

Displayed formula Name Molecular formula

methane CH4

ethane C2 H 6

propane C3H 8

butane C4H10

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Your notes
Exam Tip
For your exam, you need to be able to name, draw and give the appropriate formula for the first four
alkanes.

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9.2.2 Alkenes
Your notes
Alkenes
All alkenes contain a double carbon bond, which is shown as two lines between two of the carbon
atoms i.e. C=C
All alkenes contain a double carbon bond, which is the functional group and is what allows alkenes to
react in ways that alkanes cannot
The names and structure of the first four alkenes are shown below
The position of the double bond in butene can be in one of two positions
This is shown by using the number of the carbon atom along the chain where the double bond starts
Table Showing the Formulae and Structures of the Alkenes

Displayed formula Name Molecular formula

ethene C2 H 4

propene C3H 6

but-1-ene C 4H 8

pent-1-ene C5H10

Compounds that have a C=C double bond are also called unsaturated compounds
That means they can make more bonds with other atoms by opening up the C=C bond and allowing
incoming atoms to form another single bond with each carbon atom of the functional group
Each of these carbon atoms now forms 4 single bonds instead of 1 double and 2 single bonds
This makes them much more reactive than alkanes

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Your notes

A carbon-carbon double can break and form a single bond, allowing more atoms to attach to the
carbon atoms

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Bromine & Alkenes

Alkenes undergo addition reactions in which atoms of a simple molecule add across the C=C double Your notes
bond
The reaction between bromine and ethene is an example of an addition reaction
The same process works for any halogen and any alkene in which the halogen atoms always add to the
carbon atoms across the C=C double bond

Bromine atoms add across the C=C in the addition reaction of ethene and bromine
Distinguishing between an alkane and an alkene
Halogens can be used to test if a molecule is unsaturated (i.e. contains a double bond)
Br2(aq) is an orange-yellow solution, called bromine water
The unknown compound is shaken with the bromine water
If the compound is unsaturated, an addition reaction will take place and the coloured solution will
decolourise

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Your notes

The bromine water test for alkenes

Exam Tip
You should be able to state the result of the bromine water test for other simple alkenes and deduce
the structure of the product given the starting alkene.

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9.2.3 Combustion of Hydrocarbons

Your notes
Combustion of Hydrocarbons
Combustion of alkenes
Alkanes and alkenes undergo combustion in the presence of air
Complete combustion occurs to form water and carbon dioxide gas
For example, the simplest alkane, methane burns as follows:

CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

Gasoline is largely composed of isomers of octane, C8H18 , which requires large amounts of oxygen to
combust fully

2C8H18 + 25O2 → 16CO2 + 18H2O

The efficiency of car engines does not usually enable all the gasoline to burn, so car exhaust will contain
small amounts of unburnt hydrocarbons as well as other products such as carbon monoxide and soot
which lead to environmental problems
The carbon dioxide produced is a major contributor to global warming and the replacement of
combustion engines with electric vehicles is a major on-going challenge for all countries
Methane, the main component of natural gas, is the fuel used in Bunsen burners which can control the
degree of combustion and hotness of the flames:
Combustion of Methane in a Bunsen Burner

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Combustion of alkenes
These compounds undergo complete and incomplete combustion, but because of the higher carbon Your notes
to hydrogen ratio they tend to undergo incomplete combustion, producing a smoky flame in air
Complete combustion occurs when there is excess oxygen so water and carbon dioxide form e.g:

C4 H8 + 6O2 → 4CO2 + 4H2O

butene + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water

Exam Tip
Combustion and burning are the same thing - an exothermic reaction with oxygen that produces the
oxides of elements.

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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

9.3 Polymers
Contents
9.3.1 Polymers
9.3.2 Addition Polymers
9.3.3 Condensation Polymers
9.3.4 Problems with Polymers
9.3.5 Natural Polymers

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9.3.1 Polymers
Your notes
Polymers
Polymers are large molecules of high relative molecular mass and are made by linking together large
numbers of smaller molecules called monomers
Each monomer is a repeat unit and is connected to the adjacent units via covalent bonds
Polymerisation reactions usually require high pressures and the use of a catalyst
Many everyday materials such as resins, plastics, polystyrene cups, nylon etc. are polymers
These are manufactured and are called synthetic polymers
Nature also produces polymers which are called natural or biological polymers

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Your notes

Diagram showing how lots of monomers bond together to form a polymer

Exam Tip
Polymers are made from smaller units called monomers that link together to form a long polymer
chain.

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9.3.2 Addition Polymers

Your notes
Formation of Polythene
Addition polymers are formed by the joining up of many monomers and only occurs in monomers that
contain C=C bonds
One of the bonds in each C=C bond breaks and forms a bond with the adjacent monomer with the
polymer being formed containing single bonds only
Many polymers can be made by the addition of alkene monomers
Poly(ethene) is formed by the addition polymerisation of ethene monomers and is most commonly
called polythene

Ethene monomers join up to form poly(ethene)

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Other Addition Polymers

Other addition polymers are made from alkene monomers with different atoms attached to the Your notes
monomer such as chlorine, fluorine or a methyl group
The name of the polymer is deduced by putting the name of the monomer in brackets and adding
poly- as the prefix
For example if propene is the alkene monomer used, then the name is poly(propene)

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Your notes

Further examples of addition polymerisation: poly(chloroethene)(PVC), poly(propene) and

poly(tetrafluorethene)(PTFE)

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Deducing Structures
Deducing the polymer from the monomer Your notes
Polymer molecules are very large compared with most other molecule
Repeat units are used when displaying the formula
To draw a repeat unit, change the double bond in the monomer to a single bond in the repeat unit
Add a bond to each end of the repeat unit
The bonds on either side of the polymer must extend outside the brackets (these are called extension
or continuation bonds)
A small subscript n is written on the bottom right hand side to indicate a large number of repeat units
Add on the rest of the groups in the same order that they surrounded the double bond in the monomer

Diagram showing the concept of drawing a repeat unit of a monomer

Deducing the monomer from the polymer
Identify the repeating unit in the polymer
Change the single bond in the repeat unit to a double bond in the monomer
Remove the bond from each end of the repeat unit and the subscript n (which can be placed in front of
the monomer)

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Your notes

Diagram showing the monomer of the repeat unit of polymer

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Uses of Polymers
Addition polymers can be engineered to have distinctive properties depending on their intended use Your notes
This is done by the selection of the monomer
Four common polymers are listed with their properties and uses
Uses of Common Polymers Table

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9.3.3 Condensation Polymers

Your notes
Condensation Polymers
Condensation polymers are formed when two different monomers are linked together with
the removal of a small molecule, usually water
This is a key difference between condensation polymers and addition polymers:
Addition polymerisation forms the polymer molecule only
Condensation polymerisation forms the polymer molecule and one water molecule per linkage
The monomers have two functional groups present, one on each end
The functional groups at the ends of one monomer react with the functional group on the end of the
other monomer, in so doing creating long chains of alternating monomers, forming the polymer
Polyesters are formed from two different monomers and produce water
For every ester linkage formed in condensation polymerisation, one molecule of water is formed from
the combination of a -H and an -OH group
An example is terylene which is a polyester made from dicarboxylic acid monomers (a carboxylic with a
-COOH group at either end) and diols (an alcohol with an -OH group at either end)
Each -COOH group reacts with another -OH group on another monomer
An ester linkage is formed with the subsequent loss of one water molecule per link

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Your notes

The condensation reaction in which the polyester terylene is produced

The structure of terylene can be represented by drawing out the polymer using boxes to represent the
carbon chains
This can be done for all polyesters

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Your notes

Diagram showing a section of the polyester terylene

Exam Tip
Notice that the sequence of bonding in the polyester is the mirror image at either end of the link, NOT
the link repetition due to the monomers containing the same functional group at either end.

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9.3.4 Problems with Polymers

Your notes
Problems with Polymers
Polymers are formed by the joining up of many small molecules with strong covalent bonds
This makes polymers unreactive and chemically inert so they don’t easily biodegrade

Disposal of polymers is an environmental problem

Landfills
Waste polymers are disposed of in landfill sites but this takes up valuable land, as polymers are non-
biodegradable so micro-organisms such as decomposers cannot break them down
This causes sites to quickly fill up
Incineration
Polymers release a lot of heat energy when they burn and produces carbon dioxide which is a
greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change
Polymers that contain chlorine such as PVC release toxic hydrogen chloride gas when burned
If incinerated by incomplete combustion, carbon monoxide will be produced which is a toxic gas
Recycling
Polymers can be recycled but different polymers must be separated from each other
This process is difficult and expensive

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Recycling Polymers
Advantages Your notes
Recycling is a more economically viable process than manufacturing from scratch
It decreases the use of crude oil which allows it to be kept for other purposes
It is better for the environment as plastic waste is being collected and reused, hence recycling
reduces the emissions of greenhouse gases and other toxic gases produced during the manufacturing
process
It also reduces the amount of landfill sites needed
Recycling is itself an entire industry which creates employment and economic growth
Disadvantages
Sorting plastics by type of polymer is a tedious and labour intensive process which is costly
Recycling counts on what is collected in as the raw material, therefore production of certain types of
polymers may not be possible due to a lack of starting ingredients
Melting polymers produces toxic gases that are harmful to plants and animals
Polymers can only be recycled a number of times before they lose their properties and become
useless
Recycling runs the risk of mixing different polymers together, which again will affect their properties.
This is particularly risky for polymers designed for specialist use such as aircraft or automobile parts,
where safety is of utmost importance

Diagram showing the categories into which they must be sorted before recycling

Exam Tip
You should be able to evaluate the pros and cons of recycling polymers, given appropriate
information.

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9.3.5 Natural Polymers

Your notes
Natural Polymers
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a large molecule which is essential to all life
It contains genetic information which it encodes as instructions which organisms need to develop and
function correctly
DNA consists of four different monomers called nucleotides which contain small molecules
called bases and which are abbreviated to A, T, C, and G which are bound together by polymerisation
The nucleotides form two strands that intertwine, giving the famous double helix shape of DNA
The bases on either polymer chain pair up in specific sequences forming cross links that hold the
strands together, giving rise to the double helix shape
It is a complex molecule that contains genetic information which is stored in the order in which the
bases organise themselves, which is a code for the organisms gene

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Your notes

Diagram showing the complex double helix structure of DNA

Starch
Carbohydrates are compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen with the general formula Cx(H2O)y
There are simple carbohydrates and complex carbohydrates
Simple carbohydrates are called monosaccharides and are sugars such as fructose and glucose
Complex carbohydrates are called polysaccharides such as starch
The monomers from which starch is made are sugars
Starch is used to store energy
Complex carbohydrates are condensation polymers formed from simple sugar monomers and, unlike
proteins, are usually made up of the same monomers
An H2O molecule is eliminated when simple sugars polymerise
The linkage formed is an -O- linkage and is called a glycosidic linkage

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Your notes

Diagram of the starch amylose showing glycosidic linkages (-O-) which bind the monomers together,
Amylose makes up approximately 20-30% of starch
Proteins
Proteins are condensation polymers which are formed from amino acid monomers joined together by
peptide bonds
Amino acids are small molecules containing amine (-NH2) and carboxylic acid (-COOH) functional
groups

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Your notes

The structure of naturally occurring amino acids have an amino group on the second carbon along from
the carboxyl group. The R represents a varying side group.
A peptide link is formed when a carboxylic acid and an amine react:

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Your notes

Amino acids join together to form dipeptides and long chains of amino acids which are the polymers
that make up proteins
Proteins are important natural polymers with specific biological functions
Some examples of proteins and their functions include:
Haemoglobin which transports oxygen in the blood
Antibodies in the immune system help protect the body from viruses and bacteria
Enzymes which are biological catalysts

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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

9.4 Alcohols & Carboxylic Acids

Contents
9.4.1 Alcohols
9.4.2 Core Practical: Heat of Combustion of Alcohols
9.4.3 Carboxylic Acids
9.4.4 Fermentation

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9.4.1 Alcohols
Your notes
Alcohols
All alcohols contain the hydroxyl (-OH) functional group which is the part of alcohol molecules that is
responsible for their characteristic reactions

Diagram of the side chain and -OH group in ethanol which characterizes its chemistry
Alcohols are colourless liquids that dissolve in water to form neutral solutions
The first four alcohols are commonly used as fuels
Methanol and ethanol are also used extensively as solvents
This is because they can dissolve many substances that water cannot such as fats and oils, but can also
dissolve most of the substances that water can
The names and structures of the first four alcohols are shown below
In terms of naming, the same system is used as for alkanes and alkenes, with the final ‘e’ being replaced
with ‘ol’
Table Showing the Formulae and Structures of the First Four Alcohols

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Your notes

Exam Tip
It is standard practice to write the functional group on the end as it shows what the molecule is. E.g.
Methanol is CH3OH, not CH4O.

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9.4.2 Core Practical: Heat of Combustion of Alcohols

Your notes
Core Practical: Heat of Combustion of Alcohols
Alcohols can be used as fuels as they readily undergo combustion and release heat energy
Ethanol for example combusts in excess oxygen:
CH3CH2OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O
Some alcohols are better fuels than others i.e. they release more heat energy per mole than other
alcohols
Calorimetry studies can be performed to investigate the efficiency of alcohol fuels by measuring how
much of each alcohol is needed to raise the temperature of a fixed amount of water by a set number of
degrees
Heat of Combustion of Alcohols
Aim:
To investigate the heat of combustion of four alcohols
Materials:
Copper calorimeter can with lid, thermometer, water, spirit burner, balance
Supply of ethanol, propanol, butanol and pentanol
Diagram:

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Your notes

A simple combustion calorimeter

Method:
Using a measuring cylinder, place 100 cm3 of water into a copper can
Record the initial temperature of the water and the mass of the empty burner
Fill the burner with the test alcohol and record its new mass
Place the burner under the copper can, light the wick and place the lid on
Stir the water constantly with the thermometer (calorimeter lids allow for this) and continue heating
until the temperature rises by 25 ºC
Immediately extinguish the flame and measure and record the mass of the spirit burner
Repeat procedure for other alcohols, making sure the variables are kept the same:
Volume of water (water should be changed each time)
Distance between wick and bottom of stand
Record your results neatly in tabular format
Results:
Different amounts of the four alcohols will be needed to achieve the same temperature rise
Calculate the mass change for each alcohol in the spirit burner
Use the calorimetry equation to find the heat of combustion of the alcohols in kJ per gram or kJ per
mole:

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Enthalpy change equation: Q = m x c x ΔT

where: Your notes
Q – energy transferred to water
m – mass of water heated
c – the specific heat capacity – is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of
a substance by 1 oC.
For water, the value is 4.18 J g-1 C-1 (Joules per gram per degree Celsius).
∆T – change in temperature

When you have found Q you have calculated amount of heat released to burn the mass of alcohol in the
experiment
You can then work out:
The amount of heat released per 1 g of substance = Q/mass of substance burnt
The amount of heat released per 1 mole of substance = (Q/mass of substance burnt) x molar mass
of substance
Hazards, risks and precautions

Hazard symbols to show substances that are flammable and harmful to health
The alcohols used are flammable and often harmful to health, e.g, propan‐1‐ol, butan‐1‐ol, pentan‐1‐ol
The alcohols should be kept away from naked flames, e.g. a Bunsen burner
Avoid contact with the skin and breathing in the vapour
A fume cupboard can be used for harmful alcohols

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9.4.3 Carboxylic Acids

Your notes
Carboxylic Acids
Carboxylic acids is the name given to compounds containing the functional group carboxyl, -COOH
The naming of a carboxylic acid follows the pattern alkan + oic acid
The names and structure of the first four carboxylic acids are shown below
The Names and Structures of the First Four Carboxylic Acids

Exam Tip
Vinegar is an aqueous solution of ethanoic acid and contains about 5% of the acid by volume.

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Making Ethanoic Acid

Preparation of ethanoic acid Your notes
Alcohols undergo oxidation to produce carboxylic acids when treated with oxidising agents
When ethanol is heated with acidified potassium dichromate solution the ethanol oxidises to ethanoic
acid
The equation for the reaction is:

CH3CH2OH + [O] → CH3COOH + H2O

The oxidising agent is represented by the symbol for oxygen in square brackets
The reaction is slow so the mixture is heated to its boiling point for about an hour; to avoid the
substances evaporating a condenser is placed above the reaction flask that prevents volatile liquids
from escaping
During the reaction the potassium dichromate turns from orange to green

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Ethanol can be oxidised by heating it with potassium dichromate in sulfuric acid. The solution turns from
orange to green during the reaction
Your notes
Exam Tip
Other carboxylic acids can be prepared from the oxidation of corresponding alcohols with the same
carbon chain length.

Predicting Products
Organic molecules that belong to the same homologous series react in the same way, so the products
of those reactions can be predicted
Homologous series are families or groups of organic compounds that have similar features and
chemical properties due to them having the same functional group
All members of a homologous series have:
The same general formula
The difference in the molecular formula between one member and the next is CH2
Gradation in their physical properties
Same functional group
Similar chemical properties
The chemistry of homologous series is therefore determined by the functional group
We can use this to predict how other molecules in a homologous series will react
Previously we have seen that ethanol can be oxidised to ethanoic acid using acidified potassium
dichromate
The next member of the series is propanol, so we can predict the reaction would be:

CH3CH2CH2OH + [O] → CH3CH2COOH + H2O

propanol propanoic acid
Although the homologous series allows us to predict what the reaction products should be, it tells us
nothing about the rate or extent of the reaction
For example, as the chain length increases in alcohols the combustion or oxidation reactions may be
slower or incomplete as the carbon chain influences the reactivity of the functional group

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9.4.4 Fermentation
Your notes
Fermentation
Ethanol (C2H5OH) is one of the most important alcohols
It is used as fuel (for vehicles in some countries) and as a solvent
It is the type of alcohol found in alcoholic drinks such as wine and beer
It can be produced by fermentation where sugar or starch is dissolved in water and yeast is added
The mixture is then fermented between 15 and 35 °C with the absence of oxygen for a few days
Yeast contains enzymes that break down sugar to alcohol
If the temperature is too low the reaction rate will be too slow and if it is too high the enzymes will
become denatured
The yeast respires anaerobically using the glucose to form ethanol and carbon dioxide:

C6H12O6 + enzymes → 2CO2 + 2C2H5OH

The yeast is killed off once the concentration of alcohol reaches around 15%, hence the reaction vessel
is emptied and the process is started again
This is the reason that ethanol production by fermentation is a batch process

Exam Tip
Fermentation is an anaerobic process. Oxygen is not required for ethanol to be produced by
fermentation.

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Purifying the Product

Fermentation produces a dilute solution of ethanol which needs to be separated from the reaction Your notes
mixture.
This is done using fractional distillation.
The mixture is heated to 78 ºC which is the boiling point of ethanol but below that of water (100 ºC).
The ethanol evaporates and its vapours pass through a condenser, where they cool and condense,
forming liquid ethanol.
The water and any other impurities remain behind in the reaction flask.
When the temperature starts to increase to 100 ºC heating should be stopped. The water and ethanol
have now been separated.

Diagram showing how fractional distillation is used to separate ethanol from water in the laboratory

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Your notes

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Edexcel GCSE Chemistry Your notes

9.5 Bulk & Surface Properties of Matter Including

Nanoparticles
Contents
9.5.1 Nanoparticles
9.5.2 Ceramics, Polymers, Composites & Metals

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9.5.1 Nanoparticles
Your notes
Size of Nanoparticles
Particles can be placed into one of three categories according to their diameter:
Coarse particles (also called particulate-matter or dust)
Fine particles
Nanoparticles

The diameter in nanometres used to classify particles

Nanoparticles are between 1 and 100 nanometres in size and usually contain only a few hundred atoms
Atoms and simple molecules are around 100 times smaller than this
Nanoparticles are much smaller than fine particles which have diameters of between 100 and 2500 nm
The research into the production and application of nanoparticles is called nanoscience

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Your notes

Diagram showing the size of nanoparticles relative to other objects and substances

Exam Tip
1 nanometre = 1 x 10-9 m = 0.000 000 001 m.

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Properties of Nanoparticles
One of the most interesting features of nanoparticles is their very high surface area to volume ratio Your notes
As particles decrease in size, their surface area increases in relation to their volume
As the side of a cube decreases by a factor of 10, the surface area to volume ratio increases by a factor
of 10
This is why nanoparticles may have properties different from those for the same materials in bulk
It may also mean that smaller quantities are needed to be effective than for materials with normal
particle sizes
Fullerenes (nanoparticles made of carbon) behave very differently to larger compounds of carbon like
diamond and graphite
The surface area to volume ratio is an important feature in catalysis and surface chemistry
The higher the ratio then the more surface area is available for reaction, hence the better the
catalyst

This diagram shows the surface area to volume ratio of three different sizes cubes
The main industrial application of nanoparticles is in catalysis due to their high surface area to volume
ratios
Titanium dioxide is a good example of how the same chemical has different properties in bulk and
nanoparticle form

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Titanium dioxide in nanoparticle form is used in sunscreens as it blocks UV light but leaves no
white marks on the skin
The same chemical in bulk form is used as a white pigment in paints Your notes
Fullerenes are used in the medicine and drug design as they are more easily absorbed than other
particles and can deliver drugs to target areas more effectively
Fullerenes are also used in electronic circuitry and as coatings for artificial limbs and joints
Nanoparticles of silver are sprayed onto the fibres of medical clothing and surgical masks which gives
them the flexibility of a material but with the added benefit of the antibacterial properties of silver
metal

Exam Tip
Nanoparticles display different properties to the same element in bulk form due to their high surface
to volume ratio.

Risks
Nanoparticles have widespread uses and applications that can provide an immense advance in
materials technology
The use of nanoparticles in science is in its early stages so there are still a lot of unknown factors and
potential risks
In particular there is a lack of understanding on how they may affect health
Although there haven’t been any serious short term side effects, there could be long term side effects
which we haven’t detected yet as they haven’t been in use long enough
Even a small amount of toxicity in a particular nanoparticle would be multiplied due to the high surface
area to volume ratio
This coupled with the fact that they are not easily disposed of by the body are a cause for caution in the
medical application of nanoparticles

Exam Tip
You may be asked to explain other uses of nanoparticles not included here but you will be given
sufficient information in the question to be able to provide a fully developed answer.

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9.5.2 Ceramics, Polymers, Composites & Metals

Your notes
Ceramics, Polymers, Composites & Metals
The physical properties of glass and clay ceramics, polymers, composites and metals are related to their
uses:
Glass Ceramics
Transparent and strong, glass insulates against heat
Glass ceramics are also more durable than other materials hence they are better suited for use in
windows than plastic
Most of the glass produced is soda-lime glass which is made by heating a mixture of limestone, sand
and sodium carbonate (soda) until it melts
On cooling it solidifies to form glass
A variation is borosilicate glass which is made using sand and boron trioxide and has a higher melting
point than soda-lime glass
Clay Ceramics
These are hardened materials that resist compressive forces
Clay is a soft material dug up from the earth which hardens at high temperatures and when it is fired,
produces a very strong and hard material
This allows bricks to be used to build walls which withstand the weight and pressure of the material
bearing downwards on itself
Polymers
Can be tailor designed to have specific properties for specific uses
Can be made opaque or transparent
Usually tough and flexible, some specialist polymers can be brittle
Poor conductor of heat and electricity
Composites
Made from two components: reinforcement and matrix
The matrix is what binds the reinforcement together
Common examples include fibreglass and steel reinforced concrete
The properties of composites depend on the reinforcement and matrix used so composites can
be tailor engineered to meet specific needs
Examples of Everyday Composite Materials

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Metals
Shiny, malleable and ductile so can be hammered into different shapes
Can be mixed with other elements to form alloys, which have different properties to the elements they
contain
Corrosion resistant metals can be produced which last longer than other metals
Good conductors of heat and electricity

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Effective Use of Materials

Glass & Metals Your notes
Glass and steel are extremely useful building materials
Apart from its transparency, the hardness and the high compressive strength of glass makes it an ideal
material for making walls and windows
Metals are used extensively in electrical cabling and in electronics due to their ability
to conduct electricity
Copper is the most frequently used as it is a good conductor and is very malleable and easy to thread
into cables
Aluminium is a very strong metal but is also very light
This makes it ideal for use in the construction of airplanes as it has a high strength-to-weight ratio

Glass and metals are exceptional building materials due to their high strength and durability
Composites

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Reinforced concrete
Steel reinforced concrete has immense tensile and compressive strength allowing it to be used as Your notes
columns and supporting structures in construction

Diagram showing a concrete beam which is reinforced with steel, providing much more tensile strength
Carbon-Fibre Composites
Carbon fibres composites are extremely strong and low weight, hence they are used in aviation,
aeronautics and for making professional racing bicycles

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Your notes

Carbon fibre composites have a very high strength to weigh ratio

Polymers
As they are poor conductors of heat and electricity, this makes polymers good thermal and electrical
insulators
These properties are extremely useful for insulating electrical wiring as they prevent electric
shocks and overheating
The low melting points and flexibility of polymers enable them to be moulded easily into an infinite
variety of shapes

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Your notes

The plastic coating on electrical wires makes use of the flexibility and insulating properties of polymers

Exam Tip
Don’t get confused between an alloy and a composite: Alloys are uniform mixtures of metals whereas
composites have two or more distinguishable materials.

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