What is a sensor?

A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the
physical environment. The input can be light, heat, motion, moisture, pressure
or any number of other environmental phenomena. The output is generally a
signal that is converted to a human-readable display at the sensor location
or transmitted electronically over a network for reading or further processing.

Sensors play a pivotal role in the internet of things (IoT). They make it
possible to create an ecosystem for collecting and processing data about a
specific environment so it can be monitored, managed and controlled more
easily and efficiently. IoT sensors are used in homes, out in the field, in
automobiles, on airplanes, in industrial settings and in other environments.
Sensors bridge the gap between the physical world and logical world, acting
as the eyes and ears for a computing infrastructure that analyzes and acts
upon the data collected from the sensors.

What are the types of sensors?

Sensors can be categorized in multiple ways. One common approach is to classify
them as either active or passive. An active sensor is one that requires an external
power source to be able to respond to environmental input and generate output. For
example, sensors used in weather satellites often require some source of energy to
provide meteorological data about the Earth's atmosphere.

A passive sensor, on the other hand, doesn't require an external power source to detect
environmental input. It relies on the environment itself for its power, using sources
such as light or thermal energy. A good example is the mercury-based glass
thermometer. The mercury expands and contracts in response to fluctuating
temperatures, causing the level to be higher or lower in the glass tube. External
markings provide a human-readable gauge for viewing the temperature.
Some types of sensors, such as seismic and infrared light sensors, are available in both
active and passive forms. The environment in which the sensor is deployed typically
determines which type is best suited for the application.

Another way in which sensors can be classified is by whether they're analog or digital,
based on the type of output the sensors produce. Analog sensors convert the
environmental input into output analog signals, which are continuous and varying.
Thermocouples that are used in gas hot water heaters offer a good example of analog
sensors. The water heater's pilot light continuously heats the thermocouple. If the pilot
light goes out, the thermocouple cools, sending a different analog signal that indicates
the gas should be shut off.

In contrast to analog sensors, digital sensors convert the environmental input into
discrete digital signals that are transmitted in a binary format (1s and 0s). Digital
sensors have become quite common across all industries, replacing analog sensors in
many situations. For example, digital sensors are now used to measure humidity,
temperature, atmospheric pressure, air quality and many other types of environmental
phenomena.

As with active and passive sensors, some types of sensors -- such as thermal or
pressure sensors -- are available in both analog and digital forms. In this case, too, the
environment in which the sensor will operate typically determines which is the best
option.

Sensors are also commonly categorized by the type of environmental factors they
monitor. Here are some common examples:

 Accelerometer. This type of sensor detects changes in gravitational acceleration,

making it possible to measure tilt, vibration and, of course, acceleration.
Accelerometer sensors are used in a wide range of industries, from consumer
electronics to professional sports to aerospace and aviation.
 Chemical. Chemical sensors detect a specific chemical substance within a
medium (gas, liquid or solid). A chemical sensor can be used to detect soil
nutrient levels in a crop field, smoke or carbon monoxide in a room, pH levels in a
body of water, the amount of alcohol on someone's breath or in any number of
other scenarios. For example, an oxygen sensor in a car's emission control system
will monitor the gasoline-to-oxygen ratio, usually through a chemical reaction
that generates voltage. A computer in the engine compartment reads the voltage
and, if the mixture is not optimal, readjusts the ratio.

 Humidity. These sensors can detect the level of water vapors in the air to
determine the relative humidity. Humidity sensors often include temperature
readings because relative humidity is dependent on the air temperature. The
sensors are used in a wide range of industries and settings, including agriculture,
manufacturing, data centers, meteorology, and heating, ventilation and air
conditioning (HVAC).

 Level. A level sensor can determine the level of a physical substance such as
water, fuel, coolant, grain, fertilizer or waste. Motorists, for example, rely on
their gas level sensors to ensure they don't end up stranded on the side of the
road. Level sensors are also used in tsunami warning systems.

 Motion. Motion detectors can sense physical movement in a defined space (the
field of detection) and can be used to control lights, cameras, parking gates,
water faucets, security systems, automatic door openers and numerous other
systems. The sensors typically send out some type of energy -- such as
microwaves, ultrasonic waves or light beams -- and can detect when the flow of
energy is interrupted by something entering its path.

 Optical. Optical sensors, also called photosensors, can detect light waves at
different points in the light spectrum, including ultraviolet light, visible light and
infrared light. Optical sensors are used extensively in smartphones, robotics, Blu-
ray players, home security systems, medical devices and a wide range of other
systems.
 Pressure. These sensors detect the pressure of a liquid or gas, and are used
extensively in machinery, automobiles, aircraft, HVAC systems and other
environments. They also play an important role in meteorology by measuring the
atmospheric pressure. In addition, pressure sensors can be used to monitor the
flow of gases or liquids, often so that the flow can be regulated.

 Proximity. Proximity sensors detect the presence of an object or determine the

distance between objects. Proximity monitors are used in elevators, assembly
lines, parking lots, retail stores, automobiles, robotics and numerous other
environments.

 Temperature. These sensors can identify the temperature of a target medium,

whether gas, liquid or air. Temperature sensors are used across a wide range of
devices and environments, such as appliances, machinery, aircraft, automobiles,
computers, greenhouses, farms, thermostats and many other devices.

 Touch. Touch sensing devices detect physical contact on a monitored surface.

Touch sensors are used extensively in electronic devices to
support trackpad and touchscreen technologies. They're also used in many other
systems, such as elevators, robotics and soap dispensers.

The above are only some of the various types of sensors being used across
environments and within devices. However, none of these categories are strictly black
and white; for example, a level sensor that tracks a material's level might also be
considered an optic or pressure sensor. There are also plenty of other types of sensors,
such as those that can detect load, strain, color, sound and a variety of other
conditions. Sensors have become so commonplace, in fact, that often their use is
barely noticed.

See also: smart sensor, sensor data, spatial sensing, proximity sensing, CMOS
sensor, sensor analytics, pressure sensor, collision sensor, wireless sensor
network, industrial internet of things, sensor hub.