A.I. IS THE FUTURE OF COMPUTING!

Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Principles & Techniques

21CS2007

Dr.Naveen Sundar - 9843166880

Course Objectives
◻ 1. understand the various fundamental characteristics of Artificial Intelligence

(learn – big data, reasoning-medicine, self correction- Automated car)

◻ 2. learn to represent knowledge in solving AI problems (logic

–Preposition vs predicate, graph – entity(nodes) vs relationship(edges), CNN vs

RNN

◻ 3. introduce new approaches to solve a wide variety of research-oriented problem.

◻ 4. learn about the expert systems

 Course Outcomes
◻ 1. describe the basics of Artificial Intelligence.
◻ 2. identify the appropriate search algorithms for any AI problem
◻ 3. prepare appropriate knowledge-based rules to identify causal
relationships and conditional independence of a real-world
situation.
◻ 4. select the appropriate search method for identifying different
search spaces.
◻ 5. evaluate the working knowledge of reasoning in the presence of
incomplete and/or uncertain information.
◻ 6. produce the learning theory for expert systems
Module 1
 Module 2
(Problem Solving Methods)
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 Module 2
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 Module 2
(Problem Solving Methods)
 Module 3
(KNOWLEDGE AND
LOGICS)
Module 4 (KNOWLEDGE RULES)
 Module 5
(KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION)
Module 6 (LEARNING)
Defining Artificial Intelligence
◻ “AI is the study of how to make computers do things which, at the
moment, people do better.” (Rich) [Play chess]

◻ “AI is the part of computer science concerned with designing intelligent

computer systems, that is, systems that exhibit characteristics we associate
with intelligent human behavior.[Alexa, Siri – voice]
understanding language, reasoning, solving problems, and so on.” (Barr)

◻ “AI is the study of ideas which enable computers to do things which make
people seem intelligent.” (Winston)[Recommendation System]

◻ AI is the study of intelligence using the ideas and methods of

computation.” (Fahlman)[AI algorithm – Self driving cars]
Defining Artificial Intelligence
◻ “A bridge between art and science” (McCorduck) [Ex: AI-powered art
generators like DeepDream]

◻ “Tesler’s Theorem: AI is whatever hasn’t been done yet.” (Hofstadter) [AI

is evolving and encompasses new challenges]

◻ “AI is a field of science and engineering concerned with the computational

understanding of what is commonly called intelligent behavior, and with
the creation of artifacts that exhibit such behavior.” (Shapiro)[IBM
Watson natural language]
An Attempted Definition
◻ AI – the branch of computer science that is
concerned with the automation of intelligent behavior
(Luger & Stubblefield)

AI is based on theoretical and applied principles in

computer science like
■ Data structures for knowledge representation(Knowledge graph to show
relationship between people and place)
■ Algorithms of applying knowledge(AI algorithm)
■ Languages for algorithm implementation(Python & Java)
Brief Early History of AI
◻ Aristotle – 2000 years ago
The nature of world – changes frequently
Logics – certain propositions can be said as “true”
Modus ponens and reasoning system
■ Eg:- If we know that “All men are mortal” & “ Socrates is a man”,
then we can conclude that “Socrates is mortal”.
◻ Copernicus – 1543
Split between human mind and its surroundings – our ideas about the
world are distinct from its appearance
◻ Descrates (1680)
Developed the concepts of Thought and mind
our thoughts and ideas about the world are separate from how the world
actually appears.
Mental process can be formalized by mathematics
Modern History
◻ Formal logic
Leibniz – introduced formal logic & constructed a machine
for automating its calculation(Logical rules)
Boole – mathematical formalization of the laws of logic
(Boolean Algebra)(Logical operators – AND, OR, NOT)
Turing(Turing Machine - simulate any computation )
Frege – first-order predicate calculus
◻ Graph theory
Euler – represents the structure of relationships in the
world(nodes (vertices) and edges (connections)
◻ State space search(Shortest path from one city – another)
 What is AI?

The science of making machines that:

Think like humans Think rationally

Act like humans Act rationally

•Think Like Humans: Simulate human thought (e.g., cognitive models

–Educational software).
•Think Rationally: Use logical reasoning (e.g., expert systems).
•Act Like Humans: Imitate human behavior (e.g., chatbots).
•Act Rationally: Make optimal decisions (e.g., autonomous vehicles).
Scientific Goals of AI

◻ AI seeks to understand the working of the

mind(problem solving, learning languages) in
mechanistic terms, just as medicinal science seeks
to understand the working of the body in
mechanistic terms.
◻ The mind is what the brain does.
-- Marvin Minsky
◻ The strong AI position is that any aspect of human
intelligence could, in principle, be mechanized
◻ AI system – learn new languages as humans
 The Turing Test
19
Scenario:
• An interrogator (judge)
communicates with two
entities: a human and a
machine (AI).
• The interrogator does not see or
hear the entities;
communication is solely
through text-based messages
(like chat).
•The goal is for the interrogator
to determine which entity is
the human and which is the
Ex- Chatbot Interaction machine.
 Acting Like Humans?
◻ Turing (1950) ``Computing machinery and intelligence''
``Can machines think?'' → ``Can machines behave intelligently?''
Operational test for intelligent behavior: the Imitation Game

Predicted by 2000, a 30% chance of fooling a lay person for 5 minutes

Anticipated all major arguments against AI in following 50 years
Suggested major components of AI: knowledge, reasoning, language
understanding, learning
Imaging the Brain
 Brains ~ Computers
◻ 1000 operations/sec ◻ 1,000,000,000 ops/sec

◻ 100,000,000,000 units (100 ◻ 1-100 processors/cores

billion neurons)

◻ Stochastic(Random ◻ Deterministic(Precise
probability Distribution) instructions/algorithms)
◻ fault tolerant(Prone to minor ◻ Prone to crashes(certain
damage) conditions)
◻ evolves, learns ◻ designed, programmed
 Areas of Artificial Intelligence

◻Perception
Machine vision (Process visual data – camera, image)
Speech understanding (Spoken language)
Touch ( tactile or haptic) sensation (Sensing physical
contact/pressure)
◻Natural Language Processing

Speech Understanding (Interpreting the meaning- human

language)
Language Generation (human-like language output)
Machine Translation (Translating text or speech from one
language to another using AI)
Institute of Computing
Intelligent Agents
◻ Intelligent agents are software programs or entities that can
autonomously perceive their environment, make decisions
based on their observations, and take actions to achieve goals.
◻ Characteristics:

• Autonomy: They operate independently or

semi-independently to accomplish tasks. Eg. Automated car

• Situatedness: Their knowledge and actions are limited to the

specific tasks or environment they are designed for. Eg. Robot

cleaner
• Interaction: They interact with other agents or entities to
cooperate and achieve collective goals. Eg Drone Rescue
Ex - Autonomous Driving Agent(Perceive environment,
Decision Making)
Areas of Artificial Intelligence ...

▪Robotics
▪Planning
▪Expert Systems

▪Machine Learning

▪Theorem Proving

▪Symbolic Mathematics

▪Game Playing
Areas of Artificial Intelligence ...

▪Robotics
▪Planning
▪Expert Systems

▪Machine Learning

▪Theorem Proving

▪Symbolic Mathematics

▪Game Playing
Areas of Artificial Intelligence ...

▪Robotics
▪Planning
▪Expert Systems

▪Machine Learning

▪Theorem Proving

▪Symbolic Mathematics

▪Game Playing
 Areas of Artificial Intelligence ...

Robotics
▪

▪Planning
▪Expert Systems

▪Machine Learning

▪Theorem Proving

▪Symbolic Mathematics

▪Game Playing
Areas of Artificial Intelligence ...

▪Robotics COQ
▪Planning
▪Expert Systems

▪Machine Learning

▪Theorem Proving

▪Symbolic Mathematics

▪Game Playing
Areas of Artificial Intelligence ...

Robotics
▪ Mathematica
▪Planning
▪Expert Systems

▪Machine Learning

▪Theorem Proving

▪Symbolic Mathematics

▪Game Playing
Areas of Artificial Intelligence ...

AlphaZero
▪Robotics is a computer program developed
by DeepMind that uses deep neural networks
▪Planning and reinforcement learning to master games
such as chess, shogi, and Go.
▪Expert Systems

▪Machine Learning

▪Theorem Proving

▪Symbolic Mathematics

▪Game Playing
 Quiz
1. Which AI field involves the design and operation of autonomous
machines?
●a) Theorem Proving
●b) Robotics
●c) Game Playing
●d) Expert Systems
2. What is the main focus of planning in AI?
●a) Recognizing images

●b) Setting and achieving goals

●c) Playing games
●d) Proving mathematical theorems
3. Which of the following best describes an expert system?
●a) A program that plays games

●b) A system that simulates expert-level decision-making

●c) An AI that controls robots
●d) A machine learning algorithm
Quiz
4. Machine learning is primarily concerned with:
●a) Proving theorems
●b) Learning from data to make predictions
●c) Symbolic manipulation of mathematical expressions
●d) Planning sequences of actions

5. Theorem proving in AI is used to:

●a) Plan and schedule tasks

●b) Automatically prove mathematical theorems

●c) Recognize speech and images
●d) Control robotic movements

6. Which area of AI deals with the symbolic manipulation of

mathematical expressions?
●a) Machine Learning
●b) Game Playing

●c) Symbolic Mathematics

●d) Planning
Quiz
7. Game playing AI is often used as a benchmark for:
●a) Designing robots
●b) Testing and developing AI algorithms
●c) Solving mathematical problems
●d) Expert-level decision making
8. An AI system that can set and achieve goals is involved in:
●a) Theorem Proving
●b) Expert Systems
●c) Planning
●d) Symbolic Mathematics

9. Which field of AI simulates human reasoning by using a knowledge base and

inference rules?
●a) Robotics

●b) Machine Learning

●c) Expert Systems

●d) Game Playing

10. An AI application that can automatically control a robot to perform tasks

autonomously belongs to which field?
●a) Symbolic Mathematics

●b) Robotics
●c) Theorem Proving
●d) Planning
 Quiz
11. Which application involves simulating human thought processes?
●a) Chatbots
●b) Educational software

●c) Autonomous vehicles

●d) Expert systems

12. An expert system is an example of which AI approach?
●a) Think Like Humans
●b) Act Like Humans
●c) Think Rationally
●d) Act Rationally

13. Chatbots are designed to:

●a) Simulate human thought

●b) Use logical reasoning

●c) Imitate human behavior

●d) Make optimal decisions
Quiz
14. Which AI approach is exemplified by educational software?
●a) Think Like Humans
●b) Act Like Humans
●c) Think Rationally
●d) Act Rationally
15. Autonomous vehicles are an example of AI systems that:
●a) Think Like Humans
●b) Act Like Humans
●c) Think Rationally
●d) Act Rationally

16. Using logical reasoning to solve problems is an example of which AI

approach?
●a) Think Like Humans

●b) Act Like Humans

●c) Think Rationally

●d) Act Rationally

17. Which application would best fit the 'Act Like Humans' approach?
●a) Expert systems
●b) Educational software
●c) Chatbots
●d) Autonomous vehicles
 Quiz
18. Making optimal decisions in real-time environments is
characteristic of which AI approach?
●a) Think Like Humans
●b) Act Like Humans
●c) Think Rationally

●d) Act Rationally

19. Which of the following AI applications is designed to simulate
cognitive models?
●a) Chatbots
●b) Expert systems

●c) Autonomous vehicles

●d) Educational software

20. Expert systems are designed to:

●a) Imitate human behavior

●b) Make optimal decisions

●c) Simulate human thought

●d) Use logical reasoning
 Answers

1. b) Robotics
2.b) Setting and achieving goals
3.b) A system that simulates expert-level
decision-making
4.b) Learning from data to make predictions
5.b) Automatically prove mathematical theorems

6.c) Symbolic Mathematics

7.b) Testing and developing AI algorithms
8.c) Planning
9.c) Expert Systems
10.b) Robotics
 Answers

11.b) Educational software

12.c) Think Rationally

13.c) Imitate human behavior

14.a) Think Like Humans
15.d) Act Rationally

16.c) Think Rationally

17.c) Chatbots
18.d) Act Rationally
19.d) Educational software

20.d) Use logical reasoning

 Perception

Machine Vision:
Machine vision involves using technology to allow machines, like computers or
robots, to interpret and understand visual information, similar to how humans use
their eyes and brain to see and comprehend the world around them (Ex
Robots – Inspect Product defects)
Speech Understanding:
Speech understanding refers to the ability of computers or devices to recognize and
comprehend spoken language, enabling them to interpret and respond to human
speech(Ex Alexa, Siri)
Touch ( tactile or haptic) Sensation:
Touch or haptic sensation involves the sense of touch, allowing machines or robots
to feel and interact physically with objects, similar to how humans use their sense
of touch to perceive textures, pressure, and temperature(Robots equipped with
sensor)
 Robotics

◻ Robotics involves creating machines that can move

and perform tasks with some degree of
autonomy.
◻ These tasks can range from simple repetitive
actions to complex operations that require
decision-making and interaction with the
environment.
◻ Ex: warehouse Robot that autonomously
navigates through shelves to pick up items and
deliver them to specific locations.
 Natural Language Understanding

Natural Language Understanding (NLU):

Natural Language Understanding involves enabling computers to
comprehend and interpret human languages like English. This capability
allows people without programming skills to interact with computers more
naturally.(Virtual Assistants)
Natural Language Generation:
Natural Language Generation is the process of creating coherent
human-like language output from structured data or information. It's used to
produce text automatically based on given inputs.(Financial Report)
Machine Translation:
Machine Translation involves using software to translate text or speech from
one language to another automatically. It's vital for organizations operating
internationally or dealing with multilingual content.(Google Translate)
 Planning

◻ Planning attempts to order actions to achieve goals.

◻ Planning applications include logistics,

manufacturing scheduling, planning manufacturing
steps to construct a desired product.

◻ There are huge amounts of money to be saved

through better planning.
Expert Systems

◻ Expert Systems attempt to capture the knowledge of a human expert

and make it available through a computer program. There have been
many successful and economically valuable applications of expert
systems.

◻ Benefits:
Reducing skill level needed to operate complex devices.
Diagnostic advice for device repair.
Interpretation of complex data.
“Cloning'' of scarce expertise.
Capturing knowledge of expert who is about to retire.
Combining knowledge of multiple experts.
Intelligent training.
◻ Expert systems are constructed by obtaining the
knowledge of a human expert and coding it into a
form that a computer may apply to similar
problems.
domain expert provides the necessary knowledge of
the problem domain.
knowledge engineer is responsible for implementing
this knowledge in a program that is both effective and
intelligent in its behavior.
Deficiencies of Current Expert
Systems
1. Difficulty in capturing “deep” knowledge of the
problem domain
2. Lack of robustness and flexibility
3. Inability to provide deep explanations
4. Difficulties in verification
may be serious when expert systems are applied to air
traffic control, nuclear reactor operations, and weapon
systems.
5. Little learning from experience
Theorem Proving

◻ Proving mathematical theorems might seem to be mainly of

academic interest. However, many practical problems can be
cast in terms of theorems. A general theorem prover can
therefore be widely applicable.
◻ Examples:
Automatic construction of compiler code generators from a
description of a CPU's instruction set.

J Moore and colleagues proved correctness of the floating-point

division algorithm on AMD CPU chip.
 Symbolic Mathematics

◻ Symbolic mathematics refers to manipulation of formulas, rather

than arithmetic on numeric values.
● Algebra

● Differential and Integral Calculus

◻ Symbolic manipulation is often used in conjunction with ordinary

scientific computation as a generator of programs used to actually do
the calculations. Symbolic manipulation programs are an important
component of scientific and engineering workstations.
◻ > (solvefor '(= v (* v0 (- 1 (exp (- (/ t (* r c))))))) 't)
◻ (= T (* (- (LOG (- 1 (/ V V0)))) (* R C)))
 Game Playing

◻ Games are good vehicles for AI research because

most games are played using a well-defined set of rules
board configurations are easily represented on a
computer
◻ Games can generate extremely large search spaces.
Search spaces are large and complex enough to require
powerful techniques(heuristics) for determining what
alternatives to explore in the problem space.
 Characteristics of A.I. Programs

◻ Symbolic Reasoning: reasoning about objects represented by

symbols, and their properties and relationships, not just
numerical calculations.

◻ Knowledge: General principles are stored in the program and

used for reasoning about novel situations.

◻ Search: a ``weak method'' for finding a solution to a problem

when no direct method exists. Problem: combinatoric
explosion of possibilities.

◻ Flexible Control: Direction of processing can be changed by

changing facts in the environment.
 Symbolic Processing

◻ Most of the reasoning that people do is non-numeric. AI programs often do some

numerical calculation, but focus on reasoning with symbols that represent objects
and relationships in the real world.
◻ Objects.
■ Properties of objects.
■ Relationships among objects.
■ Rules about classes of objects.
◻ Examples of symbolic processing:
● Understanding English:
■ (show me a good chinese restaurant in los altos)

● Reasoning based on general principles:

■ if: the patient is male
■ then: the patient is not pregnant

◻ Symbolic mathematics:
■ If y = m*x+b, what is the derivative of y with respect to x?
 Knowledge Representation

◻ It is necessary to represent the computer's knowledge of the world by

some kind of data structures in the machine's memory. Traditional
computer programs deal with large amounts of data that are structured
in simple and uniform ways. A.I. programs need to deal with complex
relationships, reflecting the complexity of the real world.

◻ Several kinds of knowledge need to be represented:

● Factual Data: Known facts about the world.

● General Principles: ``Every dog is a mammal.''

● Hypothetical Data: The computer must consider hypotheticals in order to

reason about the effects of actions that are being contemplated.
Representation Systems
◻ What is it?
Capture the essential features of a problem domain and
make that information accessible to a problem-solving
procedure
◻ Measures
Abstraction – how to manage complexity
Expressiveness – what can be represented
Efficiency – how is it used to solve problems
◻ Trade-off between efficiency and expressiveness
 Representation of π
Different representations of the real number π.
 Block World Representation

A blocks world Logical Clauses describing some

important properties and
relationships

General rule
 Bluebird Representations
Logical predicates representing a
simple description of a bluebird.

Semantic network description of a

bluebird.
State Space Search
◻ State space
State – any current representation of a problem
State space
■ All possible state of the problem
■ Start states – the initial state of the problem
■ Target states – the final states of the problem that has been solved
State space graph
■ Nodes – possible states
■ Links – actions that change the problem from one state to another
◻ State space search
Find a path from an initial state to a target state in the state space
Various search strategies
■ Exhaustive search – guarantee that the path will be found if it exists
■ Depth-first
■ Breath-first
■ Best-first search
■ heuristics
 Tic-tac-toe State Space

Portion of the
state space for
tic-tac-toe.
 Auto Diagnosis State Space
State space
description of
the automotive
diagnosis
problem.
Assignment
◻ Create and justify your own definition of artificial
intelligence?
◻ Describe whether or not you think it is possible to a
computer to understand and use a natural language?
◻ Describe your own criteria for computer software to
be considered “intelligent”.
◻ Discuss why you think the problem of machines
"learning" is so difficult?
◻ List two potentially negative effects on society of the
development of AI techniques.