TRANSITION

ELEMENTS

PUNJAB BOARD
 NOTES

Transition Elements
Introduction Non-typical Transition Elements

“Elements of periodic table having “Elements of group IIB (Zn, Cd and Hg)
partially filled d or f subshell in a common and elements of group IlIB (Sc, Y and La)
oxidation state (including zero oxidation are called non-typical transition
state) are called transition elements.” elements.”

Transition elements are located between s 1. Element of group IIB do not have
and p-block elements in periodic table. partially filled d-subshell either as
transition elements are divided into two element or in any ionic state.
types: 2. Properties of these elements are some
what different from transition
elements e.g., they do not form
(1) d-Block Elements
coloured complexes.
3. Elements of group IIIB (Sc, Y and Lu)
The elements having partially filled d-
are transition elements by definition
subshell are called d-block elements. Zinc,
because one electron is present in d-
cadmium and mercury are also included in
subshell.
transition elements although they have
4. In compound, mostly occur in tri-
no partially filled d-orbital. Properties of Zn,
positive ions and no d-electrons
Cd and Hg are similar to transition
present in the d-sub-shell.
elements and they are included in
5. They have variable valencies. They do
transition elements. Copper in zero state
not have properties of transition
has no d-subshell partially filled but Cu²⁺
elements and behave like main group
has configuration [Ar] 3s², 3p⁶ 3d⁹ and
elements of sub-group A.
transitional in character. Ag and Au also
have no partially filled d-orbital in zero
oxidation state. But Ag²⁺ has 4d⁹and Au³⁺ Typical Transition Elements
has 5d⁸ electronic configuration. d-block
“All the elements of d-block except the
elements are also called transition
elements of group IIB and group IIIB are
elements.
called typical transition elements.”

(2) f-Block Elements

We include coinage metals (Cu, Ag, Au) as
transition elements because Cu⁺² had 3d⁹
“The elements have f-subshell partially
electronic configuration, Ag²⁺ has 4d⁹ and
filled in their common oxidation state are
Au³⁺ has 5d⁸ configuration.
called f-block elements, f-block elements
are also called inner transition elements.”

f-block transition elements include two

rows at the bottom of periodic table. First
row is called Lanthanides while second
row is called Actinides. All actinides are
radioactive in nature.

PUNJAB BOARD

Click here to get access to fsc topical MCQS

 Electronic
Configuration
In case of chromium one electron from s-
Electronic Configuration of d-
subshell have been used the half-fill d-
block elements subshell. Similarly in copper, one electron
from s subshell changes to the d-subshell to
The electronic configuration of three series complete it. This are because half filled d-
of d-block elements are given below: subshell (d⁵) and full filled (d¹⁰) d-subshell
The detailed electronic configuration of first are most stable.
series of d-block elements 1s given below. In
this electronic configuration chromium and
copper disobey the n+1 rule.

Element Symbol Atomic Number Electronic configuration

Scandium Sc 21 1s², 2s², 2p⁶, 3s², 3p⁶, 4s², 3d¹

Titanium Ti 22 1s,² 2s², 2p⁶, 3s², 3p⁶, 4s², 3d²

Vanadium V 23 1s², 2s², 2p⁶, 3s², 3p⁶, 4s², 3d³

Chromium Cr 24 1s², 2s², 2p⁶, 3s², 3p⁶, 4s¹, 3d⁵

Manganese Mn 25 1s², 2s², 2p⁶, 3s², 3p⁶, 4s², 3d⁵

Iron Fe 26 1s², 2s², 2p⁶, 3s², 3p⁶, 4s², 3d⁶

Cobalt Co 27 1s², 2s², 2p⁶, 3s², 3p⁶, 4s², 3d⁷

Nickel Ni 28 1s², 2s², 2p⁶, 3s², 3p⁶, 4s², 3d⁸

1s², 2s², 2p⁶, 3s², 3p⁶, 4s¹,

Copper Cu 29
3d¹⁰

1s², 2s², 2p⁶, 3s², 3p⁶, 4s²,

Zinc Zn 30
3d¹⁰

PUNJAB BOARD

Click here to get access to fsc topical MCQS

 NOTES

Common Properties
Because of a similar electronic binding energy ends at tungsten when all
configuration, the d-block elements the 5d electrons contribute to binding.
closely resemble one another in their
physical and chemical properties. Some of 80
the points of their resemblance are given 70
below:
60
1. They are all metals in true sense, some
50
of which play important role in
40
industry, Ti, Fe, Cr, Ni, Cu, Mo, W, Zr,
30
Nb, Ta, Th etc.
20
2. They are all hard and strong metals
with high melting and boiling points. 10

They are also good conductors of heat 0

and electricity. Atomic Number

3. They form alloys with one another and
also with other elements.
(b) Melting Points and Boiling Points
4. With few exceptions, they show
variable valency or oxidation state. Transition metals have very high melting
5. Their 10ons and compounds are and boiling points due to strong binding
coloured in solid state as well as in forces present between their atoms.
solution form, at least 1n one, if not all Melting points increase up to the middle
the oxidation states. of the series and then decrease to a
minimum level at the end of the series.
General Characteristics of
Transition Elements
3000
Melting Point

(a) Binding Energies

Transition metals show good mechanical 2000
properties. They are tough, malleable
and ductile. The toughness of these 1000
metals indicate strong metallic binding.
This is because, apart from s-electrons of 0
the outer most shell, the electrons of Atomic Number
underlying half- orbitals also participate in
binding. Melting points and boiling points of
In moving from left to right in any elements 1s directly related with the
transition series, the number of unpaired strength of inter-atomic forces. Greater is
electrons increases up to group VB and strength of bond, greater will be melting
VIB after that pairing takes place and and boiling points.
number of unpaired electrons goes on
(c) Covalent Radii and Ionic Radii
decreasing until it becomes zero at group
IIB. The covalent radii decrease rapidly at the
start of the series, then become almost
Therefore binding is stronger up to constant, and finally begin to increase at
group VIB and weakens progressively the end of the series. The increase in
up to group IIB. This trend of variation in covalent radii is possibly due to the fact
binding energies i1s shown in figure. In that the filled 3d orbital have contracted
the first transition series, the general into the electron core and so shield the
increase 1n binding energy ends at outer 4s electrons more effectively from
vanadium. This is due to the change in the nucleus.
metallic structure. Manganese has
somewhat low binding energy. In the
third transition series, the increase in
PUNJAB BOARD

Click here to get access to fsc topical MCQS

 NOTES

180

Covalent and ionic radii (mm)

160
Covalent
140
radii
Sample
120
tube
110

80
Electromagnet

60 Ionic
radii
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
No. of 3d orbital
Atomic Number Ion unpair electronic
Changes in the Ionic radii along the series are ed e⁻ structure
much less regular, so that periodic trends in
the properties of these ions are difficult to
Sc³⁺ 0
rationalize.

(d) Paramagnetism
Ti³⁺ 1 ↿
Substances which are weakly attracted by
a strong magnetic field are called
paramagnetic substances. Those V³⁺ 2 ↿ ↿
substances which are weakly repelled by
a strong magnetic field are called
diamagnetic substances. Cr³⁺ 3 ↿ ↿ ↿

Paramagnetic behaviour is caused by the

Mn³⁺ 4 ↿ ↿ ↿ ↿
presence of unpaired electrons in an
atom, molecule or ion because there 1s a
magnetic moment associated with the
Mn³⁺,
spinning electron. It increases with 5 ↿ ↿ ↿ ↿ ↿
Fe³⁺
increase in the number of unpaired
electrons. When the electrons are paired
in an orbital, then magnetic moments are Fe²⁺ 4 ↿⇂ ↿ ↿ ↿ ↿
cancelled out and the substances
become diamagnetic.
Co²⁺ 3 ↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿ ↿ ↿
The paramagnetic behaviour is the
strongest for Fe³⁺ and Mn²⁺ and decreases
on both sides of the first transition series. Ni²⁺ 2 ↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿ ↿
The reason is that both Mn²⁺ and Fe³⁺
have 5 unpaired electrons each. The
number of unpaired electrons decreases Cu²⁺ 1 ↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿
gradually from left to right in transition
and finally become zero. Paramagnetic
Zn²⁺ 0 ↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿⇂ ↿⇂
trend in the first transition series and
number of S-unpaired d-subshell are
shown below in the table. Graph indicates
the paramagnetic moment of different Guoy balance is used to determine the
ions. magnitude of paramagnetic nature and
number of unpamred electrons of an
Observed paramagnetic

atom. The sample m balance 1s weighed

with
electromagnetic field off and again with it
Moment

on. The difference between the two

weights is
a measure of number of unpaired
electrons in the sample.

PUNJAB BOARD

Click here to get access to fsc topical MCQS

 NOTES

(e) Oxidation State The energy difference E between

ground state and excited state depends
One of the most important property of upon the ligand in coordination sphere
transition elements is that they exhibit and structure of ions. Thus every 1on
variable oxidation states. They show absorbs a different wavelength and
variable valencies because of the reflect the remaining set of wavelengths
involvement of the unpaired d electrons which gives colours to the ions.
in addition to s electrons in bond
formation. All 3d series elements show an
oxidation state of +2 in addition to higher d-d transition after
oxidation states. absorption of ΔE
ΔE

+2 oxidation state 1s shown when only the

2s electrons are involved in bonding. In
the highest oxidation states of the first In [Ti(H₂0)₆]³⁺ ion, yellow light is absorbed
five elements, all the s and d electrons are while most of the blue and red lights are
used for bonding. Manganese has highest reflected. Therefore, the solution of
oxidation (+7) among the first transition [Ti(H₂0)₆]³⁺ ions look violet in colour.
series.
(g) Interstitial Compounds
After Mn, the number of oxidation states
decreases as the d sub-shell fill up and
fewer unpaired electrons are available for The empty spaces between atoms of
bond formation as shown in table. transition metals in their crystal lattices
are called interstices and small atoms,
such as hydrogen, boron, carbon, nitrogen
(f) Colour
enter into these interstices to form non-
stoichiometric compounds called
“Colour in compounds is produced due to
interstitial compounds. These
absorption and emission of radiation in
compounds have no definite composition
the visible region of spectrum.”
and do not correspond to the normal
oxidation state of metal. Interstitial
Compounds and ions of d-block elements
compounds, some times also are called
are mostly coloured. When white light
interstitial alloys.
falls on a substance, if it is totally
absorbed, it appears black, if it is totally
reflected, it appears white. However, if (h) Alloy Formation
certain wavelengths are absorbed and
other are reflected, the substances “A solid solution of metals is called alloy”.
appears coloured. In d-block elements, Due to the similarly 1n their sizes,
absorption of light is due to the presence some transition metal atoms are able to
of unpaired d-electrons in the ion. When replace one another in the metallic lattice
d-orbital are involved in bonding, they and form substitutional alloys among
split up into two energy levels, one set has themselves. Alloy steels are an important
higher energy than the other. The example of this type of material in which
electrons residing in the low energy d- iron atoms are substituted by chromium,
orbital absorb a part of visible light and manganese and nickel atoms, etc., to give
jump to high energy d- orbital. The the steel more useful properties. Other
process is called d-d transition. examples are brass, bronze, coinage alloys
etc.

Reflect

Absorb

White Black Colour

PUNJAB BOARD

Click here to get access to fsc topical MCQS

 NOTES

Complex Compounds
“A substance formed when one or more In above examples, Fe and Ag are central
anions or neutral molecules are bonded with atoms or ions.
a metal atom or ion is called complex.”
(b) Ligand
In complex, coordinates covalent bond is
present so it is called coordination “The ions or neutral molecule which donate
compounds. The metal atom or cation which electron pairs to central metal atom or ion
accept an electron pair is called Lewis acid is called ligand, " e.g., In K₄[Fe(CN)₆], CN⁻ is
and the anion or molecule which donate a ligand, and in Ag(NH₃)₂]Cl, NH₃ is also a
pair of electrons is called Lewis base or ligand. ligand. On the number of electron pars
which they donate, ligands are divided
For example, when the aqueous solutions into following types.
Fe(CN)₂. and KCN are mixed together Neutral ligands = NH₃, H₂O, CO
and evaporated, a new compound is obtained
which in aqueous solution does not ionize
as Fe²⁺ and CN⁻ ions but ionizes as K⁺ ion and Monodentate Ligands
[Fe(CN)₆]⁴⁻ ion (Ferrocyanide ion). On “Ligands which donate one pair of electron
this basis it has been given a formula to central metal atom or ion are called
K₄[Fe(CN)₆]. monodentate ligands. " e.g.,

Fe(CN)₂ + 4KCN K₄[Fe(CN)₆] Cl⁻ (Chloro), Br (Bromo), I⁻ (Iodo), CN⁻

4K⁺ + [Fe(CN)₆]⁴⁻ (Cyano) F⁻(Fluoro), OH⁻ (Hydroxo),

Here [Fe(CN)₆]⁴⁻ is called a complex ion.

NO₂⁻, (Nitro), NO (Nitrosyl), H₂O (Aqua), NH₃
(Ammine).
Such compounds containing the complex
molecules or complex ions and capable of
independent existence are called Biodentate Ligands
coordination compounds or complexes.
Ligands which donate two pairs of
electrons to central metal atom or ion are
In K₄[Fe(CN)₆]. complex CN⁻ is ligand or Lewis
called bidentate ligands. e.g.,
base and Fe ion is Lewis
100°c
acid.
catalyst

Note
There are three types of complexes:
1. A complex containing a simple cation and
If a ligand donate more than two pairs of
complex anion e.g., K₄[Fe(CN)₆].
electrons to central atom or ion is called
2. A complex cation and simple anion, e.g.,
polydentate ligand. e.g., EDTA (Ethylene
[Cu(NH₃)₄]SO₄.
Diamine Tetra Acetate).
3. A neutral complex, e.g., [Ni(CO)₄].
_
OOCCH₂ — CH₂COŌ
•• •• —
_ N — CH₂ — CH₂ — N —
Different Components of OOCCH₂ — CH₂COŌ
Complexes
The name of negative ligand ends with -O.
To understand the complexes, it is e.g., Chloro, Bromo, Sulphato etc.
necessary to understand components of
complexes. (d) Coordination

(a) Central Metal Atom “The number of electron pairs provided by

the ligands to the central metal atom or ion
“A metal atom or ion (usually a transition is called coordination number.” For example:
element) surrounded by a number of
ligands is called central metal atom or ion. In Ag(NH₃)₂]Cl coordination number of silver
e.g., is 2
K₄[Fe(CN)₆] Ag(NH₃)₂]Cl
PUNJAB BOARD

Click here to get access to fsc topical MCQS

 NOTES

In [Cu(NH₃)₄]SO₄ coordination number of

cooper is 4
In K₄[Fe(CN)₆] coordination number of iron is
6.
In K₃[Fe(CN)₆] coordination number of iron 1s
6.

(e) Coordination Sphere

“The central metal atom or ion along with

ligands is called the coordination
sphere. " It is usually placed in square
brackets. It may be anionic, cationic or
neutral.

K₄[Fe(CN)₆], [Cu(NH₃)₄]SO₄ , [Ni(CO₄)⁰]

In the above examples, [Fe(CN)₆]⁴⁻,

[Cu(NH₃)₄]²⁺ and [Ni(CO₄)⁰] are anionic,
cationic and neutral coordination spheres
respectively.

(f) Charge on the Coordination Sphere

It is the algebraic sum of the charges present

on the central metal 1on and the total charge
on the ligands.
[Fe(CN)₆]⁴⁻

Charge on ion = +2
Total charge on six CN⁻ ions = -6
Charge on the coordination sphere = -6+2 = -4

PUNJAB BOARD

Click here to get access to fsc topical MCQS

 NOTES

Nomenclature
Nomenclature of complex is given Example
according to international union of pure
and applied chemistry (IUPAC) rules. The (1) [Ag(NH₃)₂]Cl
rules for naming the complexes are given Diamminesilver (I) chloride
below:
1. Name of positive 1on i1s written before (2) [Cu(NH₃)₄]SO₄
the name of negative ion like salt. e.g., Tetraamminecopper (II) sulphate
NaCl, Sodium chloride.
2. K₂[PtCl₄] potassium (3) [Co(NH₃)₆]³⁺
hexachloroplatinate (iv). Hexaamminecobalt (III) Ion
3. The name of the ligand 1s written
before the name of the metal which it (4) K₄[Fe(CN)₆]
is coordinated. Potassium hexacyanoferrate (I)
4. The prefixes mono, di, tri, tetra, penta,
hexa and so on are used indicate the (3) K₃[Fe(CN)₆]
number of ligands. Greek prefixes bis, Potassium hexacyanoferrate (III)
tris or tetrakis used with bidentate or
polydentate ligands. (7) [Pt(NH₃)₄CINO₂]S0₄
5. The names of negative ligands end Tetraammine chloro nitratoplatinum (IV)
with O, as Chloro (Cl⁻) Fluoro (F⁻) Oxo sulphate
(0²⁻} hydroxo (OH⁻) etc.
6. Name of the neutral ligands remain (8) [Fe(OH₅)⁻³]
unchanged, e.g., Aqua (H₂0), Carbonyl Pentahydroxoferrate (II) ion
(CO), Ammine (NH₃) etc.
7. If one type of ligands are present in a (9) Ni(CO)₄
complex, they are named in Tetracarbonyl nickel (O)
alphabetic order. In case of different
ligands, the order is anionic ligand, (10) [Co(NH₃)₄Cl₂]⁺¹
then neutral followed by cationic Tetraamminedichloro cobalt (III) ion
ligand.
8. The oxidation number of metal atom is (11) [PtCI(NO₂)(NH₃)₄]SO₄
indicated by Roman numerals in Tetraamminechloronitroplatinum (IV)
9. parenthesis ( ) after the name of the sulphate
metal.
10. The suffix -ate comes after the name (12) [Co(NO₂)₃(NH₃)₃]
of the metal if metal is present in Triamminetrinitrocobalt (III)
negative sphere. If metal 1s present in
positive sphere its name will remain
unchanged.

PUNJAB BOARD

Click here to get access to fsc topical MCQS

 NOTES

Chelates
“The complex in which two or more
different atoms of a polydentate ligand
are coordinated with central metal atom
or ion and form a ring is called chelate
and this process is called chelation”.

For example, when two oxalato ligands

C₂O₄²⁻ (bidentate ligand) get coordinated
with Pt²⁺ ion, a chelate is formed. Each
oxalato ligand forms a five members ring
with the metal ion.

[Pt(C₂O₄)₂]²⁻
Dioxalate platinate (II)

Geometry of complexes
Geometry of'a complex depends upon the
type of hybridization taking place in the
valence shell of central metal atom or ion.

Example of Chelationn: the

complex ion [Co(en)₂]²⁻

O = C — O⁻ O⁻ — C = O

Pt⁺²
O = C — O⁻ O⁻ — C = O

Dioxalato platinate (II) ion

PUNJAB BOARD

Click here to get access to fsc topical MCQS

 NOTES

Geometry of Complexes
Coordinatio Hybridisati
Shape Diagram Example
n Number on of Metal

2 sp Linear [Ag(NH₃)₂]Cl

[MnCl₄]²⁻
4 sp³ Tetrahedral
[Zn(NH₃)₄]³⁻

[Cu(NH₃)₄]²⁺
4 sp²d Square Planar
[Ni(CN₄)]²⁻

Trigonal [Mn(CO)₄NO]
5 sp³d
bipyramidal [Fe(CO)₅]

[Co(NH₃)₆]
[CoF₆]³⁻
6 sp³d² Octahedral
[Fe(CN)₆]⁴⁻
[Fe(CN)₆]³⁻

PUNJAB BOARD

Click here to get access to fsc topical MCQS

 NOTES

Iron
Iron has been known since prehistoric The haematite (Fe:03) lining supplies
days. It was used in Egypt in 1500 B.C. It oxygen, necessary for the oxidation of
is known that the Chinese also used iron carbon, sulphur, silicon, manganese and
as early as 2500 B.C. In the sub-continent phosphorus present in the cast iron.
iron was produced around 600 B.C. Oxides of carbon and sulphur, being
volatile escape out at high temperature.
Ores of Iron
3C + Fe₂O₃ 2Fe +3CO
Magnetite Fe₃O₄ 3S + 2Fe₂O₃ 4Fe + 3SO₂
Haematite Fe₂O₃
Limonite Fe₂O₃.3H₂0 While those of manganese, silicon and
phosphorus form slag. Thus
Commercial Forms of Iron
Iron is available commercially in the 3Si + 2Fe₂O₃ 4Fe + 3SiO₂
following three forms. They differ in 2Mn + SiO₂ MnSiO₃
carbon contents as follow: (Slag)
(a) Pig iron or cast iron 2.5 to 4.5% carbon
(b) Steel 0.25 to 2.5% carbon 4P +5O₂ 2P₂O₃
(c) Wrought iron 0.12 to 0.25% carbon Fe₂O₃ + P₂O₅ 2FePO₄
(Slag)
Wrought Iron
With the removal of impurities, the
Composition melting point of the metal rises and it
becomes a semi-solid mass. At this stag, it
It is the purest form of commercial iron 1s taken out in the form of balls or blooms
and contains the lowest percentage of on the ends of rabbles. While still hot,
carbon and upto 0.3% of impurities like S, these balls are subjected to hammering to
P, S1 and Mn, etc. squeeze out as much of slag as possible.
The product so obtained is known as
S = 0.2 to 0.15%, Mn = upto 0.25%, P = 0.04 wrought iron.
to 0.2%

Manufacture of wrought iron from

cast iron by puddling

In this process cast iron is heated in a

special type of reverberatory furnace
called puddling furnance. This furnace has
a low roof to deflect the hot gases and
flames downwards and to melt cast iron.
The hearth of the furnace 1s lined with
haematite (Fe₂O₃). The cast iron is placed
on the hearth, melted by hot gases and
stirred or puddled with long iron rods
called rabbles through the doors to bring
it in thorough contact with the lining of
the hearth, i.e., Fe₂O₃.

PUNJAB BOARD

Click here to get access to fsc topical MCQS

 NOTES

Steel
Steel is an alloy of iron containing 0.25 to
Manufacture of Steel
2.5% of carbon and traces of S, P, Si and
Mn. In can be manufactured by the following
processes:
Classification of Steel
Open heart process (using cast iron,
Steel is classified on the basis of wrought iron or steel scrap).
percentage of carbon, present in it. Bessemer’s process (using cast iron
only).
(1) Mild Steel (0.1 - 0.2% C)
Some other processes arc also used to
It 1s fairly soft, malleable and ductile, can prepare special type of steel from pure
be forged (shaped by hammering and wrought iron.
pressing while hot). It is used in making
tubes, nuts, bolts, bars are boiler plates. Open Hearth Process

(2) Medium Carbon Steel (0.2 - 0.7% C) This is the most modern method for the
manufacture of steel. It 1s carried out in
It is harder than mild steel. It is also
an open hearth furnace. This furnace has
malleable and ductile. It is used in making
a low roof to deflect the hot gases and
rails, axels, castings.
flames downward to melt the charge.
The open hearth furnaces works on the
(3) High Carbon Steel (0.7 - 1.5% C)
regenerative
It is hard and can be forged when principle of heat economy. Open hearth
containing less than 1.0% carbon. Steel process 1s of two types:
containing more than 1.0% carbon cannot
be forged. It is used to make hammers, (1) Furnace with acidic lining like Si0₂ is
taps, dies, cutting tools, machine tools, used when the impurities are Mn, Si etc.
hard steel parts of machinery and all sorts (1) Furnace with basic lining like dolomite
of engines. (CaO, MgO) is used when the impurities
are P and S, etc.
Steel is intermediate in carbon contents
between cast iron and wrought iron.

Production of steel from wrought

iron or cast iron

1. Steel can be produced from cast iron

by removing some carbon along with
sulphur, phosphorus and silicon.
2. Steel can also be produced by adding
the required amount of carbon to
wrought iron, then adding some Open hearth furnace for the
special constituents, e.g., tungsten, manufacture of steel from cast iron
chromium, vanadium, molybedenum,
manganese, nickel and cobalt which
impart desired properties to the steel.
At present most of the steel 1s
manufactured from cast iron.

PUNJAB BOARD

Click here to get access to fsc topical MCQS

 NOTES

Process

A mixture of cast iron, scrap steel and

quick lime is charged into the furnace. At
about 1600°C Si, Mn, C, S and P are burnt
out and removed according to the
following reactions:
C + ½ O₂ CO
Si + O₂ SiO₂
Mn + ½ O₂ MnO

CO escape in the flue gases. The gases

which comes out from the furnace are
called flue gases. Silica (Si0₂) combines
with CaO, MnO and FeO to form silicates
(slag) which float on the surface of the
molten metal.
SiO₂ + CaO CaSiO₃
SiO₂ + MnO MnSiO₃
SiO₂ + FeO FeSiO₃

Phosphorus and sulphur react with Fe₂O₃

to form P₂O₅ and SO₂ respectively.
2Fe₂O₃ + 3S 4Fe + 3SO₂
5Fe₂O₃ + 6P 10Fe + 3P₂O₅

These oxides react with calcium oxide to

form slag.
P₂O₅ + 3CaO Ca₃(PO₄)₂ (Fertilizer)
SO₂ + CaO CaSO₃

Samples are taken at intervals and the

percentage of carbon in the steel is
determined regularly. When this is
reduced to about 0.1%, the calculated mass
of ferromanganese (Fe, Mn, C) is added.
Manganese desulphurises the steel.
Ferromanganese raises the carbon
contents to the required values. After
giving time for mixing, a little more
ferromanganese is added, and the charge
is allowed to run into moulds where it
solidifies to ingots.

The whole process takes about 10 hours.

Slag contains calcium phosphate. It is
ground to powder and sold as a fertilizer.

PUNJAB BOARD

Click here to get access to fsc topical MCQS

 NOTES

Bessemer’s Process
The furnace used in this process is called In order to remove entrapped bubbles of
Bessemer’s Converter which is a pear gases (blow holes) such as O₂, N₂, CO₃, a
shaped vessel made of steel plates. At the little Al or ferrosilicon 1s also added. Al
bottom the converter is provided with a removes nitrogen as nitride and oxygen as
number of holes through which hot air is oxide.
introduced. The converter is held on a 2Al + N₂ 2AIN
central axis so that it can be tilted in any
desired position for feeding and pouring 4Al + 3O₂ 2Al₂O₃
out the finished materials.
At the end of the operation, the molten
Molten pig or cast iron (25 to 30 tons) from steel is poured out into moulds for
the blast furnace is fed into the converter casting.
and hot air blast is injected through the Such casting are free from any defect.
perforated base. This oxidizes carbon,
silicon, and manganese.

Bessemer’s converter for the

manufacture of steel from cast iron

These oxides form a slag of MnSiO₃. The

heat evolved during the oxidation is
enough to keep iron in the molten state.
Mno + SiO₂ MnSiO₃ (Slag)

CO produced burns at the mouth of the

converter with a blue flame. Iron is partly
oxidized to ferric oxide (Fe₂O₃) which also
extracts carbon from cast iron to form CO.
4Fe + 3O₂ 2Fe₂O₃

Fe₂O₃+ 3C 2Fe + 3CO

Within 10 to 15 minutes the flame due to

CO subsides indicating that the carbon
is completely oxidized. At this stage
ferromanganese is added to correct the
proportion of carbon to obtain the
desired qualities. A blast of air is
continued for a moment to ensure
thorough mixing. The addition of Mn
imparts increased hardness and tensile
strength.

PUNJAB BOARD

Click here to get access to fsc topical MCQS

 NOTES

Corrosion
“Any process of chemical decay of metals
due to the action of surrounding medium
is called corrosion.”

Corrosion by Gases

The simplest case of corrosion occurs

when metals come into contact with gases
of the atmosphere. The surface of metals This forms a galvanic cell in which
becomes coated with compounds such as aluminium releases electrons and
oxides, sulphides and carbonates. Such changes to Al ion (being more reactive
compounds sometime form a compact than Cu) i.e., it acts as negative electrode
layer on the surface protecting the metal and Cu acts as a positive electrode as
from further attack. e.g., Al shown n the figure.

Corrosion by Water
Anode: Al Al⁺³ + 3e⁻ Oxidation
The case would be different when the
metal 1s in contact with water. The Al⁺³ + 3OH⁻ Al(OH)₃
compounds formed in this case may
dissolve in water, allowing the corrosion to Cathode: 2H⁺ + 2e⁻ H₂ Reduction
penetrate further into the metal. Besides
dissolving the compounds, water also Aluminium ions attract OH⁻ ion to form
promotes electrochemical process which is AI(OH)⁻ i.e., it starts dissolving. The H⁺
one of the main causes of rapid corrosion. ions present on the Cu receive the
electrons and released as H₂. In this way
Electrochemical Theory aluminium corrodes rapidly when in
contact with copper which is lower in
Pure metals are not easily corroded, even electrochemical series.
iron hardly gets corroded if absolutely From this we can conclude that when an
pure. The impurities present in the metal active metal Al (higher in the
promotes corrosion. electrochemical series) comes in contact
with less active metal Cu (lower in the
To understand why impurities accelerate electrochemical series) a galvanic cell 1s
the corrosion of metals, consider what established. In this process active metal
happens when two different metals come corrodes rapidly while the other intact.
in contact with one another is moist air.
Suppose, for instance, Cu is brought in
contact with Al. After sometime, we shall
notice that aluminium gets corroded while
copper remains intact. This can be
explained by the electrochemical theory.
According to this theory, moisture and CO₂
are present on the surface of the
metal. Water ionizes into H⁺ and OH⁻ ions.
CO₂ dissolves in water forming HCO₃
which ionizes as follows:
CO₂ + H₂O H₂CO₃

HCO H⁺ + H₂CO₃⁻

Copper and aluminium are, in a sense,

immersed in the solution containing H⁺,
OH⁻ and HCO₃⁻ ions.

PUNJAB BOARD

Click here to get access to fsc topical MCQS

 NOTES

Prevention of Corrosion
It has been observed that the amount of From this we can conclude that plated
iron destroyed each year by corrosion mron gets rust more rapidly when the
equal to about one fourth of its annual protective coating i1s damaged than the
production. It is therefore necessary to non-plated 1ron.
prevent such a damaging process and
avoid this loss. (ii) Galvanizing or Zinc Coating
(Anode Coating):
Corrosion can be prevented by the
following methods: “The coating of steel or iron with zinc
to protect it from corrosion is called
(1) Coating the Surface of Metal: galvanizing.”
It is very simple method of prevention of Galvanizing is done by dipping a clean
corrosion. In this method, metal surface iron sheet in a zinc chloride bath and
is coated with oil, paint, varnish or enamel. heating. The iron sheet is then
Environmental gases have no direct removed, rolled into zinc bath and air
contact with metal. cooled.

(2) Alloying: In this cause if a protective layer of zinc

Mixture of two or more metals 1s called 1s damaged, a galvanic cell is
alloy. Alloying of metals serve to inhibit established, in the presence of
the corrosion. moisture. Iron serves as a cathode and
zinc as an anode. Electrons flow from
(3) Metallic Coating: Zn to iron, as a result of which Zn
Metallic coating is frequently used to decays while Fe remains intact. This is
prevent corrosion. e.g., tin plating, called sacrificial corrosion.
galvanizing.
Fe⁺² + Zn Zn⁺²+ Fe
(i) Tin Plating or Coating Iron with Tin
(Cathode Coating): This is the way galvanizing helps
The process of tin plating consists of protecting iron from rust. This process
dipping the clean sheet of iron in a bath of is used in water pipes, etc.
molten tin and the passing it through hot
pairs of rollers. Such plates are used in
the manufacture of tin canes, oil
containers and other similar articles. Tin
itself is very stable and protects the metals
effectively as long as its coating on
the iron is intact. If the protective coating is
damaged then iron comes into contact
with moisture. A galvanic cell is established
in which tin acts as a cathode and iron acts
as an anode. The electrons flow from iron
to thin where they discharge H ions,
leaving behind OH⁻ in the solution. These
hydroxide ions, react with iron forming
Fe (OH)₃ which dissolves rapidly in water.

H₂O (moisture) H⁺ + OH⁻

Anode: Fe Fe⁺³ + 3e⁻ Oxidation

Fe⁺³ + 3OH⁻ Fe (OH)₃

Cathode: 2H⁺/Sn + 2e⁻ H₂/Sn Reduction

PUNJAB BOARD

Click here to get access to fsc topical MCQS

 NOTES

Chromates ad
Dichrommates
Chromates and dichromates are the salts K₂Cr₂O₄ and K₂Cr₂O₇ show similar
of chromic acid, H₂CrO₄, and dichromic properties because in an aqueous solution
acid, H₂Cr₂O₇, respectively. Both acids exist CrO₇²⁻ and CrO₇²⁻ ions exist in equilibrium.
only in aqueous solution and when
attempts are made to isolate them from 2Cr₂O₄²⁻ + 2H ⇌ Cr₂O₇²⁻ + H₂O
solution, they decompose immediately
into chrommic anhydride (Cr₂O₃) and If an alkali is added to such a solution the
water. Their salts are, however, quite stable. hydroxyl ions will bind the hydrogen
ion in solution, the equilibrium will shift
Potassium Chromate (K₂Cr₂O₄) towards left and, as a result, dichromate
ions will be converted into chromate ions.
Preparation Similarly on adding an acid, the
The chromates of alkali metals, which are equilibrium will shift towards right and
soluble In water, are obtained by oxidizing dichromate ions will be formed.
trivalent chromium compounds in the
presence of an alkali. Potassium Dichromate (K₂Cr₂O₇)
2KrCO₂ + 3Br₂ + 8KOH 2K₂CrO₄ +
(Surkh Kahi)
6KBr + 4H₂O
Preparation
Chromates can also be produced by fusing
Cr203 with an alkali in the presence of K₂Cr₂O₄ is converted to K₂Cr₂O₇ by using
an oxidant, such as potassium chlorate. H₂SO₄. By adding on acid to aqueous
solution of K₂Cr₂O₄equilibrium will shift in
Cr₂O₃ + 4KOH +KClO₃ 2K₂CrO₄ + KCl + the forward direction i.e., changing
2H₂O chromate ions into dichromate ions.
Chromates are usually prepared from
natural chromite (FeO.Cr₂O₃), if it is
K₂Cr₂O₄ + H₂SO₄ ⇌ K₂Cr₂O₇ + K₂SO₄ +H₂O
strongly heated with potassium carbonate
in the presence of the oxygen. The (2) Sometimes sodium dichromate is
resulting fused mass will contain converted into potassium dichromate by
potassium chromate which can be reacting it with KCI.
extracted with water. Na₂Cr₂O₇ + 2KCl₄ K₂Cr₂O₇ + 2NaCl

4FeCr₂O₄ + 8K₂CO₃ +7O₂ 8K₂CrO₄+ Properties

Fe₂O₃ +8CO₂
It is an orange red crystalline solid which
melts of 396°C, it is fairly soluble in water.
Properties
Structure of Chromate lon Dichromates are very powerful oxidizing
agents. Oxidation is carried out in an
²⁻ acid solution. In this process, hexavalent
chromium ion 1s reduced to trivalent
chromium ion.

Properties
Almost all the chromates are yellow in
colour. Some of them are used as
pigments. For instance, insoluble lead
chromate, PbCrO₄, is employed for the
preparation of yellow in colour called
yellow crown.
PUNJAB BOARD

Click here to get access to fsc topical MCQS

 NOTES

(a) Reaction with H2S

K₂Cr₂O₇ + 4H₂SO₄ K₂SO₄ +Cr₂(SO₄)₃
+4H₂O +3[O]
3H₂S + 3[O] 3H₂O +3S

K₂Cr₂O₇ + 3H₂S +4H₂SO₄ K₂SO₄

+Cr₂(SO₄)₃ +7H₂O +3S

(b) Reaction with Ferrous

Sulphate
Potassium dichromate oxidizes
ferrous sulphate to ferric sulphate in
the presence of sulphuric acid.
K₂Cr₂O₇ + 7H₂SO₄ +6FeSO₄
3Fe₂(SO₄)₃ +Cr₂(SO₄)₃ +K₂SO₄ + 7H₂O

(b) Reaction with Potassium

Iodide

Potassium dichromate also oxidizes

KI in the presence of H₂SO₄

K₂Cr₂O₇ + 8Kl +7H₂SO₄ 4K₂HSO₄

+2Cr₂(SO₄)₃ +3l₂ + 7H₂O

(b) Chromyl Chloride Test

When solid potassium dichromate is
heated with solid metal chloride in
the presence of concentrated
sulphuric acid chromyl chloride is
produced. CrO₂Cl₂ is passed through
NaOH and lead acetate is added.
Yellow ppts of PbCrO₄ confirm
chloride.

K₂Cr₂O₇ + 4NaCl +6H₂SO₄ 2KHSO₄

+2NaHSO₄ +2CrO₂Cl₂ + 3H₂O
CrO₂Cl₂ + 2NaOH 2KHSO₄
+2Na₂CrO₄ + 2HCl
2Na₂CrO₄ + Pb( CH₃COO)₂
PbCrO₄ +3CH₃COONa

Uses
(a) K₂Cr₂0₇ finds extensive use in dyeing.
(b) It is used in leather industries for
chrome tanning.
(c) [t is used as oxidizing agent.
(d) For making insoluble chrome
pigments.

PUNJAB BOARD

Click here to get access to fsc topical MCQS

 NOTES

Potassium Permanganate
(K₂Mn₄)
This compound is the salt of permangantic Oxygen liberated at the anode,
acid, HMnO₄. It is an unstable acid and oxidizes magnate ion (MnO₄)²⁻ into
exists only in solution. permanganate ion (MnO₄)⁻¹ while
Preparation hydrogen is liberated at the cathode.

It is prepared by acidifying the solution of 2K₂MnO₄ + H₂O + [O] 2KMnO₄ + 2KOH

potassium manganate, K₂MnO₄ by H₂SO₄ The purple solution of KMnO₄ obtained
as above is filtered through asbestos,
3MnO₂ + 6KOH + KClO₃ 3K₂MnO₄ + KCl concentrated and allowed to crystallize
+3H₂O when KMnO₄ deposits as deep purple-
red rhombic prisms.
On a large scale, it is prepared from the
mineral pyrolusite, MnO₂. The finely
powdered mineral i1s fused with KOH in
the presence of air or an oxidizing agent
like KNO₃; or KClO₃ etc. This treatment
gives us green coloured potassium
manganate, K₂MnO₄, in fused state.
2MnO₂ + 4KOH +O₂ 2K₂MnO₄ +2H₂O

MnO₂ + 2KOH +KNO₃ K₂MnO₄ + KNO₂ Structure of Permanganate ion

+H₂O

3MnO₂ + 6KOH + KClO₃ 3K₂MnO₄ +KCl

+3H₂O Properties
(1) Potassium permanganate forms
The fused potassium manganate KMnO
dark purple lustrous crystals giving
obtained as above is extracted with
deep pink colour in solution.
water and the solution, after filtration, is
converted into potassium permanganate
(2) Its solubility in water at 20°C 1s only
(KMnO₂) by any of the following methods.
about 7% while It dissolves more at
(a) Stadeler’s Process higher temperature (25% at 63°C).

In this method, Cl₂ is passed through the (3) Potassium permanganate 1s a

green solution of K₂MnO₄ until it becomes powerful oxidizing agent. Oxidation 1s
purple due to the formation of KMnO₄. usually carried out 1n an acid solution.
Here Cl₂ oxidizes K₂MnO₄into KMnQ..

2K₂MnO₄ + Cl₂ 2KCl + 2KMnO₄ Reaction with HS

It oxidizes H₂S to sulphur.
(b) In this processes CO; is passed though
2KMnO₄ +3H₂SO₄ + 5H₂S K₂SO₄ +
the green solution of K₂MnO₄until it
2MnSO₄+5S+ 8H₂O
becomes purple.

3K₂MnO₄ + 2H₂O + 4CO₂ 2KMnO₄ + MNO₂ Reaction with FeSO

+2KHCO It oxidizes FeSO₄ to Fe₂(SO₄)₃.
2KMnO₄ + 10FeSO₄ + 7H₂O +8H₂SO₄
(c) Electrolytic Oxidation Process
K₂SO₄ + 2MnSO₄ +5Fe₂(SO₄)₃+ 78H₂O
In this process magnate is converted in to
permanganate by electrolytic oxidation.
During electrolysis of an aqueous solution of
K₂MnO₄, water is decomposed to evolve
hydrogen gas at the cathode and oxygen gas
at the anode.
PUNJAB BOARD

Click here to get access to fsc topical MCQS

 NOTES

Reaction with Oxalic Acid

It oxidizes oxalic acid to CO₂ and H₂O on
heating.

2KMnO₄ + 5H₂C₂O₄ + 3H₂SO₄ 6K₂SO₄

+2MnSO₄ + 5Fe₂(SO₄)₃+ 78H₂O

Reaction with KI
2KMnO₄ + 10KI + 8H₂SO₄ 6K₂SO₄ + 2MnSO₄
+5I₂ + 8H₂O

Uses
It is used:
(a) As an oxidizing agent.
(b) As a disinfectant and a germicide.
(c) In the manufacture of many organic
compounds.
(d) In bleaching of pulp.
(e) In the manufacture of phamaceuticals.

PUNJAB BOARD

Click here to get access to fsc topical MCQS

 NOTES

Exercise
Fill in the blanks True or False

(i) The property of paramagnetism is due to (i) A substance which is attracted into a
the presence of unpaired electrons. magnetic field 1s said to be diamagnetic.
False
(ii) MnO₄¹⁻ ion has purple colour and
Cr₂O₇⁻² has orange red colour. (ii) Compounds of the transition elements
are mostly coloured.
(iii) When potassium chromate is treated True
with an acid is potassium dichromate
produced. (iii) Fe'' ions are blue when hydrated.
False
(V) The d-block elements are located
between s and p block elements. (iv) An extreme case of paramagnetism is
called diamagnetism.
(vi) Oxidation number of Fe in K₄[Fe(CN)₆] False
is +2 while in K₃[Fe(CN)₆] it is +3.
(v) Tin plating is used to protect iron
(vii) The presence of impurities in a metal sheets from corrosion.
promotes corrosion. True

(vii) If copper is in contact with aluminium (vi) In galvanizing, zinc prevents corrosion
gets corroded. of iron.
True
(viii) Complexes having spd hybridization
have octahedral shape. (vii) Tin plated iron gets rusted more
rapidly when the protective coating 1s
(ix) In naming the complexes, all the damaged than the un-plated iron.
ligands are named in alphabetical order. True

(x) In an aqueous solution, CrO₂ and Cr₂O (viii) The name of anionic ligands in a
exist in the form of equilibrium. complex ends in suffix “O’.
True

(ix) Pig iron contains greater percentage of

carbon than steel.
True

(x) Complex compounds having dsp

hybridization have tetrahedral geometry.
False

PUNJAB BOARD

Click here to get access to fsc topical MCQS

 NOTES

MCQs (viii) The colour of transition metal

complexes is due to:
(i) Which of the following is a non-typical
transition element (a) d-d transition of electrons
(b) Paramagnetic nature of transition
(a) Cr (b) Mn elements
(c) Zn (d) Fe (c) Ionization
(d) Loss of s-electrons
(ii) Which of the following is a typical
transition metal: (ix) Coordination number of Pt in
[PtCI(NO:2)(NH3)4)? is:
(a) Sc (b) Y
(c) Ra (d) Co (a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 1 (d) 6
(iii) f-Block elements are also called:
(x) The total number of transition element
(a) Non-typical transition elements is:
(b) Outer transition elements (a) 10 (b) 14
(c) Normal transition elements (c) 40 (d) 58
(d) None is true

(iv) The strength of binding energy of

transition elements depends upon:

(a) Number of electron pairs

(b) Number of unpaired electrons
(c) Number of neutrons
(d) Number of protons

(v) Group VIB of transition elements

contains:

(a) Zn,Cd, Hg (b) Fe, Ru, Os

(c) Cr, Mo, W (d) Mn, Te, Re

(vi) Which is the formula of tetraammine

chloro-nitro-platinum (IV) sulphate:

(a) [Pt(NH₃)₄(NO₂)]|SO₄
(b) [PtNO₂CI(NH₃)₄]SO₄
(c) [PtCI(NO₂)(NH₃)₄]SO₄
(d) [Pt(NH₃)₄(NO₂)CI]SO₄

(vii) The percentage of carbon in different

types of iron products is in the order of:
(a) wrought iron > Steel > Cast iron
(b) Cast iron > Steel > Wrought
(c) Cast iron > Wrought >Steel
(d) Cast iron > Steel > Wrought

PUNJAB BOARD

Click here to get access to fsc topical MCQS

 NOTES

Q.4 How does the electronic (b) The conditions necessary for aluminum
configuration of valence shell corrosion are:
affect the following properties of (i) Aluminum is in contact with less
the transition elements? reactive metal like Cu.
(a) Binding energy (b) (ii) Aluminum is provided with moisture
Paramagnetism by atmosphere or salt solution.
(c) Melting points (d) Oxidation (c) When iron is coated with more reactive
states metal (like Zn) to prevent corrosion then
iron is protected. Even when coating is
ANS: Detailed question. See text
damaged galvanic cell is established but
book (Q.5 and Q.6 are on next page).
iron remains intact because Zn will be
rusted. In this way galvanizing or Zn
Q.5 Explain the following terms
coating protect iron from rusting.
giving examples:

(a) Ligands (b) Coordination Q.9 How chromate ions are

sphere (c) Substitutional alloy (d) converted into dichromate ions?
Central metal atom
ANS:
ANS: Detailed Question. See text book for Chromate (K₂CrO₄) Is converted into
details. dichromate (K₂CrO₇) in the presence of
conc. H₂SO₄
Q.6 Describe the rules for naming 2Cr₂O₄²⁻ + 2H Cr₂O₇²⁻ + H₂O
the coordination complexes and 2K₂Cr₂O₄ + H₂SO₄ K₂Cr₂O₇ + K₂SO₄ +H₂O
give examples. The above reaction is a reversible reaction
and equilibrium shift towards right
ANS: Detailed Question. See text book for
according to Le-Chatelier’s Principle
details.
changing chromate ions into dichromate
10ns.
Q.7 What is the difference
between wrought iron and steel?
Q.10 Describe the preparation of
Explain the Bessemer’s process
KMnO₄ and K₂CrO₄.
for the manufacture of steel.
ANS: ANS:
Wrought Iron and Steel: Descriptive question. Consult text book for
Wrought iron is the purest form of details.
commercial iron and contains 0.12% to
0.25% carbon which is lowest percentage Q.11 Give systematic names to
of carbon while steel is an alloy of won following complexes:
containing 0.25% to 2.5% of carbon.
Process for manufacture of steel see in (a) [Fe(CO)₅] (b) Co(NH₃)₆]Cl₃
text book. (c) Fe(H₂O)₆]²⁺ (d) Na₃[CoF₆]
(e) K₂[Cu(CN)₄]. (f) K₂[PtCl₆]
Q.8 Explain the following giving (g) [Pt(OH)₂(NH₃)₄]SO₄
reasons: (h) [Cr(OH)₃(H₂0)₃]
(a) Why does damaged tin plated ANS:
iron get rusted quickly. (a) [Fe(CO)₅] Penta carbonyl iron (O)
(b) Under what conditions does (b) Co(NH₃)₆]Cl₃ Hexa ammine cobalt (III)
aluminium corrode? chloride
(¢) How does the process of (c) Fe(H₂O)₆]²⁺ Hexa aqua iron (II) ion
galvanizing protect iron from (d) Na₃[CoF₆] Sodium hexa fluoro
rusting? cobaltate(III) (
e) K₂[Cu(CN)₄] Potassium tetra cyano
ANS:
cuprate (II)
(a) With ron alone galvanic cell cannot be
() K₂[PtCl₆] Potassium hexa chloro
established and rusting is slow but when
palatinate (IV)
tin plating gets damaged on the surface of
(2) [Pt(OH)₂(NH₃)₄]SO₄ Tetra ammine
ron then iron comes in contact with
dihydroxo platinum (IV) sulphate
moisture of air and a galvanic cell is
(h) [Cr(OH)₃(H₂0)₃] Triaqua trihydroxo
established due to which rusting proceeds
chromium (III)
more rapidly.
PUNJAB BOARD

Click here to get access to fsc topical MCQS

22
 NOTES

Do You Know?
Formula of pyrolusite is MnO₂.

Paramagnetic behaviour is due to the

presence of unpaired electrons.

The electrons in the low energy d-

orbital absorb a part of visible light and
jump to high energy d-orbital. This is
called d-d transition.

The ions or neutral molecules which

donate electron pairs to the central
metal atom or ion is called ligand. In
K₄[Fe(CN)₆], CN is ligand.

The central metal atom or ion along

with ligand is called coordination
sphere.

The number of electron pairs provided

by the ligand to the central atom or ion
is called coordination number. In
K₄[Fe(CN)₆], coordination number of Fe
is 6.

Wrought iron is the purest form of iron.

KMnO₄ is called pinky.

K₂Cr₂O₇ is called “Surkh Kahi”.

Complexes having d² sp³ hybridization

have octahedral shape.

HOOCCH₂ CH₂COŌH
⋅— ⋅ —
N — CH₂ — CH₂ — N
⋅ ⋅
HOOCCH₂ —
—
CH₂COŌH
(EDTA)
(Hexadentate)

OOCCH₂— CH₂COŌ
⋅ ⋅ —
N — CH₂ — CH₂ — N
—⋅ ⋅—
OOCCH₂ CH₂COŌ

(Ethylenediamine tetracetate)

PUNJAB BOARD

Click here to get access to fsc topical MCQS

23