CLASS 1ST YEAR PHYSICS NOTES WRITTEN BY MR SAMIULLAH MOB # 0344-9167826

UNIT # 06 FLUID DYNAMICS

F
 Co-efficient of viscosity = 𝜂 = D
6πrv
 Drag force = FD = 6πηrv
mg
 Terminal velocity of body of mass “m” = vT =
6πη r
2 ρ g r2
 Terminal velocity of body of mass “ρ” = vT =
9η
 A1 v1 = A2 v2 = Constant
1 1
 P1 + ρV12 + ρgV12 = P2 + ρV22 + ρgV22
2 2

FLUID:-
Definition:- Any substance which can flow from one place to
another place is known as fluid.
Examples:-
1. All liquids i-e water, oil etc.
2. All gases i-e natural gas, hydrogen gas etc.
3. Plasma i-e Flames, luminous clouds etc.
MAJOR APPLICATIONS OF FLUID FLOWS
 Automobile, chemical, and processing industries
 Energy sector.
 Transportation Sector.
 Environmental Fluid Flows.
 Weather or meteorology.
 Biological Applications etc.

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 CLASS 1ST YEAR PHYSICS NOTES WRITTEN BY MR SAMIULLAH MOB # 0344-9167826

FLUID MECHAINICS:-
Definition:- It is the branch of physics which deals with the study of behaviour of fluids when they
are in state of rest or motion. OR
The study of fluids in state of rest or motion is known as fluid mechanics.
Explanation:- In fluid mechanics we deals with three aspects of fluid i-e statics, kinetics and
dynamics aspects.
Examples:-
 Pressure of static water on the walls of the DAM.
 Water flowing through a pipe.
FLUID-STATICS:-
Definition:- The study of properties and effect of static fluid is known as fluid dynamics. OR
It is the branch of physics which deals with the study of fluids at rest.
Examples:-
 Pressure of static water on the walls of the DAM.
 Hydraulic press / hydraulic breaks.
FLUID -DYNAMICS:-
Definition:- The study of properties and effect of moving fluids is known as fluid dynamics. OR
It is the branch of physics which deals with the study of fluids in motion.
Examples:-
 Water flowing through a pipe.
 Blood flowing in vessels.
SUB - BRANCHES OF FLUID DYNAMICS:-
1. Hydro-dynamics.
2. Aero-dynamics.
1. HYDRO – DYNAMICS:-
Definition:- It is the branch of fluid dynamics which deals with the properties of liquid in motion.
Examples:-
 Flow of water in a pipe.
 Motion of boat in sea.
 Motion of fishes in water etc.
2. AERO – DYNAMICS:-
Definition:- It is the branch of fluid dynamics which deals with the properties of gases in motion.
Examples:-
 The lifting of airplane is explained by aerodynamics.
 Flying of birds in air.
CONSERVATION LAWS IN FLUID DYNAMICS
1. Law of conservation of mass which gives basis of the equation of continuity.
2. Law of conservation of energy which gives basis of Bernoulli’s equation.
VISCOSCITY:-
Definition:- The property of fluid due to opposes its flow is known as viscosity. OR
The resistance offered to the flow of a fluid is known as viscosity.
Co - efficient of viscosity:- The numerical value of the viscosity is known as co-efficient of
viscosity.

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 CLASS 1ST YEAR PHYSICS NOTES WRITTEN BY MR SAMIULLAH MOB # 0344-9167826
Symbol:- It is denoted by Greek letter “η” (eta).
FD
Mathematically:- 𝜂 =
6πrv
Explanation:-
 Liquids and gases have non-zero viscosity.
 Viscosity of an ideal gas is zero.
 Substances which flow easily have small co-efficient of
viscosity.
 Substances which do not flow easily have large co-efficient of
viscosity.
 𝜂𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑𝑠 > 𝜂𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 .
Unit:- The S.I unit of viscosity is Pascal second (Pa s).
Other units:-
 In M.K.S the unit of viscosity is kg𝑚−1 𝑠 −1 .
 In C.G.S system the unit of viscosity is g 𝑐𝑚−1 𝑠 −1.
Common unit:- The most common unit of viscosity is the dyne second per square centimeter
(dyne second / cm2) which given the name poise (P) after the French physiologist Jean Louis Poiseuille
( 1799 – 1869).
1 pascal second = 10 poise.
1 centipoise = 1 milli pascal second.
Dimension:- Its dimension is [ML−1 T −1 ].
Factors:- Its value depends upon the two factors which are
given below.
 Nature of the fluids.
 Temperature of the fluids.
Effect of temperature of on viscosity:-
Viscosity of gases increases with the increase in temperature
i-e 𝜂 ∝ T.
Reason:- 𝜂 depends upon the rate of diffusion.
1
Viscosity of liquids decrease with the increase in temperature i-e ∝ .
T
Reason:- 𝜂 depends upon the inter molecular force.
Examples:-
 Water is easy to flow having low viscosity.
 Honey is difficult to flow having high viscosity.
CO-EFFICENT OF VISCOSTIY OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES
MATERIAL VISCOSITY (Pa s) MATERIAL VISCOSITY (Pa s)
Air 1.8 x 10-5 Ethanol 1.00 x 10-3
Acetone 2.9 x 10-4 Blood 1.6 x 10-3
Methanol 5.1 x 10-4 Honey 1.42
-3
Benzene 1.00 x 10 Blood (at body 4.0 x 10-3
Water 8.91 x 10-3 temperature)
FLUID FRICTION:-
Definition:- The force which resists the motion of a body moving through the fluid is known as
fluid friction. OR

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 CLASS 1ST YEAR PHYSICS NOTES WRITTEN BY MR SAMIULLAH MOB # 0344-9167826
The force which opposes the motion of a body moving in a fluid is known as fluid friction. OR
The resistance offered by fluids to the motion of an objects or bodies is known as fluid friction. OR
The opposing force exerted on a solid body due to the viscosity of the fluid is known as fluid friction.
Other Name:- It is also called drag force.
Symbol:- It is denoted by "𝐹𝐷 ”.
Cause:- Fluid friction occurs when adjacent layers in a fluid
(gas or liquid) are moving at different velocities.
Example:- When we stick out our hand out of the window of a fast moving car, we feel a force
opposite to our motion.
Unit:- Its S.I unit is newton (N).
Dimension:- Its dimension is [𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 ].
Factors:- The viscous drag force depends upon the
 Size of objects.
 Shape of objects.
 Orientation of objects.
 Viscosity of fluid.
 Relative speed of the objects respect to fluid and viscosity of fluids.
Note:- Drag force on spherical body is determined by Stokes law.
STOCKE’S LAW:-
History:- This law was presented by a British Scientist Sir
George G. Stokes in 1851.
Purpose:- To find the magnitude of drag force on a spherical
body moving in fluids.
Statement:- The magnitude of drag force acting on a slowly
moving spherical body inside a fluid is directly proportional to the
radius and velocity of the spherical body and the viscosity of the
fluid.
Mathematical Form:- From the above statement
FD ∝ η ………………(i)
FD ∝ r ………………(ii)
FD ∝ v ……………(iii)
By combining equations (i), (ii) and (iii) we get
FD ∝ ηrv
FD = constant (ηrv)
FD = k (ηrv)
FD = kηrv ……………………(iv)
In equation (iv) “k” is the constant of proportionality constant which is equal to 6 𝜋. So the above
equation becomes,
FD = 6π(ηrv)
FD = 6πηrv ……………………… (v)
Equation (v) represents the mathematical form of Stock’s law.
Limitation:- This law is only valid for
 Spherical bodies moving slowly.
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 Spherical bodies must be smooth and rigid.
IMPORTANCE OF STOKE’S LAW:-
 It is used to find the viscosity of a fluid.
 It is used to find the size of small particles.
 It is used in Millikan’s experiment for the measurement of charge on an electron.
 It is useful in the consideration of geological processes in which the rate of sedimentation is
important.
Note:- It must be noted that
 FD ∝ v at low speed.
 At high speed drag force is proportional to about square of the speed.
TERMINAL VELOCITY
Definition:- The maximum constant velocity of the body when forward
directed forces are balanced by backward forces is known as terminal velocity.
OR
The maximum constant velocity of an object falling vertically downward for
which drag force become equal to its weight is known as terminal velocity.
Symbol:- It is denoted by “VT ”.
Mathematical Form:-
𝐦𝐠
VT =
𝟔𝛑𝛈𝐫
Unit:- Its SI unit is m/s.
Example:- When a paratrooper jumps from maximum height, he attains the terminal velocity and
falls with constant velocity.
Explanation:- Consider a rain droplet of mass “m” is
falling vertically downward. Air exerts a drag force in the
upward direction.
Net force on droplet:-
Net force = Weight – Drag force
Net force= Fnet = W – FD ………. (1)
Mathematical Derivation:- As the droplet moves
downward its speed continuously increases. After some time the drag force becomes equal to the
weight of the droplet i-e.
FD = W = mg …………….. (2)
At this stage:-
 Net force = Fnet = 0
 Acceleration = a = 0
 Rain droplet moves with constant velocity
called terminal velocity i-e V = Vt
Then equation (1) becomes.
0 = W – FD
OR FD = W ………. (3)
Here FD = 6πηrvT and W = mg then equation (3) becomes.
6πηrvT = mg

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 CLASS 1ST YEAR PHYSICS NOTES WRITTEN BY MR SAMIULLAH MOB # 0344-9167826
mg
OR vT = ………… (4)
6πη r
Equation (4) represents the terminal velocity of rain droplet in term of mass.
Terminal velocity in term of density:-
As we know that
m
Density = 𝜌 = OR m = 𝜌V ……….. (5)
V
4
Volume of sphere = V = 𝜋 𝑟 3 then equation (5) becomes.
3
4 3
m = 𝜌 x 𝜋 𝑟 …………. (6)
3
Now by putting equation (6) in equation (4) we get.
4
𝜌 x 𝜋 𝑟 3𝑔 4 𝜌 𝜋 𝑟 3𝑔 4 𝜌 𝑟 2𝑔 2 𝜌 g 𝑟2
3
vT = = = =
6𝜋𝜂 𝑟 3 × 6𝜋𝜂 𝑟 18 𝜂 9𝜂
2 𝜌 g 𝑟2
vT = …………………… (7)
9𝜂
Equation (7) represents the terminal velocity of the rain droplet in terms of density.
Results:- From equation (7) it is cleared that the vT depends upon the
 Size of object.
 Shape of object.
 Orientation of object.
 The co-efficient of viscosity of the medium and speed.
Notes:- Two bodies a heavy and lighter are falling through a viscous medium.
 Lighter body achieves VT first.
 Heavier body has greater VT than lighter.
Graphical representation of terminal velocity:-
The graphical representation of terminal velocity is shown in
figure. The graph shows that the velocity increases with the
passage of time and finally becomes constant.
Why fog droplets appear to be suspended in air?
Ans: Statement:- Fog droplets appear to be suspended in air.
Reason:- It because of 𝑉𝑡 ∝ mg.
Explanation:- As we know that
mg
Vt = …………. (i)
6π ηr
From equation (i) it is cleared that 𝑉𝑡 ∝ mg.
Greater the weight greater will be the terminal velocity and vice versa.
As the weight of a fog droplet is very small, the drag force becomes equal to the its weight very
quickly. Thus the terminal velocity is very small and hence the droplet appears to be suspended.
Conclusion:- As conclusion we find that Fog droplets appear to be suspended in air.
TERMINAL SPEEDS FOR VARIOUS OBJECT FALLING THROUGH AIR
OBJECT MASS (kg) CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA (m2) TERMINAL SPEED (m/s)
Sky diver 70 0.70 54
-3
Base-Ball (radius 3.7 cm) 0.145 4.2 x 10 43
-3
Golf-Ball (radius 2.1 cm) 0.046 1.4 x 10 44
-4 -5
Hail-stone (radius 0.5 cm) 4.8 x 10 7.9 x 10 14
-5 -5
Rain drop (radius 0.2 cm) 4.8 x 10 1.3 x 10 09
GOLDEN POINTS:-
FLOW:- The continuous nature of motion of particles where we cannot count them.
LAYER:- The path on which fluid particles move is known as layer.
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FLUIDITY:- The reciprocal of viscosity is known as fluidity.
FLUID FLOW:-
Definition:- Fluid flow means fluid in motion.
Examples:-
 The rise of smoke from a burning cigarette.
 The flow of river in flood.
 The flow of water in a pipe.
 The flow of blood in arteries.
 The transport of oil pipelines.
 The lava flow etc.
TYPES OF FLUID FLOW
There are two types of fluid flow which are given below.
(1). Laminar flow.
(2). Turbulent flow.
1. LAMINAR FLOW
Definition:- The regular or steady flow of the fluid is known as laminar
flow.
Other Name:- It is also called streamline flow.
Explanation:- In laminar flow
 The fluid particles moves along a smooth path called streamlines.
 The different streamlines cannot across each other.
 The velocity of the fluid remains constant.
 The density and pressure at each point do not change with time.
Examples:-
 The flow of water through a pipe.
 Motion of racing car.
 Motion of Dolphins body in water.
2.TURBULENT FLOW
Definition:- The irregular or unsteady flow of the fluid is known as turbulent flow.
Other Name:- It is also called disorder flow.
Explanation:- In turbulent flow
 The exact path of the particles cannot be predicted.
 The different streamlines can across each other.
 The velocity of the fluid changes abruptly.
 The density and pressure at each point change with time.
Examples:-
 The flow of blood in arteries.
 The transport of oil pipelines.
 The lava flow.
 The atmosphere and ocean currents.
 The flow of through pumps and turbines.
 Smoke cigarette.
 The flow in boat wakes and around aircraft-wings tips etc.

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 CLASS 1ST YEAR PHYSICS NOTES WRITTEN BY MR SAMIULLAH MOB # 0344-9167826
IDEAL FLUID
A fluid is said to be an ideal fluid, if it satisfies the following conditons.
1. It is non-viscous. i-e which means that the viscosity of the fluid is zero.
2. It is incompressible. i-e which means that its density is constant.
3. Its flow is steady. i-e which means that fluid speed is steady.
4. Its flow is irrotational.
5. Its temperature do not vary.
EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
Purpose:- To express the relationship between mass flow rates at different points in a fluid system
under steady state flow conditions.
Base:- It is based on law of conservation of mass.
Statement:- For an ideal fluid, the product of cross sectional area (A) of the pipe and the fluid
speed (v) at any point along the pipe is constant.
Mathematical Form:-
A1 v1 = A2 v2 = Constant
Derivation:- Consider an ideal fluid flowing through a
pipe of non-uniform size. The particles in the fluid move
along the streamlines in a steady state flow as shown in
figure.
At lower end of the pipe:-
 Area of cross-section of the pipe = A1
 Distance covered by the fluid in ∆t = ∆x1
KEY POINTS
 Velocity of the fluid = 𝑣1 1 ∆𝒎𝟏
𝝆𝟏 = or ∆𝒎𝟏 = 𝝆𝟏 𝑽𝟏
 Density of the fluid = 𝜌1 𝑽𝟏
2 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑨𝟏 ∆𝒙𝟏
 Volume of the fluid = 𝑉1
3 ∆𝒙𝟏 = 𝒗𝟏 ∆𝒕
 Mass of the fluid = ∆𝑚1
Then
∆𝑚1 = 𝜌1 𝑉1 = 𝜌1 𝐴1 ∆𝑥1 = 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑣1 ∆𝑡
∆m1 = ρ1 A1 v1 ∆t …… (1)
At upper end of the pipe:-
 Area of cross-section of the pipe = 𝐴2
 Distance covered by the fluid in ∆𝑡 = ∆𝑥2
 Velocity of the fluid = 𝑣2
 Density of the fluid = 𝜌2
 Volume of the fluid = 𝑉2
 Mass of the fluid = ∆𝑚2
Then
∆𝑚2 = 𝜌2 𝑉2 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 ∆𝑥2 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑣2 ∆𝑡
∆m2 = ρ2 A2 v2 ∆t ………(2)
 In steady flow, the total mass in the pipe is constant. Thus
∆m1 = ∆m2
ρ1 A1 v1 ∆t = ρ2 A2 v2 ∆t …… (3)
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 For ideal fluid the density is constant i-e 𝜌1 = 𝜌2 = 𝜌 then equation (3) become
ρA1 v1 ∆t = ρA2 v2 ∆t
OR
A1 v1 = A2 v2 ……… (4)
OR
Av = Constant ……… (5)
Conclusion:- Equation (4) and (5)
 Represents the equation of continuity.
 They show that the volume flow rate across any cross-section of flow tube remains constant.
Examples related to equation of continuity:-
 Flowing of fluids in pipes.
 Flowing of gases in pipes and tubes.
 Flowing of blood in aorta and capillaries etc.
1
SHOW THAT v ∝
𝐴
From equation of continuity we have
v1 A1
A1 v1 = A2 v2 or = ……… (A)
v2 A2
In general from equation of (A) can be written as
1
v∝ ……….. (B)
A
Conclusion:-
1
 The speed of fluid through any pipe ∝
cross−section area of the pipe.
SHOW THAT VOLUME FLOW RATE IS CONSTANT
OR
∆𝑉
= constant
∆𝑡
Proof:- As we know that
A1 v1 = A2 v2 = constant …………. (1)
In general from equation (1) can be written as
Av = Constant …………. (2)
∆x
As we know that v = velocity = then equation (2) becomes.
∆t
∆x ∆
A. = Constant OR (A . x) = Constant.
∆t ∆𝑡
∆ ∆
(Volume) = Constant. OR (V) = Constant. As A . x = Volume = V
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
∆V
= Constant ……………(3).
∆t
Equation (3) shows that the volume flow rate ( or time rate of flow of volume) is constant.
The volume of an incompressible fluid passing through any point in unit time through a pipe of non-
uniform cross-section is constant in the steady flow.
Note:- Pressure of liquids:
 At rest: P = 𝜌gh
 Moving upward: P = 𝜌h( g + a).
 Moving downward: P = P = 𝜌h( g - a).
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
History:- This equation was derived by a Swiss Physicist Daniel Bernoulli in 1738.

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1
Purpose:- To relates the pressure of a fluid to its speed and height i-e V ∝ .
P
Base:- This equation is based on law of conservation of energy.
Statement:- It is the relationship between the pressure, flow speed and height for flow of an ideal
fluid. OR
For a steady flow of an ideal fluid, the sum of pressure,
kinetic energy per unit volume and potential energy per
unit volume remains constant.
Mathematical from:-
1 1
P1 + ρV12 + ρgV12 = P2 + ρV22 + ρgV22
2 2
Derivation:- Consider an ideal fluid flow through a pipe
of non-uniform size as shown in the figure.
FOR WORK:-
WORK DONE AT END (1):-
Area of cross-section of the pipe = A1
Pressure of fluid = P1
Height = h1
Force exerted on fluid = F1
Distance covered by the fluid in ∆t = ∆x1
Velocity of the fluid = v1
Density of the fluid = 𝛒
Volume of the fluid = V
Work done at A1 :-
W1 = F1 ∆x1 …….. (1)
F1
W1 = P1 A1 ∆x1 …(2) As P1 = or F1 = P1 A1
A1
∆x1
W1 = P1 A1 v1 ∆t ……… (3) As v1 = OR ∆x1 = v1 ∆t
∆t
WORK DONE AT END (2):-
Area of cross-section of the pipe = A2
Pressure of fluid = P2
Height = h1
Force exerted on fluid = F2
Distance covered by the fluid in ∆t = ∆x2
Velocity of the fluid = v2
Density of the fluid = 𝛒
Volume of the fluid = V
Work done at A2 :-
W2 = F2 ∆x2 …….. (4)
F2
W2 = P2 A2 ∆x2 …(5) As P2 = or F2 = P2 A2
A2
∆x2
W2 = - P2 A2 v2 ∆t ……… (6) As v2 = OR ∆x2 = v2 ∆t
∆t
NET WORK DONE:-
W = W 1 + W2
W = P1 A1 v1 ∆t + (- P2 A2 v2 ∆t )
W = P1 A1 v1 ∆t - P2 A2 v2 ∆t ……… (7)
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From equation of continuity:-
A1v1 = A1v2 ………. (8)
By putting eq (8) in eq (7) we get.
W = P1 A1 v1 ∆t - P2 A2 v2 ∆t
W = P1 A1 ∆x1 - P2 A2 ∆x2
m m
W = P1 V - P2 V = V (P1 - P2 ) = (P1 - P2 ) 𝛒 = ⇒ V = m𝛒
ρ V
m
W = (P1 - P2 ) …….. (9)
ρ
FOR KINETIC ENERGY (K.E):-
Change in K.E = ∆ K.E = ∆ K.E1 - ∆ K.E2
1 1
∆ K.E = mv12 - mv22 ……….. (10)
2 2
FOR POTENTIAL ENERGY (P.E):-
Change in P.E = ∆ P.E = ∆ P.E1 - ∆ P.E2
∆ P.E = mgh1 - mgh2 ……….. (11)
By law of conservation of energy
W = ∆ K.E + ∆ P.E
m 1 1
(P1 - P2 ) = mv12 - mv22 + mgh1 - mgh2 …… (12)
ρ 2 2
ρ
By multiplying by on both sides of eq (12) we get.
m
1 1
P1 - P2 = mv12 - ρv22 + 𝛒gh1 - 𝛒gh2
2 2
1 1
P1 + ρv12 + 𝛒gh1 = P2 + ρv22 + 𝛒gh2
2 2
1
In general:- P + ρ v2 + 𝛒g h = Constant ………. (13)
2
Equation (13) represents the BERNOULLI’S EQUATION.
APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

1. Filter pump.
2. Atomizers.
3. Torricelli’s theorem.
4. Venture meter.
5. Aero foil.
6. Blood flow.
FILTER PUMPS:-
Definition:- It is a device which used to produce partial vacuum in
vessel attached to it.
Purpose:- To transfer liquids from low pressure zone to high
pressure zones.
Principle:- Its basic principle is Bernoulli’s equation.
Construction:- It consists of
 Tube.
 Nozzle.
 Water jet.
 Vessel (Particle vacuum).
Working:-
 When water reaches from jet section its speed increases, as a result the pressure drops near it.

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 This drop in pressure allows air to flow in from the side tube to which the vessel is connected.
 Thus air and water are forced at the bottom of the filter pump.
 In this way a partial vacuum is created in the vessel attached to it.
ATOMIZERS:-
Definition:- It is a device for emitting water, perfume or other liquids as a fine spray.
Construction:- It consists of
 Storage tank.
 Tube.
 Nozzle.
 Jet.
 Bulb.
Principle:- Its basic principle is Bernoulli’s equation.
Working:-
 A stream of air passing over one end of an open tube.
 The other end of which is immersed in a liquid, reduces the pressure
above the tube.
 This reduction in pressure causes the liquid to rise into air stream.
 The liquid is then dispersed into a fine spray of droplets.
Uses:- It is used in
 Perfume bottles.
 Engine carburetor.
 Water filter pump.
 Paint sprayers etc.
TORRICELLI’S:-
Purpose:- To find the speed of efflux coming out of a small
orifice / hole / opening.
Statement:-The speed of efflux is equal to the velocity gained
by the fluid in falling through height “h” under the action of
gravity.
V = √2gh
Other Name:- It is also called speed efflux.
Explanation:- Consider a large storage tank, which develop a
leak at the bottom as shown in figure.
From Bernoulli’s Equation
1 1
P1 + ρV12 + ρgℎ1 = P2 + ρV22 + ρgℎ2 ……… (1)
2 2
By substituting appropriate values in equation (1) we get.
1 1
P + ρ(0)2 + ρgh1 = P + ρv 2 + ρgh2
2 2
1
P + ρgh1 = P + ρv 2 + ρgh2 ……….. (2)
2
On re-arranging of equation (2) we get.
1
P – P + ρgh1 - ρgh2 = ρv 2
2
1 2
ρgh1 - ρgh2 = ρv
2
1 1
ρg (h1 - h2 ) = ρv 2 OR ρg h = ρv 2
2 2

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1
g h = v 2 OR 2 g h = v 2 OR √2 g h = √v 2
2
v = √2 g h ………. (3)
 Equation (3) represents the speed of efflux of fluid which flows out from small opening.
Results:- From Equation (3)
 Speed of efflux ∝ √h.
 Speed of efflux ∝ √g.
 Greater height of the opening from the surface of fluid greater will be the speed of efflux.
 Therefore one should make water tanks for greater heights as compared to larges diameters.
 For real fluid the speed of efflux is v < √2 g h .
Reason:- Some part of P.E of fluid falling through
height “h” will be lost due to drag force.
VENTURI METER:-
Definition:- It is a device which is used to measure
the flow speed or flow rate through a piping system.
Other Name:- It is also called
 Flow meter.
 Venture tube.
Construction:- It consists of
 Horizontal pipe system of non-uniform cross-section.
 Barometer.
Principle:- It works on the principle of Bernoulli’s Equation.
Explanation:- Suppose an ideal fluid is flowing through a horizontal pipe system of non-uniform
cross-section as shown in figure.
1 1
P1 + ρV12 + ρgh = P2 + ρV22 + ρgh
2 2
12 1 2
P1 + ρV1 = P2 + ρV2
2 2
1 2 1
P1 - P2 = ρV2 - ρV12 …………. (1)
2 2
From equation of continuity
A1 v1
A1v1 = A2v2 OR v2 = ……. (2)
A2
By putting eq (2) in eq (1) we get
1 A1 v1 2 1
P1 - P2 = ρ [ ] - ρV12 ……. (3)
2 A2 2
1 A 2 1
P1 - P2 = ρv12 [ 1 ] - ρV12
2 A2 2
1 A 2 1
P1 - P2 = ρv12 [ 1 ] - ρV12
2 A2 2
1 A1 2
P1 - P2 = ρ [( ) − 1] v12
2 A2

2(P1 − P2 ) 2(P1 − P2 ) 2(P1 − P2 ) 2(P1 − P2 )

v12 = =√ = =
A
ρ[( 1 )2 −1]
A2
A
𝜌[( 1 )2 −1]
A2
√ 𝐴2
𝜌[ 12 −1]
√ 𝜌[𝐴21−𝐴22]
𝐴2 𝐴2
2

2(𝑃1 −𝑃2 )×𝐴22 2(𝑃1 −𝑃2 )

V1 = √ = √𝐴22 X √
𝜌(𝐴21 −𝐴22 ) 𝜌(𝐴21 −𝐴22 )

2(𝑃 −𝑃 )
V1 = A 2 √ 12 22 ……….. (A)
𝜌(𝐴 −𝐴 ) 1 2

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 CLASS 1ST YEAR PHYSICS NOTES WRITTEN BY MR SAMIULLAH MOB # 0344-9167826
The equation (A) is used for speed in a pipe by Venturi’s meter when any barometer is used.
When no barometer is used and height of the fluid in smaller
equal diameter pipes attached to both the pipes and the neck
for the reference as shown in the figure.
By first condition of equilibrium.
P1-P2 = 𝛒gh ………. (B)
Put eq (B) in eq (A) we get.
2(ρgh)
V1 = A 2 √ 2 2
𝜌(𝐴 −𝐴 )
1 2

2(gh)
V1 = A 2 √ 2 2 ……… (C).
(𝐴 −𝐴 )
1 2
AERO-FOIL:-
Definition:- Any surface which provides aerodynamic force when it interact with a moving stream
of air is known as aero-foil. OR
The devices which are shaped so that the relative motion between it and the fluid produces a force
perpendicular to the flow are known as aero-foil.
Principle:- It works on the principle of Bernoulli’s Equation.
Explanation:- The shaped of aero-foil is made such that the fluid
speed at the top surface is greater than the bottom (closer – shaped
lines) as shown in figure. An aero-foil shaped body move through a
fluid produces an aerodynamic force. The component of this force
perpendicular to the direction of motion is called drag.
Uses:- Aero-foils are found in
 Aero-plane wings.
 Helicopters.
 Sail-boats.
 Propellers.
 Fans compressors.
 Turbines.
BLOOD FLOW:-
BLOOD:-
Definition:-It is an incompressible fluid.
Density:- Its density is nearly equal to that of water.
Explanation:-
∆𝑉
 The volume flow rate for laminar flow of a viscous through a horizontal, cylinder pipe depends
∆𝑡
on its radius.
 Blood flow in the human body depends upon the radius of its arteries as shown in figure.
Blood vessels:- The path way in the body of higher animals in which blood flows from or to the heart
known as blood vessels.
Types of blood vessels:-
 Arteries.
 Veins.
 Capillaries.

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 CLASS 1ST YEAR PHYSICS NOTES WRITTEN BY MR SAMIULLAH MOB # 0344-9167826
Blood pressure:- The pressure exerted by the circulating blood on the walls of the blood vessels is
called blood pressure.
Unit:- Blood pressure is measured in torr or in mm of Hg.
Measurement of blood pressure:-
The blood pressure of a person is measured using a device called sphygmomanometer.
Note:-
 If the radius of arteries is reduced as a result of
arteriosclerosis (thickness and hardening of artery walls) and
by cholesterol buildup, the pressure must be increased to
maintain in the same flow rate.
 If the radius is reduced by half, the heart would have to
increase the pressure by a factor of about 24 = 16 in order to
maintain the same blood flow rate.
 The heart must work much harder under these conditions,
but usually cannot maintain the original flow rate.
 The pressure is lower where the fluid (blood) is flowing faster.
 The pressure difference can dislodge the plaque.
 The plaque can then lodge in and block a smaller artery which can cause heart attack.
Explain the working of a carburetor of a motor car using Bernoulli’s principle.
Answer: The carburetor of a motor car uses a Venturi duct to give correct mixture of air and petrol to
the engine. The petrol tank is attached with a pipe through a very small inlet. Air moves very fast
through this pipe. As a result, pressure in the pipe decreases as compared to the pressure in the
petrol tank which is at the atmospheric pressure. So the petrol moves from the tank to the air pipe
(i.e., from high pressure to low pressure), and a correct mixture of petrol and air reaches the engine.
In an orbiting space station, would the blood pressure in major arteries in the leg ever be greater
than the blood pressure in major arteries in the neck?
Answer: No. Due to lack of force of gravity, (as we use to experience on the earth) The blood
pressure in major arteries in the leg will be equal than in arteries in the neck, due to weightlessness.
Two row boats moving parallel in the same direction are pulled towards each other. Explain?
Answer: When two boats are moving parallel in the same direction, then the water between them is
also flowing fast. According to consequence of Bernoulli Equation, “where the speed is high, the
pressure will be low, the pressure between the two boats decreases as compared to the pressure of
side way. So the side way high pressure pushes the two boats towards each other.
Explain, how the swing is produced in a fast moving cricket ball?
Answer: When the cricket ball is thrown in such a way that is spins as well as moves forward, the
velocity of the air on one side of the ball increases due to the spins and hence the pressure decreases.
So the cricket ball will experience push from high pressure region to low pressure region. This gives
an extra curvature to the ball known as swing which deceives opponent player.
A person is standing near a fast moving train. Is there any danger that he will fall towards it?
Answer: When a person is standing near a fast moving train, then the air between the person and
train is also fast. According to consequence of Bernoulli Equation, “where the speed is high, the
pressure will be low”, the pressure between the person and train will be low as compared to the
pressure of side way.
So there will be a chance of force acting on the person from high pressure region to the low pressure
region and the person may fall towards the train.

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 CLASS 1ST YEAR PHYSICS NOTES WRITTEN BY MR SAMIULLAH MOB # 0344-9167826
EXERCISE CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
1. From the top of a tall building, you drop two table – tennis balls, one filled with air and the
other with water. Which ball reaches terminal velocity first and why?
Ans: Statement:- When we drop two table – tennis balls from the top of a tall building such that
one is filled with air and the other with water then the ball filled with air will reaches to its terminal
velocity first.
Reason:- It is because of VT ∝ m.
mg
Explanation:- As we know that VT = ……………… (1)
6πηr
From equation (1) it is cleared that
 The terminal velocity of a body is directly proportional to the mass of the body.
 Greater the mass of a body greater will be its velocity for attaining terminal velocity and vice versa.
 As the ball filled with water is heavier than ball filled with air.
 Thus the ball filled with air will gain the terminal velocity first than ball filled with water due to
smaller mass.
Conclusion:- As conclusion we find that the ball filled with air will gain the terminal velocity first
than ball filled with water.
2. Why can a squirrel jump from a tree branch to the ground and run away undamaged, while a
human could break a bone is such a fall?
Ans: Statement:- A squirrel jump from a tree branch to the ground and run away undamaged,
while a human could break a bone is such a fall.
Reason:- It is because of VT ∝ m.
mg
Explanation:- As we know that VT = ……………… (1)
6πηr
From equation (1) it is cleared that
 The terminal velocity of a body is directly proportional to the mass of the body.
 Greater the mass of a body greater will be its velocity for attaining terminal velocity and vice versa.
 As the mass of squirrel is very less as compared to human.
 So when a squirrel jump from a tree branch to the ground, it remains safe due to low momentum
and low terminal velocity.
 On the other hand a human is heavier and thus possess high terminal velocity.
 So the human bone may break when he / she falls on the ground due to high terminal velocity and
larger momentum.
Conclusion:- As conclusion we find a squirrel jump from a tree branch to the ground and run
away undamaged, while a human could break a bone is such a fall.
3. How does the terminal speed of a parachutist before opening a parachute compare to the
terminal speed afterward? Why is there a difference?
Ans: Statement:- The terminal speed of a parachutist before opening a parachute is different
from its terminal speed afterward.
Reason:- It is because drag force (FD) ∝ Exposed area (A)
Explanation:- In fluid dynamics, the drag force experienced by a moving object which is
completely enveloped in fluid is
1
FD = ρv 2 CD A……………. (1)
2
From equation (1) it is cleared that:-
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 CLASS 1ST YEAR PHYSICS NOTES WRITTEN BY MR SAMIULLAH MOB # 0344-9167826
 The drag force experienced by a body moving in a fluid depends upon the exposed area (A) of the
body.
 Greater the exposed area (A) of the body greater will be the drag force (FD) on it and vice versa.
 The area of parachutist exposed to air is small before opening the parachute, hence the drag force
is also small and it will have high terminal velocity.
 The area of parachutist exposed to air is large after opening a parachute, hence the drag force is
also large and it will have less terminal velocity.
 The large area presented by the open chute results in a slower terminal speed, slow enough for a
safe landing.
Conclusion:- As conclusion we find that the terminal speed of a parachutist before opening a
parachute is different from its terminal speed afterward.
4. You can squirt water over a greater distance by placing your thumb over the ends of a garden
hose, than by leaving it completely uncovered. Explain how this work?
Ans: Statement:- Water squirt over a greater distance by placing a thumb over the ends of a
garden hose, than by leaving it completely uncovered.
1
Reason:- It is because velocity (v) ∝
A (area)
Explanation:- From equation of continuity
Av = Constant.
Constant
OR v ∝
A
1
OR v ∝ ………….. (1)
A
From relation (1) it cleared that:-
 Greater the area (A) less will be the speed (v) and vice versa.
 When the thumb is placed over the end of a garden hose, the area decreases which result in an
increase in velocity of water.
Conclusion:- As conclusion we find that Water squirt over a greater distance by placing a thumb
over the ends of a garden hose, than by leaving it completely uncovered.
5. Why does smoke rise faster in a chimney on a windy day?
Ans: Statement:- The smoke rise faster in a chimney on a windy day.
1
Reason:- It is because that speed of fluid ∝
pressure of fluid

1
V∝
𝑃

Explanation:- From Bernoulli’s equation “ Where the speed of fluid is high, the pressure will low
and vice versa. When the wind blows across the top of chimney, the pressure is less there than the
pressure inside the chimney. Thus the air and smoke are pushed up wards from high pressure to low
and rises upwards.
Conclusion:- As conclusion we find that Smoke rises in a chimney faster when a breeze is blowing.
6. Two boats moving in parallel paths close to one another risk colliding. Why?
Ans: Statement:- Two boats moving in parallel paths close to one another risk colliding.
1
Reason:- It is because that Speed of fluid ∝
pressure of fluid

𝟏
V∝
𝑷

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 CLASS 1ST YEAR PHYSICS NOTES WRITTEN BY MR SAMIULLAH MOB # 0344-9167826
Explanation:- From Bernoulli’s Principle
Where speed is high pressure will be low and vice versa
When two boats moving in parallel, the water streamlines between them will moves greater speed.
According to Bernoulli’s Principle Where speed is high pressure will be low and vice versa. During
this time the pressure the pressure between them becomes very low while the pressure on the other
sides of the boat becomes very high. Due to this pressure difference the boats feel a push from the
region of high pressure to the region of low pressure. Thus there is a risk of boats with each other.
Conclusion:- As conclusion we find that Two boats moving in parallel paths close to one another
risk colliding.
7. A cricket ball moves past an observer from left to right spinning counter-clockwise. In which
direction will the ball tend to deflect?
Ans: Statement:- A cricket ball moves past an observer from left
to right spinning counter-clockwise, then the ball will move away
from observer.
Reason:- It is because that
1
Speed of fluid ∝
pressure of fluid
𝟏
V∝
𝑷

Explanation:- From Bernoulli’s Principle

Where speed is high pressure will be low and vice versa
 In a spinning ball the speed of air on its one side become high and the pressure of air will be low.
 On the other side of the ball the speed of air is low and pressure will be high.
 Hence a force acts on ball from higher pressure towards low pressure gives an extra curvature to
the ball.
Conclusion:- As conclusion we find that a cricket ball moves past an observer from left to right
spinning counter-clockwise, then the ball will move away from observer.
8. If aero-foil lift the aero-plane in upright position, how do the pilots make the aero-planes fly
upside down?
Ans: Statement:- The wings of aero-plane are designed in such a way that aero-foil is curved on
the upper side due to which pressure above the wing is lower than underneath. This pressure
difference allows the air to lift the wings upwards. In order to fly upside down, the wings of aero-
plane are designed in such a way that these are curved from, both, upper and lower sides i.e.
symmetric. Because of this pilot can fly the plane upside down just by altering the angle
9. Why do the golf balls have dimples?
Ans: Statement:- The golf balls have dimples.
Reason:- It is because to reduce the drag force.
Explanation:- In case of ball without dimples
the air passes smoothly with greater speed and
drag force is greater. Due to greater drag force is
slow down quickly and covers smaller distance.
While in case of dimples on golf ball create a thin
turbulent boundary layer of air that clings to the
ball’s surface and reduces the drag force.
Due to reduction of dragging force, the golf ball cannot de slowed down easily. As a result the golf
ball moves up in the air easily and travel larger distance as compared to a ball without dimples.
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 CLASS 1ST YEAR PHYSICS NOTES WRITTEN BY MR SAMIULLAH MOB # 0344-9167826
Conclusion:- As conclusion we find that the golf balls have dimples.
10. How by using wind deflectors on the top truck cabs reduce fuel consumption?
Ans: Statement:- By using wind deflectors on the top truck cabs reduce fuel consumption.
Reason:- It is because to reduce the drag force on the truck.
Explanation:- As we know that
FD = 6π𝜂 r v …………. (1)
From equation (1) it is cleared that the drag force of air on the truck depends upon
 The velocity of truck i-e FD ∝ v.
 Size of truck i-e FD ∝ r.
 Viscosity of medium in which is moving i-e FD ∝ η.
For same size of truck and with same speed, the drag force depends upon viscosity of the medium.
Wind deflector is a device that changes the air flow around the vehicle. An effective deflector will
reduce the air friction while the vehicle is in motion. As the drag force reduces, the truck needs less
energy (Fuel) to travel a large distance.
Conclusion:- As conclusion we find that by using wind deflectors on the top truck cabs reduce fuel
consumption.

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