CHAPTER-2: MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

1.1 Resistance Temperature Detectors:

1.1.1 Advantages
1.1.2 Limitations
1.1.3 RTDs vs thermocouples
1.1.4 Temperature
1.1.5 Response time
1.1.6 Size
1.1.7 Accuracy and stability requirements
1.1.8 University Questions Related to the topic

1.2 Thermistor

1.2.1 Thermistor characteristics

1.2.2 Advantage
1.2.3 Thermistor Applications
1.2.4 University Questions Related to the topic

1.3 Thermocouples

1.3.1 Working Principle

1.3.2 Thermocouples Advantages & Disadvantages
1.3.3 University Questions Related to the topic

1.4 Proximity sensors

1.4.1 Type of proximity sensor

1.4.2 Inductive Proximity Sensor
1.4.2.1 Applications
1.4.2.2 Advantages of inductive proximity sensors
1.4.3 Inductive Proximity Sensor
1.4.3.1 Applications
1.4.3.2 Advantages of inductive proximity sensors
1.4.4 Capacitive Proximity sensor
1.4.4.1 Applications
1.4.4.2 Advantages of Capacitive proximity sensor
1.4.4.3 Disadvantages of Capacitive proximity sensors
1.4.4.4 How to choose a suitable proximity sensor
1.4.5 Use of proximity sensor: As an Accelerometer and Vibration sensor
1.4.5.1 Accelerometer Working Principle
1.4.5.2 Types of Accelerometer
1.4.5.3 Accelerometer Application
1.4.5.4 Advantages
 1.4.5.5 Disadvantages
1.4.5.6 Vibration Sensor
1.4.6 University Questions Related to the Topic

1.5 Flow sensors

1.5.1 Ultrasonic flow meters
1.5.2 Advantages of Ultrasonic Flow meters
1.5.3 Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Flow meters
1.5.4 University Questions Related to the topic

1.6 Level sensor

1.6.1 Capacitance Level Measurement
1.6.2 Working Principle
1.6.3 Advantages of Capacitive level measurement
1.6.4 Disadvantages
1.6.5 Applications
1.6.6 Ultrasonic level measurement
1.6.7 Functional block diagram of a typical Ultrasonic Level
Transmitter
1.6.8 Advantages of Ultrasonic Level Transmitter
1.6.9 Limitations of Ultrasonic Level Transmitter
1.6.10 University Questions Related to the topic

1.7 Hall effect

1.7.1 Measurement of position using Hall effect sensors
1.7.2 University Questions Related to the topic
 2. MEASUREMENT OF SYSTEM
A temperature sensor is a device used to measure temperature. This can be air temperature,
liquid temperature or the temperature of solid matter. There are different types of temperature
sensors available and they each use different technologies and principles to take the temperature
measurement.
2.1 Resistance Temperature Detectors:
Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), are sensors used
to measure temperature. Many RTD elements consist of a length of fine wire wrapped around a
ceramic or glass core but other constructions are also used. The RTD wire is a pure material,
typically platinum, nickel, or copper. The material has an accurate resistance/temperature
relationship which is used to provide an indication of temperature. As RTD elements are fragile,
they are often housed in protective probes. RTD have Positive temperature coefficient.
Resistance increase with increasing temperature.
RTDs, which have higher accuracy and repeatability, are slowly replacing thermocouples in
industrial applications below 600 °C
Resistance/temperature relationship of metals
Common RTD sensing elements constructed of platinum, copper or nickel have a repeatable
resistance versus temperature relationship (R vs T) and operating temperature range. The R vs T
relationship is defined as the amount of resistance change of the sensor per degree of
temperature change. The relative change in resistance (temperature coefficient of resistance)
varies only slightly over the useful range of the sensor.
2.1.1 Advantages
The advantages of platinum resistance thermometers include:
 High accuracy
 Low drift
 Wide operating range
 Suitability for precision applications.
2.1.2 Limitations
RTDs in industrial applications are rarely used above 660 °C. At temperatures above 660 °C it
becomes increasingly difficult to prevent the platinum from becoming contaminated by
impurities from the metal sheath of the thermometer. This is why laboratory standard
thermometers replace the metal sheath with a glass construction. At very low temperatures, say
below −270 °C (3 K), because there are very few phonons, the resistance of an RTD is mainly
determined by impurities and boundary scattering and thus basically independent of temperature.
As a result, the sensitivity of the RTD is essentially zero and therefore not useful.
Compared to Thermistor, platinum RTDs are less sensitive to small temperature changes and
have a slower response time. However, Thermistor has a smaller temperature range and stability.
RTDs vs thermocouples
The two most common ways of measuring temperatures for industrial applications are with
resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) and thermocouples. The choice between them is
typically determined by four factors.

2.1.4 Temperature
If process temperatures are between −200 and 500 °C (−328.0 and 932.0 °F), an industrial RTD
is the preferred option. Thermocouples have a range of −180 to 2,320 °C (−292.0 to 4,208.0 °F),
[9] so for temperatures above 500 °C (932 °F) it is the contact temperature measurement device
commonly found in physics laboratories.
2.1.5 Response time
If the process requires a very fast response to temperature changes (fractions of a second as
opposed to seconds), then a thermocouple is the best choice. Time response is measured by
immersing the sensor in water moving at 1 m/s (3.3 ft/s) with a 63.2% step change.
2.1.6 Size
A standard RTD sheath is 3.175 to 6.35 mm (0.1250 to 0.2500 in) in diameter; sheath diameters
for thermocouples can be less than 1.6 mm (0.063 in).
2.1.7 Accuracy and stability requirements
If a tolerance of 2 °C is acceptable and the highest level of repeatability is not required, a
thermocouple will serve. RTDs are capable of higher accuracy and can maintain stability for
many years, while thermocouples can drift within the first few hours of use.
1.1.8 UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS RELATED TO THE TOPIC
Two-mark questions

Q-1. What is temparature coeficient of Resistance Temperature Detector ?

Q-2. Which types of metel commenly used in resistance thermometer?
Q-3. What is Relation between temperature and resistance of a conductor ?

Five-mark questions

Q-4. Explain the operation of RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector).

Q-5. What is the difference between an RTD and thermocouple?
Q-6.

Ten-mark questions

Q-7. Compare RTD, Thermocouple and Thermistor.

2.2 Thermistor:-
A thermistor is a thermal resistor - a resistor that changes its resistance with temperature.
Technically, all resistors are thermistors - their resistance changes slightly with temperature - but
the change is usually very very small and difficult to measure. Thermistors are made so that the
resistance changes drastically with temperature so that it can be 100 ohms or more of change per
degree!
There are two kinds of of thermistors, NTC (negative temperature coefficient) and PTC (positive
temperature coefficient). In general, you will see NTC sensors used for temperature
measurement. PTC' sare often used as resettable fuses - an increase in temperature increases the
resistance which means that as more current passes through them, they heat up and 'choke back'
the current, quite handy for protecting circuits!
Thermistor Principle:
We are all known that a resistor is an electrical component that limits the amount of current
flows through a circuit. Thermistor is special type of resistor, whose resistance varies more
significantly with temperature than in standard resistors. Generally, the resistance increases with
the temperature for most of the metals but the thermistors respond negatively i.e. the resistance
of the thermistors decrease with the increase in temperature. This is the main principle behind
thermistor. As the resistance of thermistors depends on the temperature, they can be connected in
the electrical circuit to measure the temperature of the body.
Thermistors are mainly used as temperature sensors, inrush current limiters, self-resetting over-
current protectors and self-regulating heating elements. A thermistor is made from a
semiconductor material. It is shaped into a disc, a rod or a bead. Bead thermistors may be only a
few millimetres in diameter. Some bead thermistors have the bead enclosed in a glass capsule
2.2.1 Thermistor characteristics:
As just mentioned above, resistance increase with increase in temperature for PTC and resistance
decrease with increase in temperature for NTC.
The thermistor exhibits a highly non-linear characteristic of resistance vs temperature.

PTC thermistors can be used as heating elements in small temperature controlled ovens. NTC
thermistors can be used as inrush current limiting devices in power supply circuits. Inrush
current refers to maximum, instan
taneous input current drawn by an electrical device when first turned on. Thermistors are
available in variety of sizes and shapes; smallest in size are the beads with a diameter of 0.15mm
to 1.25mm
There are two fundamental ways to change the temperature of thermistor internally or externally.
The temperature of thermistor can be changed externally by changing the temperature of
surrounding media and internally by self-heating resulting from a current flowing through the
device.
The dependence of the resistance on temperature can be approximated by following equation.

R is the resistance of thermistor at the temperature T (in K)

R0 is the resistance at given temperature T0 (in K)
β is the material specific-constant
2.2.2 Advantage:
 First off, they are much much cheaper than all the above! A bare 5% thermistor is only
10 cents in bulk.
 They are also much easier to waterproof since its just a resistor.
 They work at any voltage (digital sensors require 3 or 5V logic).
 Compared to a thermocouple, they don't require an amplifier to read the minute voltages
- you canuse any microcontroller to read a thermistor.
 They can also be incredibly accurate for the price. For example, the 10K 1% thermistor
in the shop is good for measuring with ±0.25°C accuracy! (Assuming you have an
accurate enough analog.
2.2.3 Thermistor Applications:
·PTC thermistors were used as timers in the degaussing coil circuit of most CRT displays. A
degaussing circuit using a PTC thermistoris simple, reliable (for its simplicity), and inexpensive
.·We can also use PTC thermistors as heater in automotive industry to provide additional heat
inside cabin with diesel engine or to heat diesel in cold climatic conditions before engine
injection.
·We can use PTC thermistors as current-limiting devices for circuit protection, as replacements
for fuses.
·We can also use NTC thermistors to monitor the temperature of an incubator.
·Thermistors are also commonly used in modern digital thermostats and to monitor the
temperature of battery packs while charging.
·Weregularly use NTC thermistors in automotive applications.
·NTC thermistors are used in the Food Handling and Processing industry, especially for food
storage systems and food preparation. Maintainingthe correct temperature is critical to prevent
food borne illness.
·NTC thermistors are used throughout the Consumer Appliance industry for measuring
temperature. Toasters, coffee makers, refrigerators, freezers, hair dryers, etc. all rely on
thermistors for proper temperature control.
·We can regularly use the Thermistors in the hot ends of 3D printers; they monitor the heat
produced and allow the printer’s control circuitry to keep a constant temperature for melting the
plastic filament.
·NTC thermistors are used as resistance thermometers in low-temperature measurements of the
order of 10 K
.·NTC thermistors can be used as inrush-current limiting devices in power supply circuits.
2.2.4 UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS RELATED TO THE TOPIC
Two-mark questions

Q-8. What is temparature coeficient of Thermistor?

Q-9. Which type of material are used for febrication of thermisors?
Q-10. Thermistor can be considered as which type of Resistor?
Q-11. The temperature range of thermistor is when compared to RTD is

Five-mark questions

Q-12. Explain the construction and characteristics of thermistor.

Q-13. Discuss the working principle of thermistor.

Ten-mark questions

Q-14. A thermistor has a resistance of 3980 at the ice pointWA thermistor has a resistance of
3980 at 50°C. The resistance-temperature relationship isW(0°C) and 794 given by RT =
aR0 exp (b/T). Calculate the constants a and b. Calculate the range of resistance to be
measured in case the temperature varies from 40 °C to 100 °C.

2.3 Thermocouples
Thermocouples are temperature sensors. They operate under the principle that the junction of
two dissimilar metals (forming a closed circuit) produces a measurable voltage (electromotive
force) when the two ends of the thermocouple are at different temperatures. Because
thermocouples have simple construction and are superior in reliability, they have been used as
industrial temperature sensors in a wide range of fields. Moreover, connecting a measuring
instrument (recorders, DCS,PLC etc.) to one end of a circuit allows you to measure potential
difference (electromagnetic force).

2.3.1 Working Principle

The working principle of thermocouple is based on three effects, discovered by Seebeck, Peltier
and Thomson. They are as follows:
1) Seebeck effect: The Seebeck effect states that when two different or unlike metals are joined
together at two junctions, an electromotive force (emf) is generated at the two junctions. The
amount of emf generated is different for different combinations of the metals.
2) Peltier effect: As per the Peltier effect, when two dissimilar metals are joined together to
form two junctions, emf is generated within the circuit due to the different temperatures of the
two junctions of the circuit.
 3) Thomson effect: As per the Thomson effect, when two unlike metals are joined together
forming two junctions, the potential exists within the circuit due to temperature gradient along
the entire length of the conductors within the circuit.
In most of the cases the emf suggested by the Thomson effect is very small and it can be
neglected by making proper selection of the metals. The Peltier effect plays a prominent role in
the working principle of the thermocouple.
Thermocouple:
How it Works
The general circuit for the working of thermocouple is shown in the figure. It comprises of two
dissimilar metals, A and B. These are joined together to form two junctions, p and q, which are
maintained at the temperatures T 1 and T2 respectively. Remember that the thermocouple cannot
be formed if there are not two junctions. Since the two junctions are maintained at different
temperatures the Peltier emf is generated within the circuit and it is the function of the
temperatures of two junctions.

If the temperature of both the junctions is same, equal and opposite emf will be generated at both
junctions and the net current flowing through the junction is zero. If the junctions are maintained
at different temperatures, the emf’s will not become zero and there will be a net current flowing
through the circuit. The total emf flowing through this circuit depends on the metals used within
the circuit as well as the temperature of the two junctions. The total emf or the current flowing
through the circuit can be measured easily by the suitable device.
The device for measuring the current or emf is connected within the circuit of the thermocouple.
It measures the amount of emf flowing through the circuit due to the two junctions of the two
dissimilar metals maintained at different temperatures. The two junctions of the thermocouple
and the device used for measurement of emf (potentiometer) are shown.
Now, the temperature of the reference junctions is already known, while the temperature of
measuring junction is unknown. The output obtained from the thermocouple circuit is calibrated
directly against the unknown temperature. Thus the voltage or current output obtained from
thermocouple circuit gives the value of unknown temperature directly.
2.3.2 Thermocouples Advantages & Disadvantages

2.3.3 UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS RELATED TO THE TOPIC

Two-mark questions
Q-15. A junction / joint of two dissimilar metal is called _______.
Q-16. The series & parallel groups of thermocouples are called ________.
Q-17. Define the Seebeck effect?
Five-mark questions
Q-18. Describe the construction and working of thermocouple.

Ten-mark questions
Q-19. A thermocouple circuit uses a chromel-alumel thermocouple which gives an emf of 33.3
mV. When measuring a temperature of 800 °C with reference temperature 0 °C. The
resistance of the meter coil, Rm and a current of 0.1 mA gives full scaleWis 50 deflection.
The resistance of junctions and leads, Re .Wis 12 Calculate :
a. Resistance of the series resistance if a temperature of 800 °C is to give full scale
deflection.in ReW
b. The approximate error due to rise of 1 .
c. The approximate error due to a rise of 10°C in the copper coil of the meter. The
resistance temperature co-efficient of coil is 0.00426/°C.
2.4 Proximity sensors: Inductive, Capacitive & Ultrasonic
A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any physical
contact. So, “proximity” means closeness (nearness) of some object
2.4.1 Type of proximity sensor:
 Inductive proximity sensor
 Capacitive proximity sensor
 Ultrasonic proximity sensor
 Magnetic proximity sensor
 Optical proximity sensor
 Hall effect proximity sensor
 Doppler effect proximity sensor, etc.

2.4.2 Inductive Proximity Sensor:

Inductive proximity sensors are contactless sensors used to only detect metal objects. It’s based
on the law of induction, driving a coil with an oscillator once a metallic object approaches it.

An alternating current is supplied to the coil, generating an electromagnetic detection field.

When a metal object comes closer into the magnetic field, eddy currents build-up, and result in
coil inductance changes. When coil inductance changes, the circuit that has been continuously
monitoring, will trigger the sensor’s output switch
2.4.2.1 Applications:
 Industrial usages: Production automation machines that count products, product transfers
 Security usages: Detection of metal objects, armory, land mines, etc.
Advantages of inductive proximity sensors
 Contactless detection
 Environment adaptability; resistant to common conditions seen in industrial areas such as
dust and dirt
 Capable and versatile in metal sensing
 Considerably cheap when it comes to price
 No moving parts, ensuring a longer service life
2.4.2.2 Disadvantages of inductive proximity sensors
 Lack in detection range, averaging a max range of up to 80mm
 Can only detect metal objects
 Performance can be affected by external conditions; extreme temperatures,
cutting fluids or chemicals

2.4.4 Capacitive Proximity sensor:

Capacitive proximity sensors are similar to inductive proximity sensors. The main difference
between the two types is that capacitive proximity sensors produce an electrostatic field instead
of an electromagnetic field. Capacitive proximity switches will sense metal as well as non-
metallic materials such as paper, glass, liquids, and cloth

The sensing surface of a capacitive sensor is formed by two concentrically shaped metal
electrodes of an unwound capacitor. When an object nears the sensing surface it enters the
electrostatic field of the electrodes and changes the capacitance in an oscillator circuit. As a
result, the oscillator begins oscillating. The trigger circuit reads the oscillator’s amplitude and
when it reaches a specific level the output state of the sensor changes. As the target moves away
from the sensor the oscillator’s amplitude decreases, switching the sensor output back to its
original state
2.4.4.1 Applications:
Industrial usages
 Production automation machines that count products, product transfers
 Filling processes, pipelines, inks, etc.
 Fluid level, composition, and pressure
 Moisture control
 Non-invasive content detection
 Touch applications
2.4.4.2 Advantages of Capacitive proximity sensors
 Contactless detection
 A wide array of materials able to be detected
 Able to detect objects through non-metallic walls with its wide sensitivity band
 Well-suited to be used in an industrial environment
 Contains potentiometer that allows users to adjust sensor sensitivity, such that only wanted
objects will be sensed
 No moving parts, ensuring a longer service life
2.4.4.3 Disadvantages of Capacitive proximity sensors
 Relative low range, though incremental increase from inductive sensors
 Higher price as compared to inductive sensors

2.4.4.4 How to choose a suitable proximity sensor

Proximity Sensor Suitability
Sensor How to select
Crieria

Most suited for complex object

Take a look at the object you’re planning to
requirements:
use a proximity sensor on
IR proximity sensor
Object Consider the following factors:
requirements Object color
Not suited for complex object
Shape of object
requirements:
Object material
Ultrasonic proximity sensor

Suited for harsh environment:

Take a look at the environment that you’re
Capacitive (most-suited)
going to sense your object at
Inductive
Environment Consider the following factors:
Ultrasonic
of sensing Cleanliness
Temperature
Not suited for harsh environment:
Moisture
IR proximity sensor
 Suited for close range sensing:
Take a look at whether your object will be
Inductive and Capacitive proximity
Sensing placed close to the sensor face
sensors
Range/Distan Consider the following factors:
ce Distance between object placed and sensor
Suited for long range sensing:
(Far or Close)
Ultrasonic and IR proximity sensors

To summaries, here are the proximity sensors compared with its recommended usages:

Inductive Capacitive Ultrasonic IR

Sensing Object Metallic and non- Object with simple Object with
metallic objects surfaces simple/complicat
Metal Only Including liquid, ed surfaces
powders, and
granular

Sensing Range Short Short Long Long

Applications Distance measurement Item counter

Anemometers for wind Security systems
speed and direction such as
Industrial usages:
detection surveillance,
Industrial Machinery,
Automation production burglar alarms,
Usages: Automations
processes etc.
Machinery, Liquid and moisture
Fluid detection Monitoring and
Automations
Unmanned aerial vehicles control
Touch sensing
(UAVs) for object applications
monitoring
Robotics

Environment Suited to be Suited for harsh Not suited to be

Extremely suitable to
used in harsh environment conditions used in harsh
be used in harsh
environment (Not suited to be used in environment
environment
conditions vacuum) conditions
conditions
(to an extent)

2.4.5 Use of proximity sensor: As an Accelerometer and Vibration sensor

An accelerometer is a device that senses the different types of accelerations or vibrations.
Acceleration is the change in velocity caused by movements of a body. An accelerometer
absorbs the vibrations created by the body and uses it to know the orientation of the body. A
piezoelectric accelerometer has two types which are high impedance output accelerometer and
low impedance output accelerometer. On the basis of the working mode, it is mainly of three
types. The compression mode, the capacitive mode, and the shear mode. All of them work on
sensing the vibrations.
2.4.5.1 Accelerometer Working Principle
The main working principle of an accelerometer is that it converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy. When a mass is kept on the sensor which is actually just like a spring it starts
moving down. Since it is moving down it starts experiencing the acceleration. That acceleration
hence gets converted into an amount of electric signal which is used for the measurements of
variation in the position of the device. The accelerometer can be found with both the forms
analog as well as digital form devices.
2.4.5.1 Types of Accelerometer
Capacitive accelerometers:
Used generally in those that have diaphragm supported seismic mass as a moving electrode and
one/two fixed electrodes. The signal generated due to change in capacitance is post-processed
using LC circuits etc., to output a measurable entity.
Piezoelectric accelerometers:
Acceleration acting on a seismic mass exerts a force on the piezoelectric crystals, which then
produce a proportional electric charge. The piezoelectric crystals are usually preloaded so that
either an increase or decrease in acceleration causes a change in the charge produced by them.
But they are not reliable at very low frequencies.
Potentiometric accelerometers:
Relatively cheap and used where slowly varying acceleration is to be measured with a fair
amount of accuracy. In these, the displacement of a spring mass system is mechanically linked to
a viper arm, which moves along a Potentiometric resistive element. Various designs may have
either viscous, magnetic or gas damping.
Reluctive accelerometers:
They compose accelerometers of the differential transformer type or the inductance bridge type.
The AC outputs of these vary in phase as well as amplitude. They are converted into DC by
means of a phase-sensitive demodulator.
Servo accelerometers:
These use the closed loop servo systems of force-balance, torque-balance or null-balance to
provide close accuracy. Acceleration causes a seismic mass to move. The motion is detected by
one of the motion-detection devices, which generate a signal that acts as an error signal in the
servo-loop. The demodulated and amplified signal is then passed through a passive damping
network and then applied to the torquing coil located at the axis of rotation of the mass. The
torque is proportional to the coil current, which is in turn proportional to the acceleration.
Strain Gage accelerators:
these can be made very small in size and mass. The displacement of the spring-mass system is
converted into a change in resistance, due to strain, in four arms of a Wheatstone bridge. The
signal is then post-processed to read the acceleration.
2.4.5.3 Accelerometer Application
Some applications of the accelerometer are:
 The accelerometer has a capacity to sense the vibration from a micro scale to a large scale.
Even in most of the safety installations the accelerometer is used.
 An accelerometer is also used in sports. The wearable devices which athletes are using daily
for the practice and observations comprise of accelerometers or gyroscope.
 The physicians use it to check for gain in body mass and monitor body movements. It is also
present in the devices used to check the heart rate.
 The piezoelectric accelerometers are used at the industrial level.
 The most frequent accelerometer used in aerospace is Micro-Electro-Mechanical-
sensors(the MEMS technology) based. The reason for using MEMS sensor-based
accelerometers is that they can sense the vibrations even on a micro-scale and can also
provide the value on a micro-scale.
 It is even used for the satellite which is in space, as it can tolerate high pressure, heat, and
vibration.
 For purposes like gearbox analysis, bearing analysis, rotor trim, and balance, an
accelerometer plays an important role.
 The aircraft are navigated using the accelerometer. The aircraft flight testing is another thing
that requires an accelerometer. To check the characteristics of flight and to confirm the
design of it an accurate observation of data is expected. For that, an accelerometer named
LCA-5080 is in use.
 An accelerometer is used for safety purposes in laptops for the hard discs. Because of
accelerometer sensors, we have landscape and portrait modes on our phones. The mobile
phones keep changing the screen mode in landscape or portrait mode due to accelerometer
applications.
2.4.5.4 Advantages
Simple to install
Good response at high frequencies
Stand high Temperature
Small size
2.4.5.5 Disadvantages
Sensitive to high frequency noise
Require external power
Require electronic integration for velocity and displacement
2.4.5.6 Vibration Sensor:
Sensors used to measure vibration come in three basic types’ displacement, velocity and
acceleration. Displacement sensors measure changes in distance between a machine’s rotating
element and its stationary housing (frame). Displacement sensors come in the form of a probe
that threads into a hole drilled and tapped in the machine’s frame, just above the surface of a
rotating shaft. Velocity and acceleration sensors, by contrast, measure the velocity or
acceleration of whatever element the sensor is attached to, which is usually some external part of
the machine frame.
The magnetic field produced by the coil induces eddy currents in the metal shaft of the machine,
as though the metal piece were a short-circuited secondary coil of a transformer (with the
probe’s coil as the transformer primary winding). The closer the shaft moves toward the sensor
tip, the tighter the magnetic coupling between the shaft and the sensor coil, and the stronger the
eddy currents. The high-frequency oscillator circuit providing the sensor coil’s excitation signal
becomes loaded by the induced eddy currents. Therefore, the oscillator’s load becomes a direct
indication of how close the probe tip is to the metal shaft. This is not unlike the operation of a
metal detector: measuring the proximity of a wire coil to any metal object by the degree of
loading caused by eddy current induction, the high-frequency oscillator circuit providing the
sensor coil’s excitation signal becomes loaded by the induced eddy currents. Therefore, the
oscillator’s load becomes a direct indication of how close the probe tip is to the metal shaft.
2.4.6 UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS RELATED TO THE TOPIC
Two-mark questions
Q-20. What are the main difference between an inductive proximity sensor and a capacitive
proximity sensor?
Q-21. What kind of material can be sensed by inductive proximity sensors?
Q-22. What kind of material can be sensed by capacitive proximity sensors?
Q-23. Define the term accelerometer.
Q-24. What do you mean by eddy current?

Five-mark questions
Q-25. Define proximity sensor and explain the working of inductive proximity sensor.
Q-26. Explain the working of inductive proximity sensor with neat and clean diagram with an
example.
Q-27. What are selection criteria for the proximity sensor?
Q-28. What is the different application of the proximity sensor?
Q-29. What are the different type of accelerometer? Write a short note on the accelerometer.
Q-30. What do you mean by vibration sensor? Write a short note on vibration sensor.
Ten-mark questions

Q-31. How do we measure vibration with the help of proximity sensors.

2.5 Flow sensors

A flow sensor (more commonly referred to as a “flow meter”) is an electronic device that
measures or regulates the flow rate of liquids and gasses within pipes and tubes. Flow sensors
are able to detect leaks, blockages, pipe bursts, and changes in liquid concentration due to
contamination or pollution.
2.5.1 Ultrasonic flow meters:
Ultrasonic flow meters operate using the transit-time differential method technology. A sound
wave travelling in the direction of flow of the product is propagated at a faster rate than one
travelling against the flow (vAB > vBA). Transit time tAB and tBA are measured continuously.
The difference (tBA-tAB) in time travelled by the two ultrasonic waves is directly proportional
to the mean flow velocity (vm).
Where,
tAB is Time required for ultrasonic wave to travel from Sensor A to sensor B.
tBA is Time required for ultrasonic wave to travel from Sensor B to sensor A.

An ultrasonic flow meter measures the velocity of a fluid with ultrasound to calculate volume
flow. Using ultrasonic transducers, the flow meter can measure the average velocity along the
path of an emitted beam of ultrasound, by averaging the difference in measured transit time
between the pulses of ultrasound propagating into and against the direction of the flow or by
measuring the frequency shift from the Doppler effect. Ultrasonic flow meters are affected by
the acoustic properties of the fluid and can be impacted by temperature, density, viscosity and
suspended particulates depending on the exact flow meter.
2.5.2 Advantages of Ultrasonic Flow meters
Ultrasonic flow meters are highly useful in a variety of applications across multiple
industries. Just a few of the benefits offered by ultrasonic flow meters include:
 No moving parts: Traditional mechanical flow meters measure pressure through the use of
moving parts, which serve as mechanical sensors. Unfortunately, these parts pose several
problems. They often obstruct flow and cause pressure loss. The moving parts also degrade
over time, providing less accurate results and requiring repair and replacement. Since there
are no moving parts in ultrasonic flow meters, you don’t have to worry about them
degrading or creating a blockage.
 Low maintenance: Since ultrasonic flow meters don’t involve moving parts, they last a
long time with very little maintenance. They also have low power consumption, so they
often last for several years before the batteries need to be replaced.
 Digital and analog options: Ultrasonic flow meters come in a wide range of outputs, and
advanced technology has allowed for the creation of ultrasonic transducers with digital
readouts and network connection capabilities. This means that transducers can communicate
measurements in real time to a central monitoring system.
 High accuracy: As long as the meter is properly mounted and installed, these meters are
highly accurate. However, inline and insertion flow meters are generally more accurate than
clamp-on ultrasonic flow meters.
2.5.3 Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Flow meters
While ultrasonic flow meters offer many advantages, they are far from perfect solutions. Some
of the issues associated with them are:
 Higher upfront cost: Ultrasonic flow meters are significantly more expensive than many of
the other inline flow meter options available today. Much of this is because the acoustic
parts are very expensive. While these meters offer long-term cost benefits, the upfront cost
of purchasing and installing them may pose an issue.
 Substance limitations: Ultrasonic flow meters cannot be used for heavily contaminated
liquids or slurry. Essentially, any type of liquid that cannot pass ultrasonic energy is
incapable of being measured using an ultrasonic flow measurement device.
2.5.4 UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS RELATED TO THE TOPIC
Two-mark questions
Q-32. What is the main disadvantage of ultrasonic flow meter ?
Q-33. What is the technique behind ultrasonic flow meter?
Q-34. What is the advantage of ultrasonic flow meter?
Five-mark questions
Q-35. How ultrasonic flow sensor work ?.

Ten-mark questions

Q-36.

2.6 Level sensor

Level sensors detect the level of liquids and other fluids and fluidized solids, including slurries,
granular materials, and powders that exhibit an upper free surface. Substances that flow become
essentially horizontal in their containers (or other physical boundaries) because of gravity
whereas most bulk solids pile at an angle of repose to a peak. The substance to be measured can
be inside a container or can be in its natural form (e.g., a river or a lake). The level measurement
can be either continuous or point values. Continuous level sensors measure level within a
specified range and determine the exact amount of substance in a certain place, while point-level
sensors only indicate whether the substance is above or below the sensing point. Generally the
latter detect levels that are excessively high or low.
2.6.1 Capacitance Level Measurement
Capacitive level transducer is an example of indirect measurement of level
Capacitance level sensors are used for wide variety of solids, aqueous and organic liquids, and
slurries. The technique is frequently referred as RF as radio frequency signals applied to the
capacitance circuit. The sensors can be designed to sense material with dielectric constants as
low as 1.1 (coke and fly ash) and as high as 88 (water) or more. Sludges and slurries such as
dehydrated cake and sewage slurry (dielectric constant approx. 50) and liquid chemicals such as
quicklime (dielectric constant approx. 90) can also be sensed. Dual-probe capacitance level
sensors can also be used to sense the interface between two immiscible liquids with substantially
different dielectric constants.
Since capacitance level sensors are electronic devices, phase modulation and the use of higher
frequencies makes the sensor suitable for applications in which dielectric constants are similar.
2.6.2 Working Principle:
The principle of capacitive level measurement is based on change of capacitance. An insulated
electrode acts as one plate of capacitor and the tank wall (or reference electrode in a non-metallic
vessel) acts as the other plate. The capacitance depends on the fluid level. An empty tank has a
lower capacitance while a filled tank has a higher capacitance.
A simple capacitor consists of two electrode plate separated by a small thickness of an insulator
such as solid, liquid, gas, or vacuum. This insulator is also called as dielectric.
Value of C depends on dielectric used, area of the plate and also distance between the plates.

Where:
C = capacitance in picofarads (pF)
E = a constant known as the absolute permittivity of free space
K = relative dielectric constant of the insulating material
A = effective area of the conductors
d = distance between the conductors
This change in capacitance can be measured using AC bridge.
Measurement:
Measurement is made by applying an RF signal between the conductive probe and the vessel
wall
The RF signal results in a very low current flow through the dielectric process material in the
tank from the probe to the vessel wall. When the level in the tank drops, the dielectric constant
drops causing a drop in the capacitance reading and a minute drop in current flow.
This change is detected by the level switch’s internal circuitry and translated into a change in the
relay state of the level switch in case of point level detection.
In the case of continuous level detectors, the output is not a relay state, but a scaled analog
signal.
Level Measurement can be divided into three categories:
 Measurement of non-conductive material
 Measurement of conductive material
 Non-contact measurement
Non-conducting material:
For measuring level of non conducting liquids, bare probe arrangement is used as liquid
resistance is sufficiently high to make it dielectric. Since the electrode and tank are fixed in
place, the distance (d) is constant, capacitance is directly proportional to the level of the material
acting as dielectric.
Conducting Material:
In conducting liquids, the probe plates are insulated using thin coating of glass or plastic to avoid
short circuiting. The conductive material acts as the ground plate of the capacitor.
2.6.3 Advantages of Capacitive level measurement:
1. Relatively inexpensive
2. Versatile
3. Reliable
4. Requires minimal maintenance
5. Contains no moving parts
6. Easy to install and can be adapted easily for different size of vessels
7. Good range of measurement, from few cm to about 100 m
8. Rugged
9. Simple to use
10. Easy to clean
11. Can be designed for high temperature and pressure applications.
2.6.4 Disadvantages:
Light density materials under 20 lb/ft3 and materials with particle sizes exceeding 1/2 in.
in diameter can be a problem due to their very low dielectric constants (caused by the
large amount of air space between particles).

2.6.5 Applications:
Capacitance Level Probes are used for measuring level of
1. Liquids
2. Powered and granular solids
3. Liquid metals at very high temperature
4. Liquefied gases at very low temperature
5. Corrosive materials like hydrofluoric acid
6. Very high pressure industrial processes.
2.6.6 Ultrasonic level measurement
Ultrasonic waves detect an object in the same way as Radar does it. Ultrasonic uses the sound
waves, and Radar uses radio waves. When ultrasonic pulse signal is targeted towards an object,
it is reflected by the object and echo returns to the sender. The time travelled by the ultrasonic
pulse is calculated, and the distance of the object is found. Bats use well known method to
measure the distance while travelling. Ultrasonic level measurement principle is also used to find
out fish positions in ocean, locate submarines below water level, also the position of a scuba
diver in sea.

We will refer to Fig-1 and make an effort to understand the technicalities of ultrasonic level
transmitter. An ultrasonic level transmitter is fixed at the top of a tank half filled with liquid. The
reference level for all measurements is the bottom of the tank. Level to be detected is marked as
“C”, and “B” is the distance of the ultrasonic sensor from the liquid level. Ultrasonic pulse
signals are transmitted from the transmitter, and it is reflected back to the sensor. Travel time of
the ultrasonic pulse from sensor to target and back is calculated. Level “C” can be found by
multiplying half of this time with the speed of sound in air. The measuring unit final result can
be centimeters, feet, inches etc.
2.6.7 Functional block diagram of a typical Ultrasonic Level Transmitter:
We will refer to Fig-3 Functional Block Diagram for clarify physical structures of an Ultrasonic
Level Transmitter.
A micro-controller based Control Circuit monitors all the activities of the ultrasonic level
transmitter. There are two Pulse Transmission Circuits, one for transmitter pulse and the other
one for receiver pulse. The pulse generated by the transmitter pulse is converted to Ultrasound
pulses by the Ultrasonic Sensor (Transmitter) and targeted towards the object.
This ultrasound pulse is reflected back as an echo pulse to the Ultrasonic Sensor (Receiver). The
receiver converts this Ultrasonic pulse to an electrical signal pulse through the pulse generator.
The time elapsed, or the reflection time is measured by the counter. This elapsed time has
relation to the level to be measured. This elapsed time is converted to level by the Control
Circuit. There is a Timing Generator Circuit which is used to synchronize all functions in the
ultrasonic level measurement system.
The level is finally converted to 4-20mA signal. 4mA is 0% level, and 20mA is the 100% level
(see Fig-1). This 4-20mA output signal carrying the level data can be transmitted to long
distance to Process Control Instruments.
2.6.8 Advantages of Ultrasonic Level Transmitter:
Ultrasonic level transmitter has no moving parts, and it can measure level without making
physical contact with the object. This typical characteristic of the transmitter is useful for
measuring levels in tanks with corrosive, boiling and hazardous chemicals. The accuracy of the
reading remains unaffected even after changes in the chemical composition or the dielectric
constant of the materials in the process fluids.
2.6.9 Limitations of Ultrasonic Level Transmitter:
Ultrasonic level transmitters are the best level measuring devices where the received echo of the
ultrasound is of acceptable quality. It is not so convenient if the tank depth is high or the echo is
absorbed or dispersed. The object should not be sound absorbing type. It is also unsuitable for
tanks with too much smoke or high density moisture.
2.6.10UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS RELATED TO THE TOPIC
Two-mark questions
Q-37. What is the application of level sensor?
Q-38. Is a level sensor analog or digital?
Q-39. What are the different types of level measurement?
Five-mark questions
Q-40. What is importance of level measurement. List various method use for level measurement.
Q-41. Explain the detail about capacitive type level sensor?
Q-42. Give the advantages, disadvantages and applications of capacitive level sensors.
Ten-mark questions

Q-43. Explain ultrasonic level sensor with help of neet diagram. Also state its advantage and
disadvantage?
2.7 Hall effect
The Hall effect is the production of a voltage difference (the Hall voltage) across an electrical
conductor that is transverse to an electric current in the conductor and to an applied magnetic
field perpendicular to the current. It was discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879.

2.7.1 Measurement of position using Hall effect sensors

Magnetic sensors are solid state devices that are becoming more and more popular because they
can be used in many different types of application such as sensing position, velocity or
directional movement. They are also a popular choice of sensor for the electronics designer due
to their non-contact wear free operation, their low maintenance, robust design and as sealed Hall
Effect devices are immune to vibration, dust and water.

A Hall Effect sensor is a transducer that varies its output voltage in response to a magnetic field
(Fig). Hall potential difference – Hall voltage depends on both magnitude and directions of
magnetic field and electric current (power supply). The magnetic field is sensed by the Hall plate
and a “Hall” voltage is developed across the biased Hall plate proportional to the induced
magnetic flux. In its simplest form, the sensor operates as an analog transducer, directly
returning a voltage. With a known magnetic field, its distance from the Hall plate can be
determined. Using groups of sensors, the relative position of the magnet can be deduced. Hall
Effect sensors are used for proximity switching, positioning, speed detection, and current
sensing applications.

The Hall Effect is named after Edwin Hall, who in 1879 discovered that a voltage potential
develops across a current-carrying conductive plate when a magnetic field passes through the
plate in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the plate. Hall-effect (magnetic field) sensing
applications have become practical recently through advancements in supporting technologies.
Hall Effect sensors may require analog circuitry to be interfaced to microprocessors. These
interfaces may include input diagnostics, fault protection for transient conditions, and short/open
circuit detection. It may also provide and monitor the current to the Hall Effect sensor itself.
There are precision IC products available to handle these features.

Hall Effect Sensors are available with either linear or digital outputs. The output signal for linear
(analogue) sensors is taken directly from the output of the operational amplifier with the output
voltage being directly proportional to the magnetic field passing through the Hall sensor.
Linear or analogue sensors give a continuous voltage output that increases with a strong magnetic field
and decreases with a weak magnetic field. In linear output Hall Effect sensors, as the strength of the
magnetic field increases the output signal from the amplifier will also increase until it begins to saturate
by the limits imposed on it by the power supply. Any additional increase in the magnetic field will have
no effect on the output but drive it more into saturation.
2.7.2 UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS RELATED TO THE TOPIC
Two-mark questions
Q-44. What is the principle of Hall Effect?
Five-mark questions
Q-45. What are some applications for the Hall effect sensor?
Q-46. How is Hall potential developed?
Ten-mark questions

Q-47. What is the Hall effect how Hall effect sensor can be used for position measurement?