Heat Transfer and

Thermodynamics
Lecture 5: Heat Transfer

© Spring 2024 – Dr. Rania Gamal

 References

● University Physics Volume 1, 2016

○ https://cnx.org/content/col12031/1.10
● University Physics Volume 2, 2016
○ https://cnx.org/content/col12074/1.9
 Table of Contents

● Heat transferred by Conduction.

● Steady state of flow of heat.
● Fundamental formulae in conduction.
● Conduction Through Composite Walls.
● Examples.
Heat Transfer Methods

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Heat transferred by Conduction
Heat transferred by Conduction

● The conduction is defined as the transfer of heat through an unequal heated body, without
visible motion of any part of the body. The phenomenon of the conduction of heat can be
understood, if we consider the condition of the molecules of the various parts of a metal
rod. Each of the molecules is vibrating about its equilibrium position. If one end of the rod
is heated, the molecules at this end vibrate faster (higher amplitude) depending on the
amount of the heat energy received. The to-and-fro motion of the molecules disturbs the
vibrating molecules in the next section of the rod and gives them additional energy, so that
they also begin to vibrate faster.

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Heat transferred by Conduction

● In this way a transfer of energy (heat) occurs from one section of the rod to the next,
until the other end of the rod is reached. Clearly, the temperature, T, of any cross-
section of the rod decreases as we go far away from the heated end of the rod. If in a
small part ∆𝑥 of the length of the rod, the change in temperature is ∆𝑇 , then we can
define a quantity called the "temperature gradient" g.

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Steady state of flow of heat

● Consider a metal bar AB. Its end A is supplied by a "source" of heat (e.g. steam) to
maintain its temperature, 𝑇1 , constant. The end is maintained also at a temperature
𝑇2 < 𝑇1 by means of a "sink" (e.g. a block of ice). Heat flows from the end A
through the bar to the end B. After some time, the temperature of each cross-section
is observed to be constant, and a "steady state" is now said to exist along the bar AB.

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Fundamental formulae in conduction
● Consider a thin parallel-sided slab of material of thickness ∆𝑥 and cross-sectional area 𝐴.
One of its faces is kept at temperature 𝑇 and the other at (𝑇 + ∆𝑥) . In steady state, heat
flows uniformly and normally into face 1 to face 2. If ∆𝑄 is the quantity of heat which
passes in time ∆𝑇 , the rate at which the heat flows is equal to ∆𝑄ൗ∆𝑇.
● It is found by experiments, in such uniformly steady flow of heat, that ∆𝑄ൗ∆𝑇 is
proportional to the cross-sectional area A and to the temperature gradient ∆𝑇Τ∆𝑥 .
∆𝑸 ∆𝑻
∝𝑨
∆𝒕 ∆𝑿
∆𝑸 ∆𝑻
𝑯= = 𝑲𝑨
∆𝒕 ∆𝑿 Heat conduction of solids

where K is a constant which depends on the nature of the material and is called the coefficient
of thermal conductivity.

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Fundamental formulae in conduction

● 𝐾 is defined as the quantity of heat per second flowing through the opposite faces of a
unit cube of the material in a steady state, when the temperature difference between
the opposite faces is one degree. The units of thermal conductivity 𝐾 is
J. 𝑠 −1 . 𝑚−1 . °𝐶 −1 .

● Materials having large 𝐾 are good conductors of heat, (e.g. metals), while those of
small 𝐾 are poor or bad conductors (e.g. wood, paper, wool, glass ….).

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Fundamental formulae in conduction

● Also, if the quantity of heat flowing during the time 𝑡 is Q and the temperatures of
two points on the bar, apart from each other by the distance d, are 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 (𝑇1 >
𝑇2 ), one can write for a uniformly steady flow of heat the following eq.:

𝑸 (𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟐 )
= 𝑲𝑨
𝒕 𝒅

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Conduction Through Composite Walls

● Consider two parallel-sided slabs 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 having the thickness 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 and
conductivities 𝐾1 and 𝐾2 respectively as shown in the figure. When the steady state has
been reached, consider the temperatures of the outer surface of 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 be 𝑇1 and 𝑇2
respectively, and 𝑇 to be the temperature of the interface where 𝑇1 > 𝑇2 . Then:
𝑑𝑄 𝐾1 𝐴(𝑇1 − 𝑇) 𝐾2 𝐴(𝑇 − 𝑇2 )
= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑥1 𝑥2
𝑑𝑄
where 𝐴 is the area of cross section of the slab and 𝑑𝑡
the rate of flow of heat 𝑇1 to 𝑇2 .

Composite walls (𝑻𝟏 > 𝑻𝟐 ).

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Example 1

● A steel bar 10 𝑐𝑚 long is welded end-to-end to a copper bar 20 cm long. Each bar
has a square cross section, 2 cm on a side. The free end of the steel bar is placed in
contact with steam at 100 ͦC , and the free end of the copper bar with ice at 0 ͦC.
Thermal conductivity of copper is 385 J. 𝑠 −1 . 𝑚−1 . °𝐶 −1 and Thermal conductivity of
steel is 50.2 J. 𝑠 −1 . 𝑚−1 . °𝐶 −1 . Find the temperature at the junction of the two bars
and the total rate of heat flow, when steady- state conditions have been reached.

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Solution

● The key to the solution is the fact that the rates of heat flow in the two bars must be
equal. Let T be the unknown junction temperature; equate the two expressions of rate
of heat therefore:
𝑑𝑄 𝐾𝑠 𝐴(100−𝑇) 𝐾𝑒 𝐴(𝑇−0)
𝐻= = =
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝑠 𝐿𝑒
The areas A are equal and may be divided out.
Substituting numerical values, we find
50.2(100 − 𝑇) 385(𝑇 − 0)
=
0.1 0.2
Rearranging and solving for T, we find
𝑇 = 20.7 °𝐶

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Solution

● The total heat current is now obtained by substituting this value for T back into either
of the above expressions:
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑇
𝐻= = 𝐾𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
50.2×(0.02)2 ×(100−20.7)
𝐻= = 15.9 𝐽. 𝑠 −1 = 15.9 𝑊 Or
0.1
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑇
𝐻= = 𝐾𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
385 × (0.02)2 × (20.7 − 0)
𝐻= = 15.9 𝐽. 𝑠 −1 = 15.9 𝑊
0.2

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Example 2

● In Example 1 above, suppose the two bars are separated; one end of each bar is
placed in contact with steam at 100 ͦ C, and the other end of each with ice at 0 ͦ C.
𝑑𝑄
What is the total rate of heat flow in the two bars?
𝑑𝑡

100 ͦ C

s C
10 cm 20 cm

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Solution

● In this case the bars are in parallel rather than in series. The total heat flow is the sum of
the flows in the two bars, and for each bar 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 100 − 0 = 100 °𝐶 . Thus
𝑑𝑄 𝐾𝑠 𝐴(𝑇2 −𝑇1 ) 𝐾 𝐴(𝑇 −𝑇 )
𝐻= = + 𝑒 2 1
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝑠 𝐿𝑒
50.2 × (0.02)2 × 100 385 × (0.02)2 × 100
𝐻= +
0.1 0.2

𝐻 = 20.1 + 77 = 97.1 𝐽. 𝑠 −1 = 97.1 𝑊

The heat flow in the copper bar is much greater than in the steel bar, even though it is longer,
because its thermal conductivity is much larger. The total heat flow is much larger than in
Example 1 because the full 100 ͦ C temperature difference appears across each bar.

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Thermal Conductivity

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Example 3

● A room has a wooden door of dimensions 200 × 100 × 4 𝑐𝑚, a circular glass
window of radius 20 𝑐𝑚 and 2 cm thick is inserted into it. Calculate the total rate of
heat flow through the door if the inside the room are 20 ͦC and the outside the room is
50 ͦC. Thermal conductivity of wood is 0.12 J . 𝑠 −1 . 𝑚−1 . °𝐶 −1 and Thermal
conductivity of glass is 0.8 J. 𝑠 −1 . 𝑚−1 . °𝐶 −1 .

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Solution

● 𝐴𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝜋 × 𝑟 2
● 𝐴𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 3.14 × (0.2)2 = 0.1256 𝑚2
● 𝐴𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 = 2 × 1 − 𝐴𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 2 −0.1256 = 1.87 𝑚2
● 𝐻 = 𝐻1 + 𝐻2
𝐾𝑤 𝐴(𝑇2 −𝑇1 ) 𝐾𝑔 𝐴(𝑇2 −𝑇1 )
● 𝐻= 𝐿𝑠
+
𝐿𝑒
0.12 × 1.87 × (50 − 20) 0.8 × 0.1256 × (50 − 20)
𝐻= +
0.04 0.02

𝐻 = 168.3 + 150.72 = 320.53 𝐽. 𝑠 −1 = 320.53 𝑊

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Example 4

● A solid wood door has dimensions 2.0 𝑚 0.8 𝑚 4 𝑐𝑚. Its thermal conductivity is 𝐾 =
0.04 𝐽. 𝑠 −1 . 𝑚−1 . °𝐶 −1 The inside air temperature is 20 ͦ 𝐶 and the outside air
temperature is −10 ͦ 𝐶.
a) What is the rate of heat flow through the door, assuming the surface
temperatures are those of the surrounding air?
b) By what factor is the heat flow increased if a window 0.5 𝑚 square is inserted,
assuming the glass is 0.5 𝑐𝑚 thick, and the surface temperatures are again those of
the surrounding air?

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Solution
𝑑𝑇
a) 𝐻 = 𝐾𝐴 𝑑𝑥
0.04 × (2 × 0.8) × (20 − (−10)
𝐻= = 48 𝑊
0.04
𝑑𝑇
𝑏) 𝐻𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤 = 𝐾𝐴
𝑑𝑥
0.8 × (0.5 × 0.5) × (20 − (−10)
𝐻= = 1200 𝑊
0.005

𝐴𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑟 = 𝐴𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑟 − 𝐴𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤 = 2 × 0.8 − (0.5 × 0.5) = 1.35 𝑚2

𝑑𝑇
𝐻𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑟 = 𝐾𝐴
𝑑𝑥
0.04 × 1.35 × (20 − (−10)
𝐻= = 40.5 𝑊
0.04
𝐻 = 𝐻𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑟 + 𝐻𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤
𝐻 = 40.5 + 1200 = 1240.5 𝑊
∆𝐻 = 𝐻𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑟+𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤 − 𝐻𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑟
∆𝐻 = 1240.5 − 48 = 1192.5 𝑊.

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