(Physics)

INDEX

S.NO TOPIC PAGE NO.

𝟏
𝟏
1. Electric Field on Axial Line of an Electric Dipole

𝟐
2. Electric Field on Equatorial Line of Dipole

𝟐
3. Electric Dipole in Uniform Electric Field

𝟐−𝟑
4. Electric Field Due to a Line Charge

𝟑
5. Electric Field Due to Infinite Charged Plane Sheet

𝟒
6. Electric Field Due to Charged Spherical Shell
7. Electric Potential at any point due to an Electric Dipole

𝟒
Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole, when Placed in Uniform
8.

𝟒−𝟓
Electric Field
9. Parallel Plate Capacitor

𝟓
Capacitance of Capacitor, when a Dielectric Slab Completely Fills
10.

𝟓
the Space Between Plates

𝟕
11. Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor

𝟕
12. Drift Velocity

𝟖
13. Relation between Drift Velocity and Electric Current

𝟖
14. Electric Current and Current Density

𝟖−𝟗
15. Cells in Series

𝟗
16. Cells in Parallel

𝟏𝟎
17. Wheat Stone Bridge

𝟏𝟏
18. Motion of a Charged particle inside a Uniform Magnetic Field
19. Magnetic Field at a point on the Axis of a Loop

𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟐
Force between two infinitely Long Parallel Current Carrying
20.

𝟏𝟐
Conductors

𝟏𝟑
21. Torque on a Current Loop placed in a Magnetic Field

𝟏𝟑
22. Self-Induction (of a Long Solenoid )

𝟏𝟒
23. Mutual Induction (of Two Long Solenoids)

𝟏𝟒
24. Mean or Average Value of A.C.

𝟏𝟓 − 𝟏𝟔
25. Root Mean Square(rms) or Virtual Value of A.C.

𝟏𝟔
26. A.C. Through LCR-Series Circuit

𝟏𝟕
27. Power of an A.C. Circuit

𝟏𝟕
28. Mirror Formula (for Concave spherical mirror)

𝟏𝟖
29. Linear Magnification(for Concave spherical mirror)

𝟏𝟖 − 𝟏𝟗
30. Refraction at Convex Spherical Surface

𝟏𝟗
31. Lens Maker's Formula
32. Refraction through a Prism

𝟐𝟎
33.a Simple Microscope Magnifying power (Image is formed at D) 20

𝟐𝟏
33.b Simple Microscope Magnifying power (Image is formed at infinity).

𝟐𝟏
34.a Compound Microscope Magnifying power (Image is formed at D).

𝟐𝟏
34.b Compound Magnifying power (Image is formed at infinity).
35. Astronomical Telescope (Image is formed at infinity).

APNI KAKSHA 0
(Physics)

𝟐𝟑
𝟐𝟑
36. Laws of Reflection on the basis Wave Theory
37. Laws Refraction on the Basis of Wave Theory

𝟐𝟓
38. Conditions for Constructive and Destructive Interference 24

𝟐𝟓
39. Distance of Closest Approach

𝟐𝟔
40. Bohr's Theory of Hydrogen Atom

𝟐𝟔
41. Nuclear Density

𝟐𝟔
42. Mass Defect
43. Binding Energy

APNI KAKSHA 0
(Physics) ELECTRIC FIELD AND CHARGES
1. Electric Field on Axial line of an Electric
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕,
Then, resultant electric field at point P is given by
Dipole
𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏]
Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges −q
and +q, separated by a distance 2a and
placed in free space.

The electric field ⃗E→ at point P due to the dipole

will be the resultant of the electric fields ⃗E→A
⃗E→ = ⃗E→A + ⃗E→B
(due to −q at point A ) and ⃗E→B (due to +q at
the B) i.e. Let ∠MPN = ∠PBN = θ .
Also ∠NPL = ∠PAB = θ
⃗E→ = ⃗E→A + ⃗E→B
So, ⃗E→ = ⃗E→A + ⃗E→B = (EA cos θ + EB cos θ)(−î)
Also, | ⃗E→ B | >| ⃗E→ A |.
⃗E→ = ((⃗E→B) − (⃗E→A) ) (𝚤̂)
1 q 1 ⃗E→ = ⃗E→A + ⃗E→B = (2EA cos θ)(−î)
q
or ⃗E→ = ⋅ − ⋅ 2a
4πε (r − a)2 (r + a)2 1 q (−𝚤̂)
0 =
× ⋅
4πε 0
1 (r + a)2 − (r − a)2 4πε (r2 + (r2 + a2)1/2
0 a )
2

= ⋅q
4πε (r2 − 1 q(2a)
0 or E 2 (−𝚤̂)
a2)2 q(4ra) = ⋅ (r +
1 4πε0 2 3/2
a )
⃗E → =
4πε ⋅ (𝚤̂) Now ⃗P→ = q(2a)(𝚤̂), So,
0 (r2 − a2)2
1 P
∴ E= ⋅ (−𝚤̂)
Now, ⃗P→ = q(2a)(𝚤̂), then. 2
4πε (r +
0
a2)3/2
1 2Pr
∴ ⃗E→ = In
⃗vector
E→ =
1− notation,
⃗P→
⋅ (𝚤̂) ⋅ 2
4π ε0 (r2 −
4πε 2(r3/2+
a2)2 a )

In vector notation, Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges −q

1 2⃗P→ and +q separated by a distance 2a.
⃗E → ⋅
= 42π ε0 (rr −
2

a )2
For dipole is of small length, a << r;

𝟏
Therefore,

𝐄⃗→ 𝟐𝐏 ⃗→𝐫
= 𝟒𝛑 𝐫
𝛆𝟎 𝟑

2. Electric Field on Equatorial line of Dipole

[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟔, 𝟐𝟎]
 (Physics) ELECTRIC FIELD AND CHARGES
For dipole is of small length, a << r; then in [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐]
equation a2 can be neglected as compared to r2. Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges
−q and +q𝐄 and 𝟏 𝐏⃗ 2a placed in a uniform
⃗→ =of−length
Therefore, →
𝐫 an angle θ with the
electric field
⋅ E ⃗ → making
3. Electric Dipole in uniform Electric Field direction of the field.

APNI KAKSHA 1
(Physics) ELECTRIC FIELD AND CHARGES
Φ = E × curved surface area of cylinder
or Φ = E × 2πrl … (i)
According to Gauss' theorem, we have
q
Φ= … (ii)
ε0
Now, charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface,
q = λl
Force on charge −q at A =
λl
−q⃗E→ & force on charge +q ∴ Φ=
ε0
⃗ → So, ⃗F→net = ⃗F→+q
at B = qE
From the equations (i) and (ii), we have
+ ⃗F→−q = 0

𝟏 �
𝐄=
Also both forces are equal and opposite and λl
𝟐𝛑𝛆 �
will produce torque on dipole E × 2πrl = ⋅
τ = either force × perpendicular or ε0 𝟎
�
distance between the two forces
= qE(AN) = qE(2asin θ) =
5. Electric Field due to infinite Charged
[𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖]
q(2a)Esin θ τ = pEsin θ or τ =
Plane sheet.
pEsin θ
Consider an infinite thin plane sheet of
Here, ⃗P→ = q(2a), (electric dipole moment)
positive charge having a uniform surface
Also since the dipole rotates in
clockwise charge density σ on both sides of the sheet.

( − 𝑘) direction
̂ The Gaussian surface will be a cylinder as shown

so, In vector ⃗𝛕→ = 𝐩⃗→

in figure.

× 𝐄⃗→
If E is the magnitude of electric field at point P,
form then electric flux crossing through the gaussian
4. Electric Field Due to line charge surface,
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎]
A thin infinitely long straight line charge
having a uniform linear charge density λ
placed along YY′. The Gaussian surface for
line charge will be cylindrical and from
symmetry all the flux will pass from curve
surface area.
Let E is the magnitude of electric field at
point P, then electric flux through the Φ = E × area of the end faces (circular caps)
Gaussian surface is given by of the cylinder or Φ = E × 2 A …… (i)
q
According to Gauss' theorem, we have Φ =
𝝴0
r = radius of Here, the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface,
cylinder l = length σA
q = σA ∴ Φ= ……(ii)
𝝴0
of cylinder
From the equations (i) and (ii), we have
(Physics) ELECTRIC FIELD AND CHARGES
𝛔𝐀 𝛔
𝐄 × 𝟐 𝐀 = 𝐨𝐫 𝐄
𝟐𝛆
𝛆𝟎
=
𝟎

APNI KAKSHA 2
(Physics) ELECTRIC FIELD AND CHARGES
Thus, we find that the magnitude of the electric field
at a point due to an infinite plane sheet of charge is
independent of its distance from the sheet of charge.
6. Electric Field due to charged Spherical (b) When point P lies on the surface of
Shell [𝟐 𝐨𝐫 𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, spherical shell
𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏] For this case also we will draw a Gaussian
surface of just outside the shell, this will
Consider a thin spherical shell of radius R enclose charge q of shell completely,
and Then according to Gauss' theorem,
centre O. Let +q be the charge on the
spherical shell.
For all the three surfaces the Gaussian surface
will be a sphere. 1 q
E × 4πR2 = or E = ⋅ ( for r = R)
q 4πε 2
0 R
ε0
(Physics) ELECTRIC FIELD AND CHARGES
In a medium of dielectric constant K, the

𝟏
electric field is given by
𝐪
𝐄=
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐑
𝐊
⋅
𝟐

(c) When point 𝑷 lies inside the spherical

(a) When point P lies outside the shell
shell In such a case, the gaussian
Let ⃗E→ be the electric field at the point P due surface will be inside the shell and will
to the charged spherical shell. not enclose any charge and hence
according to the Gauss'
theorem,
Consider a small area ⃗d⃗⃗⃗S→
𝐄=
0
element shaded) around the E × 4πr2 = (for r < R )
𝟎
(shown
pointP. or
𝝴0
Then, the electric flux through area element
⃗d⃗⃗⃗⃗S→ is given by d𝛟 = ⃗E→ ⋅ ⃗d⃗⃗⃗⃗S→ = E ds cos
θ
Since ⃗d⃗⃗⃗S→ is normal to the surface so θ = 0,
d𝛟 = E dS
Now total Electric flux is ∮Sd𝛟 = ∮SE dS = E∮S
dS Now, ∮Sd S = surface area of spherical
shell of radius r = 4πr2
∴ Φ = E × 4πr2 … (i)
the charge enclosed by the gaussian surface
is q, so according to the Gauss' theorem,
q
Φ= … (ii)
ε0

𝟏
From the equations (i) and (ii), we have
E × 4πr2 = or 𝐄 =
�
𝟒𝛑 ⋅
𝛆𝟎
q � ( for r > R)

ε0 𝐫𝟐

APNI KAKSHA 3
(Physics) ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL &
CAPACITANCE
7. Electric Potential at any point due to an
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕,
Special cases.
Dipole
𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏]
1. When point P lies on the axial line of
the dipole. θ = 0∘ and cos θ = cos 0∘ =
AB is a diploe with charge −q and +q. P be 1.
any Therefore,
point at a distance r from its center O,
where
electric potential due to the dipole is to 1 P
be determined. Vaxial = ⋅ … (iii)
4πε0 (r2 − a2)
∠POB = θ as shown in fig In case a << r, then
Therefore, net potential at point P due to the
dipole,
𝟏
𝐕axial = 𝐩 ⋅
� 𝐫
𝟒𝛑𝛆
V= … (iv)
𝟐
1 q 1 q
V1 + =− ⋅ + ⋅ �
V2 4πε0 4πε0 PB 2. When point P lies on the equatorial line of the
PA
1 1 1
or V = ⋅q[ − dipole. θ = 90∘ and cos θ = cos 90∘ = 0
4πε ] … (i) Therefore, the equation (ii) gives
0 PB PA

𝐕equi =
Draw BN perpendicular to OP and AM
𝟎
… (v)
perpendicular to PO.
From right angled ΔAMO, we have 8. Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole,

cos θ OM when Placed in Uniform Electric Field

[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟓, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏]
= or OM = a cos
OM θ
=
OA a
In case the length of the dipole is very small
Let the Dipole be kept along a direction making
as compared to distance r, then
an angle θ with the direction of an external
PA ≈ PM = PO + OM = r + acos θ
uniform electric field E. The, torque acting on
Similarly, PB = r − a cos θ the dipole is given by τ = PE sin θ
In the equation (i), substituting for PA and PB,
then work done is rotating the dipole against
we have
natural rotation by dθ
1 1 1
V = ⋅ q [ − dW = τ ∗ dθ = PE sinθ dθ
4πε ]
0 r − acos θ
r + acos θ So, Total work done will be
1
r + acos θ − r +
acos θ
= ⋅q ]
4πε r2 − a2cos2 θ θ
0 [ 2 PEsin θdθ = PE ∗ |1 − cos
θ
θ|θ2
1 2acos θ W=∫
1

= ⋅q θ1
⋅
4πε0 (r2 − a2cos2 or W = PE(cos θ1 − cos θ2)
θ)
Since q(2a) = P, the electric dipole moment This work done is stored in the dipole in the form
of the dipole, the above equation becomes
of its potential energy. and so
𝐏
𝐕 𝐜𝐨𝐬
W = ΔU = PE(cos θ1 − cos θ2)
= 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟐𝟎 (𝐫 − 𝐚
� … (ii)
𝟐 𝟐
⋅
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉
� Let θ1 = and θ2 = θ. Then,
)
90∘
Uf − Ui = PE(cos 90∘ −
cos θ) or Uf = − PE

𝐔 = −𝐏⃗→
cos θ
 ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL &
(Physics)
CAPACITANCE In vector notation,
9. Parallel Plate Capacitor
[𝟐/𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐]
The capacitor shown has two conducting plates
placed parallel to each other kept between Potential

APNI KAKSHA 4
 (Physics) ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL &
CAPACITANCE
Difference ‘V’. Separation between plates = d
(very small as compared to the area of the
𝑞+ 𝑞−
plates).

𝑞+ 𝑞−
Area of plates = A Dielectric
𝑉𝐴=V 𝑉𝐵=0
𝑉𝐴=V 𝑉𝐵=0
mediu
m
Let the space between the two plates of the
capacitor is filled with a dielectric medium
of dielectric constant K.
Here the electric field between the two Then, the electric field between the two
plates is related to the potential gradient as plates is given by
dV σ q q
E= (in E= = (∵ σ =
ε0 ε0KA )
magnitude) K A
dr
V is potential difference between the two plates. If V is potential difference between the two plates of
dV
E = (For uniform field, = the capacitor separated by a distance d,
V V
d dr d)

Or V = Ed … … … (i) then V = Ed
Also Let σ be the surface charge density of So substituting the value of E, we have
the plates, then the electric field between the qd
two plates is given by V=
ε0KA
σ
So if C is the capacitance of the parallel plate
E =2𝝴 σ (Sum of fields due to both
0 + 2𝝴 =
σ capacitor, then
0 𝝴
0
plates)
(ε0 is absolute permittivity of the free q q
C= =
space.) V qd
In the equation (i), substituting for E, we
have

𝛆𝟎𝐊
σ q ε0KA
V = d (σ = )
𝐀
ε0 A
or
qd �
∴V= �
11. Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟔, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎]
ε0 A
If C is the capacitance of the parallel plate
capacitor, then, A battery is connected across the two plates of
𝐪 𝐪 𝛆𝟎
𝐂= =
the capacitor, the work is done (or energy is
= 𝐀
𝐕 𝐪𝐝/𝛆𝟎
… (ii)
𝐀 𝐝 when a
supplied) by the battery in charging the
capacitor.
10. Capacitance of Capacitor,
The work done in charging a capacitor is
Dielectric Slab completely fills the Space stored in the capacitor in the form of electric
between Plates energy.
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, Let Capacitance of capacitor = C.
𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏] the small amount of work done by the
battery to store small charge dq is given by
The capacitor shown has two conducting
plates
placed parallel to each other kept between q q
d W = Vdq )dq C (∵ V =C
Potential
=
Difference ‘V’. Separation between plates = d Area of plates = A
(very small as compared to the area of the
plates).
 ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL &
(Physics)
Therefore, amount of work done in
CAPACITANCE given by
delivering charge q to the capacitor is

APNI KAKSHA 5
 ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL &
(Physics)
CAPACITANCE
𝑞
𝑞+
𝑉𝐵
−

𝑉𝐴=V =0

q
q 1
q
1 q2 1 q2
q

W = dq = qdq = | | =
∫ C 2 2 C
∫ C C 0
0 0
This work done is stored inside the capacitor in
the form of the electric potential energy.
Therefore, energy stored in the capacitor,
1 q2
W = ΔU = … (i)
2
C since Ui = 0
so, 1 q2
U =( ) …
i 2C
(Substituting for q = C V), the equation (i) becomes

… … … . (𝑖𝑖)
or U = 1
2
CV
2
q
In the equation (ii), substituting for C (= ),
V
we have
1
U = q V so,
2

𝐂𝐕𝟐 =
𝟏 𝟏
𝐔
𝟏�=
𝐪
�

=𝟐 𝐂
𝐪𝐕
�
�
 ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL &
(Physics)
CAPACITANCE APNI KAKSHA 6
(Physics) CURRENT ELECTRICITY
12. Drift Velocity Therefore the, above equation becomes
[𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟔, 𝟏𝟗, υ⃗d⃗ → = 0 + ⃗a→τ = ⃗a→τ
𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏] (Using the equation (iii), we have)
𝐞 𝐄⃗
The velocity gained by any electron before →
the successive collision is called Drift Velocity. ⃗𝛖⃗⃗⃗𝐝→ = −
13. Relation between Drift Velocity
Let u⃗⃗1
⃗ → , u⃗⃗2
⃗ → , u⃗⃗3
⃗ → , … . . , u⃗⃗⃗⃗ n→ are random
and Electric Current
[𝟏/𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎,
thermal velocities of n electrons in a

𝟐𝟏]
conductor, then their average thermal
velocity i.e.
Let, length of conductor = L & area of cross-section
u⃗⃗⃗ ⃗1→ + u⃗⃗ ⃗ 2→ + u⃗⃗ ⃗ 3→ + ⋯ . +⃗u⃗⃗⃗ n→
n =0 … = A. then, volume = A L
(i)
Let n be the number of free electrons per
unit volume, n =N/V
So, total charge on all the free electrons
= q = Ne = n AL e … (i)
Time taken by the free electrons to cross the
length of the conductor
l

Since charge on an electron is −e, each free t= … (ii)

υd
electron in the conductor experiences a force q
Also we know, I =
⃗F→ = −e⃗E→ … (ii) t

If m is mass of the electron, then

acceleration is given by

⃗a→ = ⃗ e⃗E
→ … (iii)
F
=−
→ m
m
So final velocity attained after drifting for
τ1(relaxation time)
⃗υ⃗⃗ 1→ = u⃗⃗⃗⃗1→ + ⃗a→τ1′ Using the equations (i) and (ii), we have

𝑒
Similarly velocities acquired by the other n Ale
I= or I = n … (iii)
electrons in the conductor will be Aυd l/υd
⃗υ⃗⃗ 1→ = ⃗u⃗⃗⃗ 1→ + ⃗a→τ2, ⃗υ⃗⃗⃗ 3→ = u⃗⃗⃗3→ + ⃗a→τ3, … . υ⃗⃗n→ = Also υd =eE τ
⃗u⃗⃗⃗ n→ + ⃗a→τn m

𝐈
𝐧 𝐀𝐞
𝐄
𝛕
Le υ⃗ ⃗ d→ is the average drift velocity of all So, �
� … (v)
electrons. So, = �
�
υ⃗⃗d→ ⃗υ⃗⃗ 1→ + ⃗υ⃗⃗⃗ 2→ + ⃗υ⃗⃗⃗ 3→ + 14. Electric Current and Current Density
= ⋯ . +⃗υ⃗⃗⃗ n→ n [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟏]
( u⃗⃗⃗⃗1→ + a⃗ →τ1) + ( u⃗⃗⃗2→ + a⃗ →τ2) + ( u⃗⃗3→ + a⃗ →τ3) + ⋯ . + Current density ( →j ) is a vector
(u⃗⃗⃗⃗ n→ + a⃗ →τn) If the current flowing through the conductor
=
n is uniform over its cross section, then current
τ1 + τ2 + τ3 + ⋯ . +τn may be defined as
Now, n I = →j ⋅ ⃗A→, …(i)
is called average relaxation time and is denoted by
τ.
u⃗⃗⃗⃗1→ + u⃗⃗⃗2→ + u⃗⃗⃗3→ + ⋯ . Where ⃗A→ = area vector representing the area of
. +⃗u⃗⃗⃗ n→
(Physics) CURRENT ELECTRICITY
=0 cross-section.
n

APNI KAKSHA 7
(Physics) CURRENT ELECTRICITY
For non-uniform cross-section, the current and 𝐫 = 𝐫𝟏 + 𝐫𝟐 … (iv)
through a small area ⃗d⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗A⃗ → is given by
If the series combination of the two cells
dI = →j ⋅ ⃗d⃗⃗⃗A⃗ → provides the current I through an external
Hence, the current through the whole cross-
resistance R, then
section of the conductor is given by
E
I=
R+r
I=∫ Substituting for E and r, we have
→j ⋅ ⃗d⃗⃗⃗⃗A⃗→ … (ii)
𝐄𝟏 + 𝐄𝟐
𝐈=
If current density →j is normal to the cross-
sectional area i.e. if ˆj is parallel to ⃗A→, then 𝐑 +𝟏(𝐫 + 𝐫 )
I=jA 𝟐
16. Cells in Parallel
[𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟏]
Aυd𝑒
Putting I=n

𝐣=
When cells are of different e.m.f and internal
𝐧𝛖𝐝𝐞
… (iii)
resistances.
15. Cells in Series

[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕,

𝟏𝟗]
Let E1 and E2 areEMF’s and internal
resistances r1 and r2 of cells . In parallel
When cells are of different EMF’s. & internal combination terminal potential V is constant
resistances. across two cells (between A & B) that provides
Let E1 and E2 areEMF’s and internal resistances a current I.
r1 If I1 and I2 are the currents due to the two
and r2 of cells . In series I = Constant cells, then
Then, the terminal potential difference across
the
first cell,
I = I1 + I2 … (i)

V1 = E1 − Ir1
Similarly, the terminal potential difference
across the second cell,
V2 = E2 − Ir2
If V is the potential difference between the
points A
For 1st cell
and B, then
V = E1 −
V = V1 + V2 = (E1 − Ir1) + (E2 −
Ir2) or V = (E1 + E2) − I(r1 + r2) … (i) I1r1 or I =
Let E be the battery with internal resistance r For 2nd cell E1 − V
1
that can replace both E1 and E2 which r1
withdraws same
current I between A & B E2 − V
I2 =
then, r2
Substituting for I1 and I2 in eq (i), we have
E1 − V E2 − V
I= have + r1 E1
V = E − Ir … (ii)
or I = (
Comparing the equations (i) and (ii), we
(Physics) CURRENT ELECTRICITY
E2 1 1
) −V( + )
𝐄 = 𝐄𝟏 + 𝐄𝟐 … (iii)
+
r1 r2 r1 r2

APNI KAKSHA 8
(Physics) CURRENT ELECTRICITY
E r + E2 r 1 r r
or V=( 1 2 ) − I ( 1 2 ) … (ii)
r1 + r2 r1 + r2
Let E is effective e.m.f. and r, the effective
Now, potential difference across P, Q, R, X
internal resistance of the parallel
are VA − VB = I1P … (i)
combination of the two cells [ Fig.],
VD − VC = I 1 Q … (ii)
VA − VD = I2R … (iii)
VD − VC = I 2 X … (iv)
then it follows that When the bridge is in balanced state, VB =
V = E − Ir … (iii) VD. So, putting values

𝐄𝟏𝐫𝟐 + 𝐄𝟐𝐫𝟏
Comparing the equations (ii) and (iii), we have V A − V B = I 2R … (v)

𝐄
V B − V C = I 2X … (vi)
𝐫+
… (iv) From the equations (i) and (v), we have
𝟏 𝐫𝟐
=
𝐫𝟏𝐫𝟐
I1P = I2R … (vii)

𝐫=
an … (v) From the equations (ii) and (vi), we have
𝐫𝟏
d
I 1Q = I 2X

17. Wheat Stone Bridge Dividing the equation (vii) by (viii), we have
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗, 𝐏
𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐] 𝐑=
𝐐
P, Q, R and X are 4 resistances. A 𝐗
galvanometer G and a tapping key K1 (called
galvanometer key) are connected between
points B and D.

Also Battery E is connected between A & C

Let I = current in the main circuit.
I1 = Current through resistance P & Q
I − I1 = I2 (say) = Current through resistance
R & X.
For balanced wheat stone bridge, points B and D
are at the same potential & Ig = 0
Let VA, VB, VC and VD be electric potentials of
points A, B, C and D respectively.

APNI KAKSHA 9
 (Physics) MOVING CHARGE AND MAGNETISM
18. Motion of a Charged particle inside a Uniform (ii) υn = υsin θ
Magnetic Field
𝐦𝛖𝐬𝐢
(Component of velocity perpendicular to B)

𝐧𝛉
Force experienced by charged particle mυ
𝐅→ = 𝐪(𝐯⃗→
So, r n … (v)

×𝐁 𝐁𝐪
… (i) = =
Bq
⃗ →)
⃗F→⃗ is always perpendicular to v
⃗ → , so force will The period of the circular path is given by
act as
centripetal 2πr mυsin θ 2πm
× or T =
force. 2π
T= =
(a) When 𝛖⃗ → is perpendicular to ⃗𝐁→. υn υsin θ Bq Bq
The force ⃗F→ on the charged particle acts as
the centripetal force and makes it to move
along a circular path.
m = mass of the charged particle &
r = radius of the circular path, then

The charged particle moves along circular path in

XY- plane due to the velocity component υn, it
also advances linearly helical path.

| q(⃗υ→ × ⃗B→) mυ
|= 2

r
⃗ →
Since υ⃗ → & B are at right angles to each other, so
|q(⃗υ→ × ⃗B→ )| = Bqυ
mυ2
or Bqυ =

𝐦
r
𝐫 𝛖 … (ii)
= 𝐁
The period of circular motion of the charged

𝟐𝛑
particle is given by Now, Pitch = the distance travelled by the charged

or 𝐓
2πr 2π mυ
𝐦
particle, along the direction of magnetic field in a time
T= ×
𝐁𝐪
… (iii) it completes one revolution.
υ Bq =
=
υ
Also angular frequency of the charged pitch of the helical path = υB × T
particle
𝐁
𝛚
2π 2π = υcos θ 2πm
𝐪 … (iv)
×

𝐦
ω = = Bq
or T 2πm =
Bq 2πmυcos

(b) When 𝛖 ⃗ → and ⃗𝐁→ are inclined to each other.

=
θ
or pitch of the helical … (vi)
Bq
path
The charged particle is moving with velocity The velocity υ⃗ → of the charged particle can be resolved
υ
⃗ → inside the uniform magnetic field B into the following two components:
making an angle θ with the direction of (i) υB = υcos θ (Component of velocity along B)
the magnetic field.
(Physics) MOVING CHARGE AND MAGNETISM
(No contribution in force)
19. Magnetic Field at a point on the Axis of a Loop
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏]
Consider a circular loop of radius a, centre O
and carrying a current I as shown.
APNI KAKSHA 10
(Physics) MOVING CHARGE AND MAGNETISM
𝛍
𝐁 = 𝟎⋅
𝟒 (𝐚𝟐𝟐𝟑+
𝛑 𝐱 )
/𝟐

Special cases.
1. Magnetic field at the center of the loop. (x=0)
𝛍
𝐁 = 𝟎⋅
𝟐𝛑𝐍𝐈
𝟒𝛑
𝐚
20. Force between two infinitely Long
Parallel Current Carrying Conductors
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏,
𝟐𝟐]
Consider two infinitely long conductors X1Y1 and
Let P be the point on the axis of the loop at a
distance OP = x from its centre O, Let AB = dl X2Y2 placed parallel to each other at a distance r
be small current element of the loop. apart with I1 and I2 current flowing through
Also ∠BCP (or ∠ACP ) is equal to 90∘. them in the same direction.
Let B1& B2 be magnetic fields of wire 1 & 2 so,
(Physics) MOVING CHARGE ANDμ MAGNETISM
2I
According to Biot Savart's law, the magnetic field 0 1
due B = ⋅ μ0 2I2
,B = ⋅
1
4π r 2 4π r
to the current element AB at point P is given by The wire 1 will experience Magnetic force due to
μ I ⃗d→l × r→ field of wire 2 & Vice versa
⃗d⃗⃗⃗⃗B⃗ → = 0 ⋅ 3 , **L is the length of wires on which F is calculated
4π r
The angle between ⃗d→l and r→ is 90∘, the magnitude × L (−𝚤̂)
μ0 2I2
So, ⃗F→
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = I (⃗L→ × ⃗B→
⃗⃗⃗ ) = ⋅ ×
of I
⃗d⃗B⃗→ is given by 1,2 1 2
4π r 1

dB Idl (Force on wire 1 due to magnetic field of wire 2)

= μ ⋅ … (i)
0
r2
4
π
Another element A′B′ = dl located just opposite to the
element ⃗d⃗ = Mag Field due to the current
AB. element ⃗⃗⃗′→
B .
A′B′.
If ∠OPC = ∠OPC′ = θ, then ∠ZPL = ∠Z′PM = θ.
On resolving the cos θ components gets cancelled out
and only sin θ gets added so,
μ Idl
B = ∮ dBsin θ = ∮ 0⋅ sin θ

= μ0⋅ 𝐈 sin θ∮ dl
4π r2

⃗𝐅 →⃗⃗⃗𝟏⃗⃗,⃗𝟐 𝛍
⋅ 𝟏𝐈 (−𝜾̂)
𝟎 𝟐𝐈
4π r2
… (i)
𝟒 𝟐
or
𝐋
∮ dl = 2πa
𝐫
=
𝛑
μ0 2π𝐈a × L (𝚤̂)
μ0 2I1
μ0 Also ⃗F⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗→ = I (⃗L→ × ⃗B→
⃗⃗⃗ ) =
𝐈
⋅
×I
⋅ ⋅ 2 2,1 2 2
∴ B 4π sin θ (2πa) 4π r sin θ 1 4π r
= =
r2

μ0 2π𝐈a a μ0 2π𝐈a
∴ B (Force on wire 2 due to magnetic field of wire 1)
=
⃗ 𝛍 𝟐𝐈 𝐈
× 2

or 𝐅⃗⃗⃗𝟐⃗⃗, = 𝟎 ⋅ 𝟏 𝟐(𝜾̂)
⋅ =
r 2
r ⋅ r3
2π𝐈a2
4π 4π
μ0
𝟏
∴B = ⋅ →
4π (a2 + x2)3/2 This shows that Force per unit length on both wires is
Also for ‘N’ turns equal and opposite.
APNI KAKSH A 11
(Physics) MOVING CHARGE AND MAGNETISM
21. Torque on a Current Loop placed in a Magnetic
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗]
⃗F⃗⃗⃗3→ = I( ⃗A⃗B⃗→ ) × | ⃗B→ | sin 90∘ (−î) = (Ia)B(1) =
Field BIa(−î)
⃗F⃗⃗⃗4→ = I ( ⃗C⃗⃗⃗D⃗→ ) × |⃗B→||sin 90∘(î) = (Ia)B(1) = B I a
(î)
A rectangular coil ABCD with side a & b ,
So, loop ⃗F + + + = 0.
carrying a current I is suspended in a uniform ⃗F→ = →1 ⃗F→2 F⃗ →3 ⃗F→4
magnetic field ⃗B→ acting in the plane of the
paper from left to right.
⃗F→1, ⃗F→2, ⃗F→3 and ⃗F→4 be the forces acting on arms
DA, BC, AB and CD of the coil respectively in
the magnetic field.
Here AB = a , BC = b, CD = a , DA = b
Also 𝜽 is the angle between Normal to plane and
magnetic 𝑓ield.
It follows that the force on arm DA,
As the two forces⃗⃗⃗F→3 & ⃗F→4 have different
⃗F⃗⃗1→ = I(⃗D⃗⃗⃗A⃗→) × ⃗B→,
lines of action, they constitute a torque, whose
⃗F⃗⃗1→ = I( ⃗D⃗⃗⃗A⃗→ ) × | ⃗B→ | sin(90∘ + θ) ĵ = BIbcos θ
magnitude is given by
(ĵ)
Similarly, 𝛕 = either force ×
⃗F⃗⃗⃗2→ = I(⃗B⃗⃗⃗⃗C→) × ⃗B→, 𝐊𝐃, τ = BaI ×
bsinθ
⃗F⃗⃗⃗2→ = I( ⃗B⃗⃗⃗⃗C→ ) × |⃗B→ | sin(90∘ − θ) (−ĵ)
τ = BIAsinθ (Area = A = a× b)
= IbBcos θ (−ĵ)
Also, I ⃗A⃗ → = M
⃗ → = the magnetic dipole moment
of the current loop. Therefore,
τ = M B sinθ
⃗𝛕→ = ⃗𝐌⃗→ × ⃗𝐁→
Note : If the coil has N turns, then
𝛕 = 𝐍 BIA
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉

APNI KAKSHA 12
 (Physics) ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
22. Self-Induction L = Lengths of both solenoids S1 and S2,
such that the solenoid S2 surrounds the
The phenomenon, according to which an
opposing induced e.m.f. is produced in a coil solenoid S1 completely
as a result of change in current or magnetic n1 , n2 = number of turns per unit length of
flux linked with the coil itself, is called self- the solenoids S1 and S2 respectively.
induction.
it is also called back e.m.f .
Self-Inductance of a Long Solenoid
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗,
𝟐𝟏]
Let L = Length of coil,
A = Area of cross section,
n = number of turns per unit length =
N/L I = current passing through
𝛟21 ∝ I1
solenoid (coil)
Then, magnetic field inside the solenoid is given by or 𝛟21 = M21I1, … (i) ( M21 is the
B = μ0nI coefficient of mutual induction of S2 due to
The magnetic (self) flux passing through each S 1)
turn of the coil = B × area of each turn = Also, B1 = μ0n1I1 (mag field produced inside the
μ0nI × A Total magnetic flux linked with the solenoid S1 due to I1
solenoid,
𝛟21 = B1 A × n2L = μ0n1I1 × A × n2L
So, total magnetic flux linked with the solenoidS2,

= μ0n1n2 AI1L (ii)

On comparing(i)& (ii) M21 = μ0n1n2 AL

𝛟12 ∝ I2 or 𝛟12 = M12I2 ,

Similarly
… (iii)
(M1,2 is the coefficient of mutual induction of S1

𝛟 = Magnetic flux linked with one turn × total

due to S2)
Also, B2 = μ0n2I2 (mag field produced inside the
number of turns

∴ 𝛟 = μ0nIA × nL or 𝛟 = μ0n2LA I … (i)

Now, total number of turns in the solenoid = nL
solenoid due to I1
S1

𝛟= LI
If L is the self-inductance of the solenoid, then Therefore, total magnetic flux linked with

𝛟12 = B2 A × n1L = μ0n2I2 × A × n1L

… (ii) the solenoid S1,

or 𝛟12 = μ0n1n2 AI2L … (iv)

On comparing
𝛍𝟎𝐍𝟐
𝐋
𝐀
… (iii) on comparing (iii) & (iv) M = μ n n AL
= 12 0 1 2
23. Mutual Induction
Therefore
,
The phenomenon according to which an opposing 𝐌𝟐𝟏 = 𝐌𝟏𝟐 = 𝐌 (say)
e.m.f. is produced in a coil as a result of Hence, coefficient of mutual induction between
change in current or magnetic flux linked with
𝐌=
the two long solenoids,
a neighboring coil is called mutual induction.
𝛍𝟎𝐧𝟏𝐧𝟐 𝐀l
Mutual Inductance of Two Long Solenoids
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎,
𝟐𝟏]
. Let I1 & I2 be the current flowing in given
coils(solenoids).
APNI KAKSHA 13
(Physics) ALTERNATING CURRENT
24. Mean or Average Value of A.C.
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖,
small amount of heat produced in the resistance R

𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐]
in time dt is given by

𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐵
R
Let I = I0sin ωt is current in any circuit
=V =0

𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐵
R

=V =0

dH = I2Rdt = (I0sin ωt)2Rdt 0= I2Rsin2 ωtdt

The amount of heat produced in the
resistance in time T/2 (half time period) can
Let the small amount of charge that will be obtained by integrating the above
pass through the circuit in time dt is given by equation between the limits t = 0 to t = T/2
dq = Idt or dq = I0sin ωtdt i.e.
The amount of charge that will pass through T T
2 2
the circuit in time T/2 (half time period of
H= I20R sin2 ωtdt = I0 2R sin2 ωtdt
a.c.) is the total integral value of above ∫ ∫
equation from t = 0 to 0 0
t = T/2 i.e. T/2
(Physics) ALTERNATING CURRENT
1 − cos 2ωt
T T = I0 2R ∫ dt
2 2
0
2
q = ∫ I0 sin ωtdt = I0 sin I20
∫ ωtdt R
0
T/2 0 or H 2
cos ωt
T/2 = T/ T/2
2
I0
= I0 |− | = − |cos = dt − cos 2ωtdt) … (i)
ω 0
ωt|0 ω (∫ ∫
0 0
I0 2π T 2π In the equation (i), substituting the values of
=− |cos ⋅ − cos the two integrals obtained above, we have
2π T 2
⋅ 0| T
T
I0 |cos π − cos 0| I0 (−1 − I 0 2R
I 0 2R
=−
T T − 0) T
T … (ii)
2π = − 1). H= ( = ⋅
2π 2 2 2
2
I0
or q= T If Iv is virtual or r.m.s. value of a.c., then by
π definition,
T
If Im is mean value of a.c., then by
definition
T H = I v 2R ⋅ … (iii)
q = Im ⋅ 2
From
2 the equations (ii) and (iii), we have
From the equations (i) and (ii), we T I 0 2R I0 2
have I2R ⋅ or Iv 2

𝟐𝐈
T 2
T I0 T
𝐈𝐦 =𝟎 = 𝟎 ⋅
= ⋅ =
I ⋅ = or 2
𝟔𝟑𝟔𝐈�
v 2
𝟎
2

𝐈𝐯 = = 𝟎.
m
2 π �

𝐈
or
25. Root Mean Square (rms) or Virtual
𝟕𝟎𝟕𝐈√𝟎𝟐
𝟎
Value of A.C. [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄
𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟏]
Let I = I0sin ωt is current in any circuit
The current through the resistance
remains constant for an infinitesimally
small time dt so the
APNI KAKSHA 14
(Physics) ALTERNATING CURRENT
26. A.C. Through LCR-Series Circuit
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖,
𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏]
Also phase angle 𝛟 From right angled△
OAE, we have

tan 𝛟 =
AE VL − VC IXL − IXC
OA = VR = IR
𝟏
𝐗 −𝐋 𝐂 𝛚𝐋 𝛚
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛟 𝐗
�𝐂
or = − … (iv)
� =
�Circuit �
27. Power of an A.C.
The small amount of electrical energy consumed
Let E and I be the instantaneous values of e.m.f. in circuit is given by the work done by
and current in the LCRcircuit; and VL, VC and VR
d W = EIdt = (E0 sin ωt)I0 sin(ωt + 𝛟) dt
battery. So,
be the instantaneous values of the
voltages across inductor L, = E0I0sin ωt(sin ωtcos 𝛟 + cos ωtsin 𝛟)dt
= E0I0(sin2 ωtcos 𝛟 + sin ωtcos ωtsin 𝛟)dt … (i)
capacitor C and resistor R respectively. Then,
VL = IXL; VC = IXC and VR = IR
Here, XL = ωL and XC = 1/ωC are reactances Now, cos 2ωt = 1 − 2sin2 ωt Or
1 − cos 2ωt
due to inductor and capacitor respectively. sin2 ωt =
Where ω is 2
the angular frequency of given Also, sin 2ωt = 2 sin ωt cos ωt
supply. or
sin 2ωt
(Physics) ALTERNATING CURRENT
sin ωt cos ωt =
2
In the equation (i), substituting for sin2 ωt and
sin ωtcos ωt, we have
cos 𝛟 sin 𝛟) dt
1 − cos 2ωt sin 2ωt
d W = E0 I 0 (
+ 2
2
(Physics) ALTERNATING CURRENT
(cos 𝛟 − cos 𝛟cos 2ωt + sin
E I
𝛟sin 2ωt)dt 2
0 0
=
The electrical energy consumed in the
circuit in time T (period of a.c.) can be
obtained by integrating the above equation
between t = 0 to t = T i.e.

W = ∫ 2 (cos 𝛟 − cos 𝛟cos 2ωt

OE = √OA2 + AE2 = √OA2 + OD2 T
E0 I 0
(Pythagoras) or E = √VR 2 + (VL − VC)2
Substituting the values of VR′, VL and VC, we
+ sin 𝛟sin 2ωt)dt
0
have

[cos 𝛟(T) − cos 𝛟(0) +

E = √(IR)2 + (IXL − IXC)2
E 0 I0
sin 𝛟(0)] 2
= I√R2 + (XL − W=
XC)2

cos 𝛟
E E0 I 0 T
or I= … (i) or W=
√R + (XL −
2
2
XC)2
… (ii) The average power of the a.c. circuit is given by
Let , I =E

cos 𝛟 × cos 𝛟
Z
W E0 I 0 T 1 E0 I 0
From the equations (i) and (ii), we P = = =
have

𝐙 = √𝐑𝟐 + (𝐗𝐋 − 𝐗𝐂)𝟐

av
g
T 2
T 2
cos 𝛟
E0 I
= √R2 + (ωL − 1/ωC)2 … (iii) 0
⋅
The equation (iii) gives impedance of LCR- √2 … (ii)
𝐏𝐚𝐯𝐠 = 𝐄𝐯𝐈𝐯
√ 2
circuit.
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛟
APNI KAKSHA 15
(Physics) ALTERNATING CURRENT

𝑅
Here cos 𝛟 =
𝑍
is called the power factor of circuit.
& Ev & Iv are RMS value of voltage and current

(i) circuit having R only. For such a circuit, 𝛟 = 0.

Special cases :

Pav = EvIvcos 0 = EvIv(1) = EvIv

𝛟 = π/2 .
(ii) circuit having L only. For such a circuit,

Pav = Ev, Ivcos π/2 = EvIv(0) = 0

𝛟 = −π/2
(iii) circuit containing C only. For such a circuit,

Pav = EvIvcos(−π/2) = EvIv(0) = 0

APNI KAKSHA 16
 (Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL
28. Mirror Formula
INSTRUMENTS
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕,
29. Linear Magnification
[𝟐𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟐]
𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎] The ratio of the size of the image formed by a
For Concave spherical mirror spherical mirror to the size of the object is called
Let the points P, F and C be the pole, focus the linear magnification.

𝐈… (i)
and centre of curvature of a concave

𝐦 �
spherical mirror. AB = Object
′ ′
Now, triangles A B F and ENF are similar.
′
= �
A′B′ A F
∴ = . Magnification produced by a concave mirror
NE NF
Fig. shows the formation of the image A′B′
of an object AB by a concave spherical mirror.
Since the triangles ABP and A′B′P are similar,
we have
A′B′ PA′
AB = PA
Applying the new
Cartesian sign
conventions, we have
As aperture of the concave mirror is small,
A′B′ = −I
the points N and P lie very close to each
other and consequently NF ≈ PF. Also, NE = AB = +O
AB.
A′B′ A F
′
PA = −u
∴ = PA′ = −υ
AB PF
Since all the distances are to be measured from (∵ distance of image is measured against incident ray)
the pole of the concave mirror, we have Therefore, the above equation becomes
A′F = PA′ − PF −I −υ I υ

∴
A′B′ PA′ −
… (i) (ii)=O or −u= −O …
AB PF u
= From the equations (i) and (ii), we have

𝐈 𝛖
PF

𝐦= =−
Also, triangles ABP and A′B′P are similar.

𝐎 𝐮
′ ′ PA′ … (iii)
∴A B
= PA … (ii) Also by Mirror formula
AB
From the equations (i) and (ii), we have 1 1
1
PA′ − PF PA′ + =
… (iii) u υ f
= PF PA Multiplying by υ , we get
Applying the new cartesian sign conventions, we υ υ υ υ υ
have + = = −1
=> u f
u υ f
PA = −u (Object distance) υ υ υ−
= −1
PA′ = −υ(Image dist. ) and PF = −f (focal length) = ff
u f

𝐟−
𝐦
In the equation (iii), substituting for PA, PA′ and So,
𝛖
PF, we have
𝐟
−υ − (−f) −υ υ−f υ υ υ =
= or = or − 1 =
−f −u
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
f u f u
1 1 1
or − = or + =
𝐮 𝛖 𝐟
f υ u
The above relation between u, υ and f is
(Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL
called mirror formula.
INSTRUMENTS
APNI KAKSHA 17
 (Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL
INSTRUMENTS
30. Refraction at Convex Spherical Surface
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏,
Since angles β and γ are small, we have

𝟐𝟑]
r = tan γ − tan β … (v)
From right angled triangles ANC and ANI, we have
Let us consider a convex spherical
refracting
surface with AN AN AN
and tan β = ≈
μ2 = refractive index of NI PI
AN
medium 2 & tan γ = ≈
NC
PC
μ1 = Refractive index of In the equation (v), substituting for tan β and tan γ
medium 1, Let P = pole, C = center we have
of curvature and
PC = Principal axis of the convex AN AN
r= − … (vi)
surface.
When object lies in the rarer medium and PC PI
image formed is real. By Snell’s law
O = Object. Draw AN as perpendicular and μ1sin i = μ2sin r
take angle α, β & γ respectively in triangles. Since the angles i and r are also small, the above
Let ∠AOP = α; ∠AIP = β and ∠ACP = γ. equation becomes
In triangle AOC, we have μ1 i = μ2 r
i = α + γ (exterior angle property) … (i)
From the equations (iv) and (vi), substituting
the values of i and r, we have
AN AN AN AN
μ1 ( + ) = μ2 ( − )
PO μ PC μ μ PC
μ PI
or 1+ 1= 2− 2
PO PC PC PI
μ μ μ − μ1
or 1+ 2 = 2 … (vii)
PO PI PC
Since angles α, β and γ will be small. As such, Applying new cartesian sign conventions:
these angles may be replaced by their PO = −u (object distance)
tan α etc. PI = +v (image
Therefore, equation (i) may be written as distance)and PC = +R
i = tan α + tan γ … (ii) (Radius of curvature)
From right angled triangles ANO and ANC, we Therefore, the equation (vii) becomes
𝛍 𝛍𝟏 𝛍𝟐 −
𝛍𝟏
have AN
tan
AN α = and tan γ = 𝟐

or 𝐯 𝐮 𝐑
μ1 μ2 μ2 − μ1
NO NC + =
−u +v +R
In the equation (ii), substituting for tan α and
31. Lens Maker's Formula
tan α,
we have
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏,
𝟐𝟐]
AN AN
i= +
NO NC … (iii)
NO ≈ PO and NC ≈ PC
Therefore, the equation (iii) becomes
AN AN
i= + … (iv)
PO
PC
(Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL
Now, from triangle ACI, γ = r + β (by exterior
INSTRUMENTS
angle property) or r = γ − β

Let us consider a convex lens with refracting

surface with

APNI KAKSHA 18
(Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL
μ2
INSTRUMENTS
= refractive index of outer medium & 32. Refraction through a Prism
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟏,
μ1 = Refractive index of lens ,
𝟐𝟐]
Suppose that O is a point object placed on
the principal axis of the lens. The surface
XP1Y forms the real image I1 (assuming that KTS = δ is called the angle of deviation.
material of the lens extends beyond the face
XP1Y as such). It can be
obtained* that
μ1 μ2 μ −μ
+ = 2 …1(i)
P 1O P 1I 1 P 1C 1
Since the lens is thin, the point P1 lies very
close to the optical centre C of the lens.
Therefore, we may write
Since ∠TQO = ∠NQP = i and ∠RQO = r1, we have
𝛍𝟏 𝛍𝟐 𝛍𝟐−𝛍𝟏
P1O ≈ CO; P1I1 ≈ CI1 and P1C1 ≈ CC1
∠TQR = i − r1
So, + = … (ii)
𝐂𝐎 𝐂𝐈 𝐂𝐂𝟏
Also,
𝟏
The image formed by 𝑓irst refraction will act as ∠TRO = ∠NSE = e and ∠QRO = r2. Therefore,
virtual object for 2nd surface refraction. ∠TRQ = e − r2
μ μ μ − μ1
− 2 + 1= 2 … (iii) in triangle TQR, by exterior angle property
P 2I 1 P 2I P 2C 2
Again P I ≈ CI , P I ≈ CI and δ = ∠TQR + ∠TRQ = (i − r1) + (e − r2)
or 𝛅 = (𝐢 + 𝐞) + 𝐫 ) … (i)
PC ≈
− (𝐫
CC
2 1 1 2 2 2

𝟏 𝟐
2
Therefore, eq (iii) may be written
𝛍𝟐
𝛍𝟏 𝛍 − 𝛍 𝟏 …
as
− In triangle QRO, the sum of the angles is 180∘.
=
𝟐 (iv)
+
𝐂𝐈 𝐂 𝐂𝐂
𝐈
Therefore,
𝟏 𝟐
Adding the eq (ii) and (iv), we have r1 + r2 + ∠QOR = 180∘ … (ii)
μ1 μ2 μ2 μ1 μ2 − μ1 μ2 − In quadrilateral AQOR,
μ1
+ − + = +
CO CI1 CI1 CI CC CC A + ∠QOR = 180∘ … (iii)
1 2
μ μ 1 )… From the equations (ii) and (iii), we have
(or
μ 1+ 1 = (v)
− μ )1
( +
2 1
CO CC1 CC2

CI
Applying the new cartesian sign r1 + r2 = A … (iv)
conventions:
𝛅 = (𝐢 + 𝐞) − 𝐀 … (v)
In the equation (i), substituting for (r1 + r2)
CO = −u (object distance) we have
CI = +v (Final image distance)
Also, when δ = δm; (in minimum deviation
CC1 = +R1 and CC2 = −R2 (Radii of
curvature)
μ1 =
(μ − μ ) (1 + 1 ) position),
μ+1
2 1
−u +v +R1 −R2 e = i and = = r = A/2 (say)
r2 r1
Dividing both sides of the above equation by μ1, Also, setting δ = δm and e = i in the
we have
equation (v), we have
𝟏 𝟏
Since μ2/μ1 = μ, we have
− = (𝛍 − 𝟏)𝟏( − 𝟏 )…
A + δ = i + i or i = (A + δ )/2

𝐯 𝐮 𝐑
m m

𝐑𝟏
The refractive index of the material ( aμg or simply
𝟐 (vi)
 (Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL
Also if u = CF1 = −f1(focal length ), then v =
∞
INSTRUMENTS μ) of the prism is given by
sin i
μ =
Setting the above condition in the equation (vi), sin r
𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝐀 +
we have
∴ 𝛍
1 1 1 1
𝛅𝐦)/𝟐
− + = (μ − 1) ( − )
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐀/𝟐
−f ∞ R1 R2 =
1

𝟏 𝟏
= 𝛍 − 𝟏) ( − )
… (ix)
𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐
� (
�
� APNI KAKSHA 19

10
(Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL
INSTRUMENTS
33. Simple Microscope (Magnifying Glass)
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖,
Now, CA = u and CA′ = D

𝟐𝟐, 𝟐𝟑]
Therefore, the equation (ii) becomes
D
A convex lens of short focal length can be M= … (iii)
u
used to see magnified image of a small object
u = −u or υ = −D
and is called a magnifying glass or a simple
microscope. 33.a - Magnifying power- When image is formed
So, at D (least distance of distinct vision=25cm).

𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐝𝐞 𝐛𝐲 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐲𝐞 (

Magnifying power of simple microscope Therefore, the above equation becomes by lens

𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐤𝐞𝐩𝐭 𝐚𝐭 𝐃)
formula

𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐝𝐞 𝐛𝐲 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐲𝐞

=
(𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐤𝐞𝐩𝐭 𝐚𝐭 𝐃)
1 1 1 1 1 1
′ ′
Let ∠A CB = β be the angle subtended by − + = or − =
the −u −D f u D f
image at the eye. Cut A′Q equal to AB(object D D D
or =1+ … (iv)
size) D u f
and join QC Then, ∠A′CQ′ = α is the or = u
−1
angle f
subtended by the object at the eye, when it is
𝐃
From the equations (iii) and (iv), we have

𝐌=𝟏+
placed at the least distance of distinct vision.
𝐟
By definition, the magnifying power of the … (v)
simple microscope is given by
β 33.b - Magnifying power (When image is formed
M=
at infinity).
α
(Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL
INSTRUMENTS

u = −f and CA′ = −D
(Note: Remember the first clear image is always seen
at D only)
In practice, the angles α and β are small. Therefore, the above equation gives
Therefore, the angles α and β can be replaced D D
by their tangents i.e. M= = … (vii)
u f
tan β 34. Compound Microscope
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎,
M= … (i)
tan α
From the right angled △ CA 𝟐𝟏]
′
Q,

tan α A′Q AB
= CA′ (∵ A′Q = AB)
CA′
=
Also, from the right angled △ ABC
AB
tan β =
CA
Substituting for tan α and tan β in the
equation we have
AB/CA CA′
M= or M = … (ii)
AB/CA′ CA
APNI KAKSHA 20
18
10
 (Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL
For a compound INSTRUMENTS
microscope two lenses,
υe = −D and fe = +fe
eyepiece of focal lenght (fe)and objective of
In the above equation, substituting for υe and fe,
focal lenght (f0) are used to achieve greater we have
magnification then
simple microscope. First clear image is formed at D
me = 1 + … (iv)
D (least distance of distinct vision = 25cm) fe

𝛖
So, So, putting values in M = mo × me we get

𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐝𝐞 𝐛𝐲 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐲𝐞 ( 𝐌 =𝐨 (𝟏 +�)

𝐮𝐨
Magnifying power of Compound microscope �
… (vii)
𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐤𝐞𝐩𝐭 𝐚𝐭 𝐃) 𝐟𝐞
𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐝𝐞 𝐛𝐲 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐲𝐞
= 34.b - Magnifying power - When image is formed

(𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐤𝐞𝐩𝐭 𝐚𝐭 𝐃)
at infinity.
Let ∠A′′C′B′′ = β be the angle subtended by
the
υ0
image at the eye. extend A′′ Q equal to We know , M = × & = & = υe
mo me m0 m ,u

For image at in𝑓inity 𝒖𝒆 = −𝒇𝒆 & 𝝊𝒆 = −𝑫

u0 e e
′
AB(object size) and join QC Then, ∠A ′C′Q
= α is the angle subtended by the object at the Here fe is the focal length of the eye lens.
eye, when it is placed at the least distance of (Note: Remember the first clear image is always seen
at D only so 𝜐𝑒 = −𝐷)
distinct vision.
By definition, the magnifying power of the
simple

𝐌=
𝛖𝐨 𝐃
microscope is given So, … (ix)
𝐟
by
β
𝐞
M= ×
α 35. Astronomical Telescope (Refracting Type)
Since the angles α and β are small, they [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟏]
can be replaced by their tangents i.e.
An astronomical telescope is used to see the
tan
β … (i) heavenly objects.
M=
tan
α
A′′Q AB
Also tan α = = (∵ A′′Q = An astronomical telescope consists of two lens
AB)
C′A′′ C′A′′ systems. The lens system facing the object is called
′′ ′′
AB objective. It has large aperture and is of large focal
Also,
′ ′′
tan β =
A C
Multiplying and dividing by A′B′, we length (f0). The other lens system is called eye-
have
′′ ′′ ′ ′ piece. It has small aperture and is of short
M =A B ×A B A′B′× A′′B′′
= focal length (fe) . Also the first clear image is
AB A′B′ AB A′B′
′ ′ formed at D
AB
υo
Also =
= m0 = magnification of object (least distance of distinct vision = 25cm)
AB uo
lens Magnifying power of refracting telescope

𝐀𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐦𝐚𝐝𝐞 𝐛𝐲 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐲𝐞 (𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧

( υo & uo = Image & object dist. from object lens)&
A′′B′′ υe = magnification of eye 𝐤𝐞𝐩𝐭 𝐚𝐭 𝐃)
𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐲𝐞
m = = lens =
A′B′ ue e

𝐌 = 𝐦𝐨 × 𝐦𝐞 … (ii)
(υe& ue = Image & object distance from eye lens)
So,

34.a - Magnifying power - When image is

formed at D(least distance of distinct vision).
(Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL
Now, for the eye lens, INSTRUMENTS
the lens equation
may be written as
1 1 1 υe υe Thus, ∠A′CB′ = α may be considered as the
− + = =1−
ue or fe ue fe angle subtended by object at the eye.
υe
So putting value for me we Let ∠A′C′B′ = β. Then, by definition,
have,
υe
me = 1 − … … … … (iii) β
fe M=
Applying the new Cartesian sign α
conventions: Since the angles α and β are small,

APNI KAKSHA 21
(Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL
INSTRUMENTS
α ≈ tan α and β ≈
tan tan β
∴M β
= … (i)
tan A′B′
α
From the right angled △ CA′B′,
tan α = CA′
A′B′
and from the right angled ΔC′A′B′,
tan α = C′A′
In the equation (i), substituting for tan α and
tan β, we have
A′B′/C′A′ CA′
M= ′ ′ = ′ ′ … (ii)
A B /CA′ CA
Magnifying power - When image is formed at
infinity .
(Note: Remember the first clear image is always seen
at D only)
Applying the new cartesian sign conventions:
CA′ = +fo and C′A′ = −fℯ
Substituting for CA′ and C′A′ in the equation (ii),
we have
𝐟
𝐌=−
𝐨
𝐟

APNI KAKSHA 22
(Physics) WAVE OPTICS
36. Laws of Reflection on Wave Theory Let ML be a beam of light that refracts to
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, second medium from XY boundary.
𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎] Let ML be a beam of light that Here PA is wave front for incident beam and P’A’
reflects back from surface XY. is wave front for refracted beam.
Let time taken (t) by light to go from the
Here PA is wave front for incident beam and P’A’
point P to P′ and in same time let A reaches
is
to A’ after refraction.
wave front for reflected beam. If c is ∠LAN = i , ∠N′AA′ = r (angle of
velocity of light, then time taken (t) by light refraction) By using properties of
to go from the point P to P′ and by light to go complementary angle
from A to A’ will be same as both lie on wave ∠PAP′ = i , ∠AP′A′ = r
fronts.
We have
sin i = PP′ & sin r = AA′ ……… (i)
AP′ AP′
Here PP’ = ct and AA’
=c’t c = speed of
light in air
c’ = speed of light in denser medium
∠LAN = i , ∠NAA′ = r (angle of
reflection) By using properties of μ = c = refractive index of denser medium ……. (ii)
c′
complementary angle so, from equation (i) & (ii)
∠PAP′ = i , ∠AP′A′ = sin ct
PP′
c
=μ
i = =
𝐬𝐢
r sin = c′t
c′

𝐧𝐢 =
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐫
We have AA′

𝛍
r
sin i = PP′ & sin r = ……… (i)
AA′

AP′ AP′
Here PP’ = ct and AA’
=ct Hence, the laws of refraction (Snell’s law ) is
putting the values in proved on the basis of the wave theory.
( i)
sin i ct & sin r ct
AP′ AP′
= =
so, sin i = sin r 38. Conditions for Constructive and Destructive
or i = r Interference
i.e. the angle of incidence is equal to the angle [𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕,
𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟐] Let a source of monochromatic light
of reflection. (laws of reflection )
37. Refraction on The Basis of Wave Theory
[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄
S illuminates two narrow slits S1 and S2. The

𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗, 𝟐𝟏]

two illuminated slits act as the two coherent
sources. At the centre O of the screen, the
intensity of light is maximum and it is called
central maximum.
Condition for maximum and minimum.
Let the displacements of the waves from
the sources S1 and S2 at point P on the
screen at any time t be given by
y1 = a1sin ωt
and y2 = a2sin(ωt + 𝛟),
where 𝛟 is the constant phase difference
between the two waves.

APNI KAKSHA 23
(Physics) WAVE OPTICS
So superimposed wave will be
y = y1 + y2 = a1 sin ωt + a2 sin(ωt + 𝛟)
For Destructive interference.

y = (a1 + a2cos 𝛟) sin ωt + a2 sin 𝛟 cos ωt

From equation (iv) it follows that the intensity
of light at point P will be minimum, if
cos 𝛟 = −1 or 𝛟 = π, 3π,
a1 + a2 cos 𝛟 = Acos θ… (ii)
… (i)
Let 5π, …. or 𝛟 = (2n + 1) π,
and a2 sin 𝛟 = Asin θ … (iii) where n = 0,1,2, …
Then, the equation (i) becomes
Also, from the equations (vi) and (viii), we have
y = Acos θ sin ωt + Asin θ cos ωt 2π
or y = Asin(ωt + θ) x = (2n + 1)π

𝛌
λ

𝐱 = (𝟐𝐧 +
Also Squaring and adding both sides of
𝟏)
𝟐
the equations (ii) and (iii), we obtain or

A2 cos2 θ + A2 sin2 θ = (a1 + a2cos 𝛟

where n = 0,1,2 … . . n
)2
+ a2sin2 𝛟 or A2 = a2 + a2
2
,

(cos2 𝛟 + sin2 𝛟) + 2a1a2cos 𝛟

1 2

or A2 = a2 + a2 + 2a1a2cos 𝛟 ….. (iv)

1 2
For constructive interference the intensity of

So, cos 𝛟 = 1
light will be maximum so , A=max

𝟐𝛑
So , 𝛟 = 𝐱 = 𝟐𝐧𝛑 , 𝐱=
𝐧𝛌
where
𝛌
or

n = 0,1,2,3….. n

APNI KAKSHA 24
22
(Physics) ATOMS
39. Distance of Closest Approach If m and v are mass and orbital velocity of
The value of the distance of closest approach the electron, then the centripetal force required
gives an estimate of the size of the nucleus. by the electron to move in circular orbit of
radius r is given
by Fc … (ii)
=
mv2
r
The electrostatic force of attraction (Fe)
between the electron and the nucleus provides
the necessary centripetal force (Fc) to the
electron.
Therefore, from the equations (i) and (ii), we have
mv e1 1 e
Consider that an α-particle of mass m 2 = 2 or mv2 2 … (iii)
possesses 4πε ⋅ = ⋅
r 0
r2 4πε0 r
initial velocity u, when it is at a large distance According to Bohr's quantization condition, angular
from the nucleus of an atom having atomic momentum of the electron,
number Z. At
h nh
the distance of closest approach, the kinetic mvr = n or v = … (iv)
energy of the α-particle is completely 2 2πm
π r
converted into
In the equation (iii), putting the value of v, we have
potential energy. nh 2 1 e2
Mathematically,
1 2 1 m( ) = ⋅
2e(Ze)
mu = ⋅ 2πm 4πε0 r
2 4πε0 r0 r
𝐧𝟐𝐡𝟐
or 𝐫 = 𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 ⋅
1 … (v)
… (i)

𝟒𝛑 n =𝐦𝐞
∴ r0 = ⋅
𝟐 𝟐
0
4πε
1 2 2 Since 1,2,3,4 … ,
mu
The equation (i) is the expression for the Also
distance of closest approach. Energy of the electron in nth orbit of a hydrogen-
In Geiger-Marsden experiment,α-particles of like atom is given by
kinetic energy 5.5 MeV were directed towards 1 2 2π2Z2me4
the
gold nucleus (Z = 79). By calculating the En = − ( )
⋅ n2h2
distance 4πε0
of closest approach r0, an estimate of the size of where Z is atomic number of the atom.
the
nucleus can be made. The calculations show that nh 1 4π2me2
r0
comes out to be 4 ⋅ 13 × v= ( )
m. Thus, size of 2π n2h2
10−14 m ⋅
the
4πε0
nucleus is of the order of 10−14 m. 1 2πe2
or v = ⋅ … (vi)

[𝟑 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖, 𝟐𝟎,

40. Bohr's Theory of Hydrogen Atom 4πε nh
0 1
𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟐]
2
E = mv
Obviously, k
2
In a hydrogen atom, an electron having charge
−e
revolves round the nucleus having charge +e Using the equation (iii), we have
in a
circular orbit of radius r as shown in Fig. 1 1 2
Ek = ⋅e
4πε0 2r
(+e)(−e) 1 e2
Ep = ⋅ =− ⋅
4πε 0 r 4πε0 r
The total energy of electron revolving round the
nucleus in the orbit of radius r is given by
1 e2 1 e2
E = Ek + Ep = ⋅ 2r+ (− ⋅ )
The electrostatic force of attraction between 4πε0 r
the 4πε 0
1 e2
nucleus and the electron is given or E= ⋅
4πε0 2r
𝟐 𝟐𝛑𝟐𝐦
by −
𝐄𝐧 = − ( 𝟏 ) 𝐞𝟒
1 e× 1 e2
e
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐧𝟐𝐡𝟐
= 0 ⋅
Fe = r2 ⋅ 2 … (i) or
0
4πε r
⋅
4πε
APNI KAKSHA 25
(Physics) NUCLEI
41. Nuclear Density The mass defect can also be expressed in
Let ρ be the density of the nucleus of an another form as explained below:
atom, whose mass number is A. Adding and subtracting the mass of Z electrons i.e.
mass of the nucleus of the atom of mass number Zme on the R.H.S. of equation (i), we have
A
Δm = [Zmp + (A − Z)mn + Zme] − mN( ZXA) − Zme
= A a.m.u. = A × 1.660565 × 10−27 kg
If R is the radius of the nucleus, then = [Z(mp + me) + (A − Z)mn] − [mN( ZXA) + Zme]

volume of nucleus 4 4 1
= 3 Now, p+ me = H1), mass of hydrogen atom
3
πR = π (R0 m m( 1
A
3 )
3
3
&m ZXA) + = ZXA), mass of the atom
( Zme m(
N
4
= πR0 3 A A
3 ZX
Taking R0 = 1 ⋅ 1 × 10−15 m, we Therefore,

𝚫𝐦 = [𝐙𝐦( 𝟏𝐇𝟏) + (𝐀 − 𝐙)𝐦𝐧] −

have 4
𝐦( 𝐙𝐗𝐀)
volume of the nucleus −15)3 3 … (ii)
(
= π 1⋅1× × Am
10
3
43. Binding energy.
[𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬, 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟗,
mass of
Density of the nucleus volume
𝟐𝟐, 𝟐𝟑] Thus, the binding energy of a
of nucleus
nucleus, ρ = A × 1 ⋅
nucleus may be defined as the energy
660565 × 10−27
= equivalent to the mass defect
4
π(1 ⋅ 1 × 10−15)3
= 𝟐 ⋅ 𝟗𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕
3
×A
𝐤𝐠 𝐦−𝟑 of the nucleus.
(Independent of
42. Mass Defect A) If Δm is mass defect of a nucleus, then according to

[𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐫𝐤𝐬,] 𝐂𝐁𝐒𝐄 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟕, 𝟏𝟖,

𝟐𝟎, 𝟐𝟐, 𝟐𝟑
Einstein's massenergy relation, binding energy of
mn = mass of neutron
The difference between the sum of the A = Mass number , Z = Atomic number
masses of the nucleons constituting a
nucleus and the rest mass of the nucleus is
known as mass defect. It is denoted by Δm.
Let us calculate the mass defect in case of
the nucleus of an atom ZXA. The nucleus of
such an atom contains Z protons and (A-Z)
neutrons. Therefore,
mass of the nucleons = Zmp + (A − Z)mn
If mN( XA) is mass of the nucleus of the
Z

atom ZXA, then the mass defect is given by

𝚫𝐦 = [𝐙𝐦𝐩 + (𝐀 − 𝐙)𝐦𝐧] − 𝐦𝐍( 𝐙𝐗𝐀) …
(i)
Here,
mN( ZXA) is mass of the nucleus of the atom ZXA.
mp = mass of proton ,
the nucleus = Δmc2 (in joule) amu) The mass defect can also be expressed
Here, Binding energy = [{𝐙𝐦𝐩 + (𝐀 − 𝐙)𝐦𝐧}
− 𝐦𝐍( 𝐙𝐗𝐀)] × 𝐜𝟐
mN( ZXA) is mass of the nucleus of the atom ZXA.
mp = mass of proton ,
in another form:
mn = mass of neutron
Δm = [Zm( 1H1) + (A − Z)mn] − m( 𝐙XA)
A = Mass number , Z = Atomic number
1amu × 𝑐2=931.5 Mev (All masses are kept in
Here m( 1H1) = mass of hydrogen atom
m( ZXA) = mass of the atom ZXA

APNI KAKSHA 26

Binding energy = [{𝐙𝐦( 𝟏𝐇𝟏) + (𝐀 −

𝐙)𝐦𝐧}
− 𝐦( 𝐙𝐗𝐀)] × 𝐜𝟐