Unit 4: Sensors and Instrumentation in Civil Engineering

➢ Overview of sensors and transducers

➢ Types of sensors relevant to civil engineering
➢ Data acquisition systems and instrumentation

Q: What are sensors?

Ans: A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the physical
environment. The input can be light, heat, motion, moisture, pressure or any number of other
environmental phenomena. The output is generally a signal that is converted to a human-readable
display at the sensor location or transmitted electronically over a network for reading or further
processing.

Q: What is a transducer?

Ans: A transducer is a specific type of sensor that converts one form of energy into another. For
instance, a pressure transducer converts pressure into an electrical signal.

Most sensors consist of: i. Sensing element: The component that reacts to the physical stimulus.

ii. Transducer: Converts the reaction into a measurable signal.

iii. Signal processing unit: Amplifies and converts the signal into a readable
format.

Q: What are the types of sensors?

Ans: A. Sensors can be categorized depending on the power source.

i. active sensor

ii. passive sensor

i. Active sensor: An active sensor is one that requires an external power source to be able to respond
to environmental input and generate output.

For example, sensors used in weather satellites often require some source of energy to provide
meteorological data about the Earth's atmosphere.

ii. Passive sensor: A passive sensor, on the other hand, doesn't require an external power source to
detect environmental input. It relies on the environment itself for its power, using sources such as light
or thermal energy.

A good example is the mercury-based glass thermometer. The mercury expands and contracts
in response to fluctuating temperatures, causing the level to be higher or lower in the glass tube.
External markings provide a human-readable gauge for viewing the temperature.

B. Another way in which sensors can be classified based on the type of output the sensors produce:

i. analog sensor

ii. digital sensor

i. Analog sensors: Analog sensors convert the environmental input into output analog signals, which
are continuous and varying.
 Thermocouples that are used in gas hot water heaters offer a good example of analog sensors.
The water heater's pilot light continuously heats the thermocouple. If the pilot light goes out, the
thermocouple cools, sending a different analog signal that indicates the gas should be shut off.

ii. Digital sensors: Digital sensors convert the environmental input into discrete digital signals that are
transmitted in a binary format (1s and 0s). Digital sensors have become quite common across all
industries, replacing analog sensors in many situations. For example, digital sensors are now used to
measure humidity, temperature, atmospheric pressure, air quality and many other types of
environmental phenomena.

*** As with active and passive sensors, some types of sensors -- such as thermal or pressure sensors -
- are available in both analog and digital forms

C. Sensors are also commonly categorized by the type of environmental factors they monitor:

i. Accelerometer: This type of sensor detects changes in gravitational acceleration, making it possible
to measure tilt, vibration and, of course, acceleration. Accelerometer sensors are used in a wide range
of industries, from consumer electronics to professional sports to aerospace and aviation.

ii. Chemical sensors: Detect a specific chemical substance within a medium (gas, liquid or solid). A
chemical sensor can be used to detect soil nutrient levels in a crop field, smoke or carbon monoxide in
a room, pH levels in a body of water, the amount of alcohol on someone's breath or in any number of
other scenarios. For example, an oxygen sensor in a car's emission control system will monitor the
gasoline-to-oxygen ratio, usually through a chemical reaction that generates voltage. A computer in
the engine compartment reads the voltage and, if the mixture is not optimal, readjusts the ratio.

iii. Humidity: These sensors can detect the level of water vapors in the air to determine the relative
humidity. Humidity sensors often include temperature readings because relative humidity is
dependent on the air temperature. The sensors are used in a wide range of industries and settings,
including agriculture, manufacturing, data centers, meteorology, and heating, ventilation and air
conditioning (HVAC).

iv. Level sensor: It can determine the level of a physical substance such as water, fuel, coolant, grain,
fertilizer or waste. Motorists, for example, rely on their gas level sensors to ensure they don't end up
stranded on the side of the road. Level sensors are also used in tsunami warning systems.

v. Motion sensors: Motion detectors can sense physical movement in a defined space (the field of
detection) and can be used to control lights, cameras, parking gates, water faucets, security systems,
automatic door openers and numerous other systems. The sensors typically send out some type of
energy -- such as microwaves, ultrasonic waves or light beams -- and can detect when the flow of
energy is interrupted by something entering its path.

vi. Optical sensors: Optical sensors, also called photosensors, can detect light waves at different points
in the light spectrum, including ultraviolet light, visible light and infrared light. Optical sensors are used
extensively in smartphones, robotics, Blu-ray players, home security systems, medical devices and a
wide range of other systems.

vii. Pressure sensors: These sensors detect the pressure of a liquid or gas, and are used extensively in
machinery, automobiles, aircraft, HVAC systems and other environments. They also play an important
role in meteorology by measuring the atmospheric pressure. In addition, pressure sensors can be used
to monitor the flow of gases or liquids, often so that the flow can be regulated.
viii. Proximity sensors: Proximity sensors detect the presence of an object or determine the distance
between objects. Proximity monitors are used in elevators, assembly lines, parking lots, retail stores,
automobiles, robotics and numerous other environments.

ix. Temperature sensors: These sensors can identify the temperature of a target medium, whether
gas, liquid or air. Temperature sensors are used across a wide range of devices and environments, such
as appliances, machinery, aircraft, automobiles, computers, greenhouses, farms, thermostats and
many other devices.

x. Touch sensors: Touch sensing devices detect physical contact on a monitored surface. Touch sensors
are used extensively in electronic devices to support trackpad and touchscreen technologies. They're
also used in many other systems, such as elevators, robotics and soap dispensers.

xi. Strain Gauges: Measure deformation or strain on materials used in bridges, buildings, and other
structures.

xii. Displacement Sensors: These sensors measure movement between two points. Examples include
Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDT) for fine measurements of displacement in structural
components.

Data Acquisition Systems and Instrumentation

Data Acquisition Systems (DAQ) are an integral part of modern sensor technology in civil engineering.
They consist of sensors, signal conditioning circuits, and data processing systems that collect, store,
and analyze data from various sensors.

Two types:

i. Real-time Monitoring: Continuous assessment of structural integrity, allowing for

immediate responses to potentially catastrophic changes.

ii. Long-term Data Collection: Enables trend analysis, helping predict future changes and
maintenance needs.

Applications:

a. Structural Health Monitoring (SHM): Ongoing analysis of various structural parameters in real-
time to detect changes that might indicate faults or structural failure.

b. Environmental Monitoring: Measures environmental impacts on structures and compliance with

environmental regulations.

c. Construction Monitoring: Ensures structures are built according to specifications and helps in
quality control.
Unit 5: Digital Electronics and Control Systems

➢ Basics of digital electronics

➢ Logic gates and digital circuits
➢ Introduction to control systems in civil engineering applications

What is Analog Electronics?

Ans: Analog electronics is the branch of electronics that deals with the electronic systems and
devices with the continuous time signals. The term ‘analog or analogue’ describes a proportional
relationship between a signal and an electrical quantity (voltage or current) that represents the
signal.

Basically, the term ‘analogue’ is a Greek word whose meaning is ‘proportional’. The analog
electronics is extensively used in many electronic applications where the signals are derived from
analog sensors such as in FM radios, TVs, telephones, etc. However, the analog electronics is more
susceptible for noise and distortion.

In analog electronics, two types of components are used to design the systems which are:
the active elements such as diode, transistors, etc. and the passive elements such as resistors,
capacitors, inductors, etc.

What is Digital Electronics?

Ans: The field of electronics engineering which involves the study of electronic systems that uses
digital signals or discrete time signals is called digital electronics.

Digital electronics systems are usually made from a combination of logic gates, often
packaged in an integrated circuit (IC). The digital electronics uses binary logic function to perform
operations, the basic mean of binary logic function is that it has only two states ‘active high’ and
‘active low’.

Digital electronics uses active components only. One of the most common application of
digital electronics is in computers.

Difference between Analog Electronics and Digital Electronics

Basis of Difference Analog Electronics Digital Electronics

Definition Analog electronics is the Digital electronics is the branch

branch of electronics which of electronics that deals with
deals with the study of systems the study of systems with
with analog signals. digital signals.

Type of signal used Analog electronics involves the Digital electronics uses discrete
use of continuous time (analog) time signals or two state
signals. signals.

Components used Analog electronics mostly uses Digital electronics uses active
passive circuit components like elements only.
resistors, capacitors, etc. But
sometimes, active components
like transistors are also used.
 Power consumption Analog electronic systems Digital electronic systems
consumes more power. consumes comparatively less
power.
Power loss Analog electronics have some There is no power loss in case
(however low) power loss. of digital electronics.

Voltage & current Analog electronics use The voltage and current used in
relatively high voltage and high digital electronics are
current as compared to digital extremely low.
electronics.

Noise & distortion In analog electronics, high In digital electronics, there is

noise and distortion of signals is very low noise and distortion of
there. signals.
Safety In analog electronics, electrical In digital electronics, there is no
safety hazards are present, electrical safety hazards.
however they are very low.

Processes involved Analog electronics mainly deals Digital electronics mainly deal
with amplification, wireless with multiplexing, encoding,
transmission, rectification, etc. decoding, analyzing, switching,
of the continuous time signals. mixing, etc. of the discrete time
signals.

Used for The analog electronics mainly Digital electronics help in

help in capturing data from a analyzing the data of a system
system.
Applications Analog electronics is widely Digital electronics is extensively
used in radio and audio devices used in computers, data
such as FM radios, TVs, processing and storage,
telephones, etc. automation, digital watches
and many other digital devices.

Q: What is a Logic Gate?

Ans: A logic gate is an electronic circuit designed by using electronic components like diodes,
transistors, resistors, and more. As the name implies, a logic gate is designed to perform logical
operations in digital systems like computers, communication systems, etc.

Therefore, we can say that the building blocks of a digital circuit are logic gates, which
execute numerous logical operations that are required by any digital circuit. A logic gate can take two
or more inputs but only produce one output. The output of a logic gate depends on the combination
of inputs and the logical operation that the logic gate performs.

Logic gates use Boolean algebra to execute logical processes. Logic gates are found in nearly
every digital gadget we use on a regular basis. Logic gates are used in the architecture of our
telephones, laptops, tablets, and memory devices.
Types of Logic Gates

A logic gate is a digital gate that allows data to be manipulated. Logic gates, use logic to determine
whether or not to pass a signal. Logic gates, on the other hand, govern the flow of information based
on a set of rules.

The logic gates can be classified into the following major types:

A. Basic Logic Gates – There are three basic logic gates:

• AND Gate
• OR Gate
• NOT Gate

B. Universal Logic Gates – In digital electronics, the following two logic gates are considered as
universal logic gates:

• NOR Gate
• NAND Gate

C. Exclusive Logic Gates – The following two are the derived logic gates used in digital systems:

• XOR Gate
• XNOR Gate

A. Basic Logic Gates –

i. AND Gate: In digital electronics, the AND gate is one of the basic logic gates that performs the logical
multiplication of inputs applied to it. It generates a high or logic 1 output, only when all the inputs
applied to it are high or logic 1. Otherwise, the output of the AND gate is low or logic 0.

The following are two main properties of the AND gate:

i. AND gate can accept two or more than two input values at a time.
ii. When all of the inputs are logic 1, the output of this gate is logic 1.

The operation of an AND gate is described by a mathematical expression, which is called the Boolean
expression of the AND gate. For two-input AND gate, the Boolean expression is given by,

𝑍 = 𝐴.𝐵

where, A and B are inputs to the AND gate, while Z denotes the output of the AND gate. We can extend
this expression to any number of input variables, such as,

𝑍 = 𝐴.𝐵.𝐶.𝐷

Truth Table of AND Gate and its symbol (two input AND gate):

Input Output

A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
ii. OR Gate: In digital electronics, there is a type of basic logic gate which produces a low or logic 0
output only when its all inputs are low or logic 0. For all other input combinations, the output of the
OR gate is high or logic 1. This logic gate is termed as OR gate. An OR gate can be designed to have
two or more inputs but only one output. The primary function of the OR gate is to perform the
logical sum operation.

An OR gate have the following two properties:

i. It can have two or more input lines at a time.

ii. When all of the inputs to the OR gate are low or logic 0, the output of it is low or logic 0.

The operation of an OR gate can be mathematically described through a mathematical expression

called Boolean expression of the OR gate.

The boolean expression for a two input OR gate is given by,

Z=A+B

The boolean expression for a three-input OR gate is,

Z=A+B+C

Here, A, B, and C are inputs and Z is the output variables. We can extend this boolean expression to
any number of input variables.

Truth Table of OR Gate and its symbol (two input OR gate):

Input Output

A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

iii. NOT Gate: In digital electronics, the NOT gate is another basic logic gate used to perform
compliment of an input signal applied to it. It takes only one input and one output. The output of the
NOT gate is complement of the input applied to it. Therefore, if we apply a low or logic 0 output to the
NOT gate is gives a high or logic 1 output and vice-versa. The NOT gate is also known as inverter, as it
performs the inversion operation.

Properties of NOT Gate:

i. The output of a NOT gate is complement or inverse of the input applied to it.
ii. NOT gate takes only one output.

The logical operation of the NOT gate is described by its boolean expression, which is given below.

𝑍 = 𝐴̅

The bar over the input variable A represents the inversion operation.
Truth Table of NOT and its symbol:

Input Output

A Y
0 1
1 0

B. Universal Logic Gates –

i. NOR Gate: The NOR gate is a type of universal logic gate that can take two or more inputs but one
output. It is basically a combination of two basic logic gates i.e., OR gate and NOT gate. Thus, it can be
expressed as,

NOR Gate = OR Gate + NOT Gate

In other words, a NOR gate is an OR gate followed by a NOT gate.

Properties of NOR Gate:

i. A NOR gate can have two or more inputs and gives an output.
ii. A NOR gate gives a high or logic 1 output only when its all inputs are low or logic 0.

The boolean expression of a two input NOR gate is given below:

𝐶 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
A + B

We can extend this expression to any number of input variables. In the above boolean expressions,
the variables A and B are called input variables while the variable C is called the output variable.

Truth Table of NOR Gate:

Input Output

A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

ii. NAND Gate: In digital electronics, the NAND gate is another type of universal logic gate used to
perform logical operations. The NAND gate performs the inverted operation of the AND gate. Similar
to NOR gate, the NAND gate can also have two or more input lines but only one output line. The
NAND gate is also represented as a combination of two basic logic gates namely, AND gate and NOT
gate. Hence, it can be expressed as:

NAND Gate = AND Gate + NOT Gate

Properties of NAND Gate:

i. NAND gate can take two or more inputs at a time and produces one output based on the
combination of inputs applied.
ii. NAND gate produces a low or logic 0 output only when its all inputs are high or logic 1.
We can describe the expression of NAND gate through a mathematical equation called its boolean
expression. Here is the boolean expression of a two input NAND gate.

𝐶 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅
A .B

In this expression, A and B are the input variables and C is the output variable. We can extend this
relation to any number of input variables like three, four, or more.

Truth Table of NAND Gate:

Input Output

A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

The logic symbol of a NAND gate is represented as a AND gate with a bubble on its output end as
depicted in the following figure. It is the symbol of a two-input NAND gate.

C. Exclusive Logic Gates

i. XOR Gate: In digital electronics, there is a specially designed logic gate named, XOR gate, which is
used in digital circuits to perform modulo sum. It is also referred to as Exclusive OR gate or Ex-OR
gate. The XOR gate can take only two inputs at a time and give an output. The output of the XOR gate
is high or logic 1 only when its two inputs are dissimilar.

Properties of XOR Gate:

i. It can accept only two inputs at a time. There is nothing like a three or more input XOR gate.
ii. The output of the XOR gate is logic 1 or high, when its inputs are dissimilar.

The operation of the XOR gate can be described through a mathematical equation called its boolean
expression. The following is the boolean expression for the output of the XOR gate.

𝑍=𝐴⊕𝐵

Here, Z is the output variable, and A and B are the input variables. This expression can also be written
as follows:

𝑍 = A . 𝐵̅ + 𝐴̅. 𝐵

Truth Table of XOR Gate:

Input Output

A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
ii. XNOR Gate: The XNOR gate is another type of special purpose logic gate used to implement
exclusive operation in digital circuits. It is used to implement the Exclusive NOR operation in digital
circuits. It is also called the Ex-NOR or Exclusive NOR gate. It is a combination of two logic gates
namely, XOR gate and NOT gate. Thus, it can be expressed as,

XNOR Gate = XOR Gate + NOT Gate

The output of an XNOR gate is high or logic 1 when its both inputs are similar. Otherwise the output
is low or logic 0. Hence, the XNOR gate is used as a similarity detector circuit.

Properties of XNOR Gate:

i. XNOR gate takes only two inputs and produces one output.
ii. The output of the XNOR gate is high or logic 1 only when it has similar inputs.

The operation of XNOR gate can be described through a mathematical equation called the boolean
expression of XNOR gate. Here is the boolean expression of the XNOR gate.

𝑌=𝐴⊙𝐵

We can also write this expression as follows:

𝑍 = 𝐴. 𝐵 + 𝐴̅ . 𝐵̅

Here, the A and B are inputs and Y is the output.

Truth Table of XNOR Gate:

Input Output

A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
.

Applications of Logic Gates

Logic gates are the fundamental building blocks of all digital circuits and devices like computers. Here
are some key digital devices in which logic gates are utilized to design their circuits:

• Computers
• Microprocessors
• Microcontrollers
• Digital and smart watches
• Smartphones, etc.

Q: What are Universal gates?

Ans: To accomplish a specific logical process, universal gates are created by merging two or more
fundamental gates. Universal gates are NAND and NOR gates.

Q: Which logic gate is known as the “invertor”?

Ans: An invertor is also known as a NOT gate. The obtained output is the inverse of the input.
Boolean Algebra

Boolean algebra is a type of algebra that is created by operating the binary system. In the year 1854,
George Boole, an English mathematician, proposed this algebra. This is a variant of Aristotle’s
propositional logic that uses the symbols 0 and 1, or True and False. Boolean algebra is concerned with
binary variables and logic operations.

Boolean Algebra is fundamental in the development of digital electronics systems as they all use the
concept of Boolean Algebra to execute commands. Apart from digital electronics this algebra also finds
its application in Set Theory, Statistics, and other branches of mathematics

Boolean Expression and Variables

Boolean expression is an expression that produces a Boolean value when evaluated, i.e. it produces
either a true value or a false value. Whereas boolean variables are variables that store Boolean
numbers.

P + Q = R is a Boolean phrase in which P, Q, and R are Boolean variables that can only store
two values: 0 and 1. The 0 and 1 are the synonyms for false and True and are used in Boolen Algebra,
sometimes we also use “Yes” in place of True and “No” in place of False.

Some examples of Boolean expressions are,

A + B = True

A.B = True

(A)’ = False

Boolean Algebra: The branch of algebra that deals with binary operations or logical operations is called
Boolean Algebra.

Boolean Variables: Variables used in Boolean algebra that store the logical value of 0 and 1 are called
the boolean variables. They are used to store either true or false values.
Boolean Function: A function of the Boolean Algebra that is formed by the use of Boolean variables
and Boolean operators is called the Boolean function.

Literal: A variable or the complement of the variable in Boolean Algebra is called the Literal.

Complement: The inverse of the Boolean variable is called the complement of the variable. The
complement of 0 is 1 and the complement of 1 is 0. It is represented by ‘ over the variable.

Truth Table: Table containing all the possible values of the logical variables and the combination of
the variable along with the given operation is called the truth table. The number of rows in the truth
table depends on the total Boolean variables used in that function. It is given by using the formula,

A truth table represents all the combinations of input values and outputs in a tabular
manner. All the possibilities of the input and output are shown in it and hence the name truth table.
In logic problems, truth tables are commonly used to represent various cases. T or 1 denotes ‘True’ &
F or 0 denotes ‘False’ in the truth table.

Laws of Boolean Algebra:

Difference between combinational and sequential circuit

Combinational circuits are defined as the time independent circuits which do not depends
upon previous inputs to generate any output are termed as combinational circuits. Sequential circuits
are those which are dependent on clock cycles and depends on present as well as past inputs to
generate any output.

Combinational Circuit – In this output depends only upon present input.

• Speed is fast.
• It is designed easy.
• There is no feedback between input and output.
• This is time independent.
• Elementary building blocks: Logic gates
• Used for arithmetic as well as boolean operations.
• Combinational circuits don’t have capability to store any state.
• As combinational circuits don’t have clock, they don’t require triggering.
 • These circuits do not have any memory element.
• It is easy to use and handle.

Examples – Encoder, Decoder, Multiplexer, Demultiplexer

Block Diagram –

Sequential Circuit – In this output depends upon present as well as past input.

• Speed is slow.
• It is designed tough as compared to combinational circuits.
• There exists a feedback path between input and output.
• This is time dependent.
• Elementary building blocks: Flip-flops
• Mainly used for storing data.
• Sequential circuits have capability to store any state or to retain earlier state.
• As sequential circuits are clock dependent they need triggering.
• These circuits have memory element.
• It is not easy to use and handle.