FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

INTRODUCTION
Fluid mechanics is a physical science concerned with the behavior of fluid at rest and
in motion. It combines the two separate approaches-the empirical hydraulics and the
classical hydrodynamics developed by the hydraulicians and the mathematicians
respectively.

Hydraulics is mainly concerned with the motion of water. It is an applied science

consisting of an enormous amount of experimental data which have been accumulated over
a period of many centuries. The Hydraulicians relied heavily on the field observations and
laboratory tests. The data thus obtained are usually reduced to empirical formulae barring a
few exceptions; these formulas are generally presented in a form such that they are not
dimensionally homogeneous. Their applicability is limited to flow conditions similar to
those for which these formulas were derived.
This is to provide students with the basic principles required for understanding the
main concepts in both areas of fluid static’s and fluid dynamics .To develop the ability to
apply the main concepts of fluid static’s and fluid dynamics in solving a wide range of
problems that are normally encountered in engineering practice.

This laboratory course concerns making measurements in various fluid situations and
geometries, and relating results of those measurements to derived equations. The objective
is to determine how well the derived equations describe the physical phenomena we are
modeling. In doing so, we will need to make physical measurements, and it is essential that
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
-1-
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

we learn how to practice good techniques in making scientific observations and in

obtaining measurements. We are making quantitative estimates of physical phenomena
under controlled conditions.

On the other hand, hydrodynamics is essentially mathematical science dealing with

flow analysis based on the concept of an ideal fluid-a fictitious fluid in which both fluid
viscosity and fluid compressibility are assumed absent. The mathematical solutions of flow
problems involving an ideal fluid thus have limited applicability to the motion of real
fluids, even to those with small viscosity like water and air. It is possible to experience
applications of fluid mechanics in daily life. Some of the examples are;

(i) The flight of birds in the air and the motion of fish in the water are governed by the laws of
fluid mechanics.
(ii) The cricket ball bowler depends upon circulation principle to provide the ball
with desired. Spin and flight.
(iii) The dentate golf ball is designed to traverse longer distance with a minimum effort exerted
by a golf player.
(iv) The circulation of blood in veins and arteries follows the law of fluid resistance.
(v) The human heart is a fine example' of a pump delicately designed by nature to work
continuously non-stop for many decades.
(vi) The designs of aero planes and ships are based on the theory of fluid mechanics.
(vii) The oil and gas pipelines, the water supply systems are designed on the principles of fluid
mechanics.

A fluid machine is a device which converts the energy stored by a fluid into
mechanical energy or vice versa. The energy stored by a fluid mass appears in the form 'of
potential, kinetic and intermolecular energy. The mechanical energy, on the other hand, is
usually transmitted by a rotating shaft. Machines using liquid (mainly water, for almost all
practical purposes) are termed as hydraulic machines. In this chapter we shall discuss, in
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
-2-
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

general, the basic fluid mechanical principle governing' the energy transfer in a fluid
machine and also a brief description of different kinds of hydraulic machines along with
their performances.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF FLUID MACHINES

The fluid machines may be classified under different categories as follows:

Classification Based on Direction of Energy Conversion.

The device in which the kinetic, potential or intermolecular energy held by the fluid is
converted in the form of mechanical energy of a rotating member is known as a turbine.
The machines, on the other hand, where the mechanical energy from moving parts is
transferred to a fluid to increase its stored energy by increasing either its pressure or
velocity are known as pumps, compressors, fans or blowers.

Classification Based on Principle of Operation

The machines whose functioning depends essentially on the change of volume of a certain
amount of fluid within the machine are known as positive displacement machines. The
word positive displacement comes from the fact that there is a physical displacement of the
boundary of a certain fluid mass as a closed system. This principle is utilized in practice by
the reciprocating motion of a piston within a cylinder while entrapping a certain amount of
fluid in it. Therefore, the word reciprocating is commonly used with the name of the
machines of this kind. The machine producing mechanical energy is known as
reciprocating engine while the machine developing energy of the fluid from the mechanical
energy is known as reciprocating pump or reciprocating compressor.
The machines, functioning of which depend basically on the principle of fluid
dynamics are known as rotodynamic machines. They are distinguished from positive
displacement machines in requiring relative motion between the fluid and the moving part
of the machine. The rotating element of the machine usually consisting of a number of
vanes or blades is known as rotor, while the fixed part is known as stator or impeller.

For turbines, the work is done by the fluid on the rotor, while, in case of pump,
compressor, fan or blower, the work is done by the rotor on the fluid element. Depending
upon the main direction of fluid path in the rotor, the machine is termed as radial flow or

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

-3-
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

axial flow machine. In radial flow machine, the main direction of flow in the rotor is radial
while in axial flow machine, it is axial. For radial flow turbines, the flow is towards the
centre of the rotor, while, for pumps and compressors, the flow is away from the centre.
Therefore, radial flow turbines are sometimes referred to as radially inward flow machines
and radial flow pumps as radially outward flow machines. Examples of such machines are
the Francis turbines and the centrifugal pump or compressors. The examples of axial flow
machines are Kaplan turbines and axial flow compressors. If the flow is partly radial and
partly axial the term mixed flow machine is used.

Classification Based on Fluid Used

The fluid machines use either liquid or gas as the working fluid depending upon the
purpose. The machine transferring mechanical energy of rotor to the energy of fluid is
termed as a pump when it uses liquid, and is termed as a compressor or a fan or a blower,
when it uses gas. The compressor is a machine where the main objective is to increase the
static pressure of a gas. Therefore, the mechanical energy held by the fluid is mainly in the
form of pressure energy. Fans or blowers, on the other hand, mainly cause a high flow of
gas, and hence utilize the mechanical energy of the rotor to increase mostly the kinetic
energy of the fluid. In these machines, the change in static pressure is quite small.
For all practical purposes, liquid used by the turbines producing power is water, and
therefore, they are termed as water turbines or hydraulic turbines. Turbines handling gases
in practical fields are usually referred to as steam turbine, gas turbine, and air turbine
depending upon whether they use steam, gas (the mixture of air and products of burnt fuel
in air) or air.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

-4-
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Rotodynamic Machines
In this section, we shall discuss the basic principle of rotodynamic machines and the
performances of different kinds of those machines. The important element of a
rotodynamic machine, in general, is a rotor consisting of a number of vanes or blades.
There always exists a relative motion between the rotor vanes and the fluid. The fluid has a
component of velocity and hence of momentum in a direction tangential to the rotor. While
flowing through the rotor, tangential velocity and hence the momentum changes.
The rate at which this tangential momentum changes corresponds to a tangential force on
the rotor. In a turbine, the tangential momentum of the fluid is reduced and therefore work
is done by the fluid to the moving rotor. But in case of pumps and compressors there is an
increase in the tangential momentum of the fluid and therefore work is absorbed by the
fluid from the moving rotor.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

-5-
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

LEARNING OBJECTIVES OF THE LAB

The main intention of this laboratory is the basic understanding of fluid properties and the
main concepts of fluid static’s. Understanding of fluid kinematics and the equations
governing the pressure variation in flow and rotating fluids. Introducing the momentum
and energy conservation principles and the main concepts in dimensional analysis and
similitude the understanding of surface resistance and the boundary-layer concepts.

Demonstrating the ability to apply the main concepts of fluid statics in solving problems
related to pressure measurements, forces on plane and curved surfaces, buoyancy and
stability of submerged and floating bodies Ability to use the basics of fluid kinematics
together with the momentum and energy conservation principles for solving a wide variety
of problems that are encountered in engineering applications Demonstrating the ability to
use the main concepts of dimensional analysis and similitude to obtain the dimensionless
parameters for a given flow problem and also to solve various problems related to modeling
Applying the basic understanding of flow in conduits for solving problems related to fluid
transportation including heating and ventilating systems and oil and water piping systems.

The main objective of the laboratory is to create an idea of how the operating
characteristics of different pumps while operating and find their efficiencies. Derive an
expression for the friction head loss in pipe flow and draw the energy gradient. Know about
the different types of turbines and their operating characteristics .the deviations which are
encountered during calculation of efficiencies under different conditions.
In this laboratory the minor losses and minor losses are calculated for different pipe
diameters .The difference between different pumps and their advantages over the other are
interpreted. The coefficient of discharge is also calculated for different flow devices like
venturimeter, orificemeter, rotameter etc.,
The student will be able to know about the way to calculate different parameters and try to
know the difference between the ideal and observed conditions by the analysis of the
values.

DYNAMOMETER

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

-6-
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

A Dynamometer is a machine used to measure torque and rotational speed (rpm) from
which power produced by an engine, motor or other rotating prime mover can be
calculated.
A dynamometer can also be used to determine the torque and power required to operate a
driven machine such as a pump. In that case, motoring or driving dynamometer is used. A
dynamometer that is designed to be driven is called an absorption or passive Dynamometer.
A dynamometer that can either drive or absorb is called a universal or active dynamometer
Principle of operation

An absorbing dynamometer acts as a load that is driven by the prime mover that is under
test. The dynamometer must be able to operate at any speed, and load the prime mover to
any level of torque that the test requires. A dynamometer is usually equipped with some
means of measuring the operating torque and speed.

The dynamometer must absorb the power developed by the prime mover. The power
absorbed by the dynamometer must generally be dissipated to the ambient air or transferred
to cooling water. Regenerative dynamometers transfer the power to electrical power lines.

Dynamometers can be equipped with a variety of control systems. If the dynamometer has
a torque regulator, it operates at a set torque while the prime mover operates at whatever
speed it can attain while developing the torque that has been set. If the dynamometer has a
speed regulator, it develops whatever torque is necessary to force the prime mover to
operate at the set speed.

A motoring dynamometer acts as a motor that drives the equipment under test. It must be
able to drive the equipment at any speed and develop any level of torque that the test
requires.

Only torque and speed can be measured; Power must be calculated from the torque and
speed figures according to the formula:

A dynamometer consists of an absorption (or absorber/driver) unit, and usually includes a

means for measuring torque and rotational speed. An absorption unit consists of some type
of rotor in housing. The rotor is coupled to the engine or other equipment under test and is
free to rotate at whatever speed is required for the test. Some means is provided to develop

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

-7-
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

a braking torque between dynamometer's rotor and housing. The means for developing
torque can be frictional, hydraulic, electromagnetic etc. according to the type of
absorption/driver unit.

One means for measuring torque is to mount the dynamometer housing so that it is free to
turn except that it is restrained by a torque arm. The housing can be made free to rotate by
using trunnions connected to each end of the housing to support the dyno in pedestal
mounted trunnion bearings. The torque arm is connected to the dyno housing and a
weighing scale is positioned so that it measures the force exerted by the dyno housing in
attempting to rotate. The torque is the force indicated by the scales multiplied by the length
of the torque arm measured from the center of the dynamometer. A load cell transducer can
be substituted for the scales in order to provide an electrical signal that is proportional to
torque.

Another means for measuring torque is to connect the engine to the dynamometer through a
torque sensing coupling or torque transducer. A torque transducer provides an electrical
signal that is proportional to torque.

With electrical absorption units, it is possible to determine torque by measuring the current
drawn (or generated) by the absorber/driver. This is generally a less accurate method and
not much practiced in modern time, but it may be adequate for some purposes.

A wide variety of tachometers are available for measuring speed. Some types can provide
an electrical signal that is proportional to speed.

Types of Dynamometers
In addition to classification as absorption, motoring or universal as described above,
dynamometers can be classified in other ways.

A dyno that is coupled directly to an engine is known as an engine dyno.

A dyno that can measure torque and power delivered by the power train of a vehicle
directly from the drive wheel or wheels (without removing the engine from the frame of the
vehicle), is known as a chassis dyno.

Dynamometers can also be classified by the type of absorption unit or absorber/driver that
they use. Some units that are capable of absorption only can be combined with a motor to

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

-8-
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

construct an absorber/driver or universal dynamometer. The following types of

absorption/driver units have been used:

TYPES OF ABSORPTION/DRIVER UNITS

 Eddy current or electromagnetic brake (absorption only)

 Hydraulic brake (absorption only)
 Mechanical friction brake or Prony brake (absorption only)
 Water brake (absorption only)

EDDY CURRENT TYPE ABSORBER

EC dynamometers are currently the most common absorbers used in modern chassis dynos.
The EC absorbers provide the quickest load change rate for rapid load settling. Some are
air cooled, but many require exterequire the ferrous core, or shaft, to rotate in the magnetic
field to produce torque. Due to this, stalling a motor with an eddy current dyno is usually
not possible

HYDRAULIC BRAKE

The hydraulic brake system consists of a hydraulic pump (usually a gear type pump), a
fluid reservoir and piping between the two parts. Inserted in the piping is an adjustable
valve and between the pump and the valve is a gauge or other means of measuring
hydraulic pressure. Usually, the fluid used was hydraulic oil, but recent synthetic multi-
grade oils may be a better choice. In simplest terms, the engine is brought up to the desired
rpm and the valve is incrementally closed and as the pumps outlet is restricted, the load
increases and the throttle is simply opened until at the desired throttle opening. Unlike most
other systems, power is calculated by factoring flow volume (calculated from pump design
specs), hydraulic pressure and rpm. Brake HP, whether figured with pressure, volume and

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

-9-
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

rpm or with a different load cell type brake dyno, should produce essentially identical
power figures. Hydraulic dynos are renowned for having the absolutely quickest load
change ability, just slightly surpassing the eddy current absorbers. The downside is that
they require large quantities of hot oil under high pressure and the requirement for an oil
reservoir.

WATER BRAKE TYPE ABSORBER

The water brake absorber is sometimes mistakenly called a "hydraulic dynamometer".

Water brake absorbers are relatively common, having been manufactured for many years
and noted for their high power capability, small package, light weight, and relatively low
manufacturing cost as compared to other, quicker reacting "power absorber" types. Their
drawbacks are that they can take a relatively long period of time to "stabilize" their load
amount and the fact that they require a constant supply of water to the "water brake
housing" for cooling. In many parts of the country, environmental regulations now prohibit
"flow through" water and large water tanks must be installed to prevent contaminated water
from entering the environment.

The schematic shows the most common type of water brake, the variable level type. Water
is added until the engine is held at a steady rpm against the load. Water is then kept at that
level and replaced by constant draining and refilling, which is needed to carry away the
heat created by absorbing the horsepower. The housing attempts to rotate in response to the
torque produced but are restrained by the scale or torque metering cell which measures the
torque.

This schematic shows a water brake which is actually a fluid coupling with the housing
restrained from rotating. It is very similar to a water pump with no outlet.

Dynamometers are useful in the development and refinement of modern day engine
technology. The concept is to use a dyno to measure and compare power transfer at
different points on a vehicle, thus allowing the engine or drive train to be modified to get
more efficient power transfer. For example, if an engine dyno shows that a particular
engine achieves 400 N·m (300 lbf·ft) of torque, and a chassis dynamo shows only 350 N·m
(260 lbf·ft), one would know to look to the drive train for the major improvements.
Dynamometers are typically very expensive pieces of equipment, reserved for certain fields
that rely on them for a particular purpose.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 10 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF IMPACT OF JET ON A GIVEN VANE

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:-

1) To determine the hydrodynamic force exerted on a body by a fluid jet

2) To determine the force exerted by the jet on stationary plate
3) To force exerted by the jet on the moving plate

AIM: -
1) To determine coefficient of impact of jet on a given vane.

APPARATUS: -
1) Impact test rig
2) Stopwatch.

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS: -

The apparatus consists of an enclosed circuit regulation system consisting of a

chamber provided with Perspex sheets. A floating vane fixing rod is provided over the
chamber to which the vane is fixed. An initial balance weight is provided for balancing the
vane. Another sliding weight is providing to balance the vane fixing rod while the jet is
striking the vane. A nozzle is fixed below the vane through which a vertical jet issues. A
control valve provided controls the pressure at the jet and hence the flow rate and velocity
of the jet. Flat and hemispherical vanes are provided. The vanes can be interchangeably
fixed to the rod. By adjusting the sliding weight, rod is balanced when the jet is striking the
vane. By taking the moment about the fulcrum, impact force can be calculated. A nozzle of
diameter 6.5mm & 8mm are provided.
THEORY:-

A jet of fluid emerging from a nozzle has some velocity and hence possesses a certain
amount of kinetic energy. If this jet strikes on obstruction placed in its path, it will exert a

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 11 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

force on obstruction. The impressed force is known as impact of jet and is designed as
hydrodynamic force. The principle involved in evaluating hydrodynamic force exerted on a
body by a fluid jet is impulse momentum equation. Different cases of forces exerted by free
jets are

(1). Force exerted by the jet on stationary plate when

 Plate is vertical to jet.

 Plate is inclined to jet.

 Plate is curved.

(2). Force exerted by the jet on the moving plate

 Plate is vertical to jet.

 Plate is inclined to jet.
 Plate is curved.

FORCE EXERTED BY THE JET ON A STATIONARY VERTICAL PLATE:-

The jet after striking the plate will move along with the plate. But the plate is at right
angles to the jet. Hence the component of the jet after striking will be zero. If the plate is
smooth friction is neglected. F = av2

FORCE EXERTED ON AN INCLINED FLAT PLATE:-

When a flat plate is placed or held at an angle  to the direction of flow jet, after striking
will be zero. If the fluid will slide away in all directions over the plate and it will leave the
plate tangentially. It is assumed that there is no frictional resistance at the plate and no
important losses. Since the jet after impact leaves the plate tangentially the component of
velocity leaving in the direction normal to zero.

FORCE EXERTED BY A FLUID ON MOVING STATIONARY CURVED VANE:-

When a jet strikes a symmetrical curved vane at the center then the jet will divide itself
and the divided jets will glide over the vane and will have the vane smoothly. The vane
being smooth the velocity of moving jets will also be V. Let 2 be the angle between the
two tangents drawn to the vane at its outer tips. Thus the jet after striking will be deflected
on each side through an angle of 180.

If =0; F=2av2

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 12 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Otherwise if the jet strikes unsymmetrical stationary vane

F= av2 (cos  + cos ) in x direction to jet

F= av2 (sin  - sin ) in y direction to jet

PROCEDURE:-

1. Fix the required vane to the fixing rod. Adjust the balancing weight so that vane fixing
rod is in horizontal position.
2. Fill up sufficient water in sump tank.
3. Open the control valve and start the pump.
4. The jet strikes the vane.
5. Put the sliding weight over rod and adjust its distance from the vane fixing rod is
balanced.
6. Note down the Q distance of sliding weight.
7. Repeat the procedure by changing the control valve position.
8. Repeat the procedure for another vane.

MODEL CALCULATIONS:-

Taking nozzle of 8mm diameter

1). Diameter of jet = 0.008 m

Area of jet = d2/4 = (0.008)2/4 = 5.0265 x 10-5 m2

2). Let time required for 10 lt of water be t sec = 94.53 sec

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 13 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Q = 0.01/t = 0.01/94.53 = 1.058 x 10-4 m3/sec

3). Velocity of jet V = Q/a

= 1.058 x 10-4 /5.0265 x 10-5

= 2.105 m/s

4). Force exerted y jet on vane

a). flat vane Fth = av2 N

b). Curved vane Fth = 2av2 N

(Semicircular vane)

Fth = 2av2

= 2 x 1000 x 5.0265 x 10-5 x (2.105)2

= 0.495 N

5). Experimentally taking moments about fulcrum

Distance of vane from fulcrum – 0.135 m

(along the beam)

Taking moments about fulcrum

Fexp x 0.135 = w x l

w - weight of sliding weight kg = W N

l – Distance of sliding weight from fulcrum

Fexp = wl/0.135

= 0.1 x 0.167 / 0.135

= 0.124 N

6). Coefficient of impact Ci = Fexp / Fth

= 0.124/0.408

= 0.278

RESULT:-

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 14 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

The coefficient of impact of given vane is ________ for flat vane and _________ for
semicircular vane.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 15 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

OBSERVATIONS:
Time for Sliding Distance of
Type of vane
Sno. collecting Weight sliding
10lt t (sec) w kg weight (mm)
1. Flat (i). 0.1
(ii).
(iii).
2. Semicircular (i). 0.1
(ii).
(iii).

Type of Qact = Velocity Fth Fexp Ci =

vane 0.01/t Fexp/Fth
Flat
(i)
(ii)
(iii).
Semicircular
(i)
(ii)
(iii).

VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS:-

1) What is momentum principle?
2) Give an explanation for the discrepancy between the measured and calculated
forces acting on different vanes.
3) Discuss the dependence of the vane coefficient on the vane geometry

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 16 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

STUDY THE MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF A PELTON WHEEL

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1) To determine the Constant head characteristic curves or main characteristic curves

2) To determine the Constant speed characteristic curves or operating characteristic curves

AIM: -
To study the main characteristics of given Pelton wheel at constant head.

APPARATUS: -
Pelton wheel turbine test rig, tachometer.

SPECIFICATIONS:-
Turbine power 5HP fitted with 18 buckets mounted over sump provided with nozzle and
spear.
Pump capacity – 15HP
Head - 85m
Discharge - 6lt/s, provided with semi-automatic star delta starter
1. Venturimeter with mercury manometer for discharge measurement.
2. Rope brake pulley diameter 0.26m with spring balance 50kg capacity.
3. Pressure gauge to note pressure range 0 to 21.2 kg/cm2

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS:-
Pelton wheel consists of runner mounted over the main shaft. Runner consists of
buckets fitted to the disc. The buckets have a shape of double ellipsoidal cups. The runner
is encased in a casing provided with a Perspex window for visualization. A nozzle fitted in
the side of casing directs the water jet over the splitter or center ridge of the buckets. A
spear operates inside the nozzle to control the water flow. On the other side of the shaft, a
rope brake is mounted for loading the turbine.

Theory:-
Water turbines can be classified according to the acceleration of water on moving
blades.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 17 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

(a). IMPULSE TURBINE :- Whole of pressure energy in this turbine is first converted into
kinetic energy. The wheel revolves in open air at atmospheric pressure when water on
series of buckets. As these turbines convert kinetic energy to mechanical energy these can
be called as impulse or velocity turbine.
(b). REACTION TURBINE :- These operates on basis of different of pressure art inlet and
other of turbines, hence these are known as reaction well as kinetic energy and when it
moves over the blades both kinetic energy provides turning movement of wheel pelton
wheel belongs to impulse turbine.

WORKING OF PELTON WHEEL:-

This is the only impulse type of hydraulic turbine now in common use. It is named after
Lester A. Pelton (1829-1908), the American engineer who contributed much to its
development in about 1880; it is well suited for operating under high heads.
Figure shows the elements of a typical Pelton wheel installation. The runner consists of
a circular disc with a number of buckets evenly spaced round its periphery; the buckets
have a shape of double semi-ellipsoidal cups. Each bucket is divided into two symmetrical
parts by a sharp-edged ridge known as splitter. One or more nozzles are mounted so that
each directs a jet along a tangent to the circle through the centers of the buckets called the
pitch circle, The jet of water impinges on the splitter, which divides the jet into two equal
portions, each of which after flowing round the smooth inner surface of the bucket leaves it
at its outer edge. The buckets are so shaped that the angle at the outlet tip varies from 10' to
20' (usually kept as 15') so that the jet of water gets deflected through 160' to 170'. The
advantage of having double cup-shaped buckets is that the axial thrusts neutralize each
other, being equal and opposite, and hence the bearings supporting the wheel shaft are not
subjected to any axial or end thrust. The back of the bucket is so shaped that as it swings
downward into the jet no water is wasted by splashing. Further at the lower tip of the
bucket a notch is cut which prevents the jet striking the preceding bucket being intercepted
by the next bucket very soon, and it also avoids the deflection of water towards the centre
of the wheel as the bucket first meets the jet. For low heads the buckets are made 'of cast
iron, but for higher heads they are made of cast steel, bronze or stainless steel.
In order to control the quantity of water striking the runner, the nozzle fitted at the end
of the penstock is provided with a spear or needle having a streamlined head which is fixed
to the end of a rod as shown in Fig. The spear may be operated either by a wheel in case of
very small units or automatically by a governor in case of almost all the bigger units. When
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 18 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

the shaft of the Pelton wheel is horizontal then not more than two jets are used" But if the
wheel is mounted on a vertical shaft a larger number of jets (upto six) is possible.
A casing made of cast iron or fabricated steel plates are usually provided for a Pelton
wheel as shown in Fig. It has no hydraulic function to perform. It is provided only to
prevent splashing of water, to lead water to the tail race and also to act as a safeguard
against accidents.
Larger Pelton wheels are usually equipped with a small brake nozzle which when
opened directs a jet of water on the back of the buckets, thereby bringing the wheel quickly
to rest after it is shut down (as otherwise it would go on revolving by inertia for a
considerable time).

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTIC CURVES:-

The turbines are generally designed to work at particular values of H, Q, P, N and

efficiency which are known as designed values. But after that turbines are required to work
at conditions different from these, which they have been designed. Therefore it is essential
to determine the exact behavior of the turbines under varying conditions of carrying out
tests on actual turbines on these small-scale models. The results of these tests are usually
graphically respectively. There are three types:

1. Constant head characteristic curves or main characteristic curves

2. Constant speed characteristic curves or operating characteristic curves

3. Constant efficiency curves

(a). CONSTANT HEAD CHARACTERISTIC CURVES :-

These curves are drawn after performing the tests on either act or model turbines
keeping head and gate openings constant conditions and corresponding power, discharge
and efficiency are measured at varying until speeds.

(b). CONSTANT SPEED CHARACTERISTIC CURVES:-

These curves are drawn after performing the tests on either act or model turbines
at constant speeds, which may be regulated by varying gate openings as load varies. The

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 19 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

readings of efficiency are plotted at different varying loads. The curves thus obtained are
known as constant speed curves.

(C). CONSTANT EFFICIENCY CURVES:-

These curves are helpful to give information regarding region of constant

efficiency so that turbine can always be operated at maximum efficiency.

PROCEDURE:-

1. Before starting, make sure that the manometer cocks and spear are kept closed.
2. The pump is started by pressing green button on panel board and observes the
developed pressure.
3. Slowly open the spear kept at suitable gate opening (1/4, 2/4, 3/4, full).
4. Load the turbine by rotating the load stud and note down the observations i.e. speed etc.
5. Slowly open the manometer cocks and note down the manometer deflection.
6. Repeat step 4 for various gate openings and note down the obtained readings.

Model calculations:-

1. Head over turbine = Pressure gauge reading in kg/cm2 x 10

2. Water flow rate Q = Cd a1a2 (2gh)1/2/(a12 – a22) m3/sec
Where a1 = inlet area of venturimeter
= (0.05)2/4 = 1.96 x 10-3 m2
a2 = throat area of venturimeter

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 20 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

= (0.04)2/4 = 1.256 x 10-3 m2

d1 – 0.05 m ; d2 – 0.04 m
Cd – 0.98
h = manometric head x 12.6 m of water
Qact =m3/sec
3. Power supplied to turbine = input power = water power
= WQH
= 1000x9.81 QH W
4. Brake power = 2NT/60
T = spring balance difference (kg) x 9.81 x radius N
Radius = 0.13 + 0.008
T = 3x9.81x (0.13+0.008) = 4.06134
BP = 2xNx4.06134/60 = kW

5. Specific speed Ns = N (P)1/2/H5/4

6. o = SP/WP = BP/WP

PRECAUTIONS:-
1. While switching on the pump, see that the nozzle is closed by spear and load on the
brake drum is released.

2. Use clean water in the tank.

3. Operate all the controls and switches gently.

4. Lubricate the bearings before experiment.

5. It is necessary to prime the pump before starting.

6. Drain the water after completion of experiment

7. Open manometer cocks slowly and simultaneously so that mercury does not run away
with the water.

Graphs:-

(a). Nu Vs Qu (b). Nu Vs Pu (c). Nu Vs o

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 21 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Result:-
The main characteristics of pelton wheel are observed.
Observations:

Spring Manometric
Speed Nu
Load balance difference (cm) Pressure gauge reading
N (rpm)
reading h1 h2 h1-h2
0
3
6
1/4
9
12
15
0
3
6
1/2 9
12
15
18

Qact WP BP Head o
Load Pu Qu
(m3/sec) (KW) (KW) (m) (%)

1/4

Load Qact WP BP Head o Pu Qu

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 22 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

(m3/sec) (KW) (KW) (m) (%)

1/2

VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS :-

 Impulse turbines are which type of speed machines.

 Pelton turbine is suitable for head of range.
 The efficiency of a impulse turbine may approach for hemispherical bucket vanes at
what rate.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 23 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

STUDY THE MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF A

KAPLAN TURBINE

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1) To determine the Constant head characteristic curves or main characteristic curves

2) To determine the Constant speed characteristic curves or operating characteristic curves

Aim: - To study the main characteristics of given Kaplan turbine at

constant head and speed.

Apparatus: - Kaplan turbine test rig, tachometer

Specifications:-
1) MOTOR capacity –10 H.P, 3PH, 440 v, 50 Hz
2) Turbine- 150mm dia propeller with 4 blades, speed 2500 rpm, max flow of water-
2500lpm,max head- 15 mts
3) Loading –A.C generator
4) Electrical supply-3ph, 440v
5) Pressure gauge -0-2kg/cm2 to measure discharge pressure.
6) Vacuum gauge 0-760 mm of hg to measure suction pressure

THEORY:

Hydraulic (or Water) turbines are the machines which use the energy of
water (Hydro - Power) and convert it into mechanical energy. Thus the turbine becomes the
prime mover to run the electrical generators to produce the electricity, Viz., Hydro. Electric
Power.

The turbines are classified as Impulse & Reaction types. In impulse turbine,
the head of water is completely converted into a jet, which impulses the forces on the
turbine. In reaction turbine, it is the pressure of the flowing water, which rotates the runner

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 24 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

of the turbine. Of many types of turbine, the Pelton wheel, most commonly used, falls into
the category of turbines. While Francis & Kaplan falls in category of impulse reaction
turbines.

Normally, Pelton wheel (impulse turbine) requires high heads and low
discharge, while the Francis & Kaplan (reaction turbines) require relatively low heads and
high discharge. These corresponding heads and discharges are difficult to create in
laboratory size turbine from the limitation of the pumps availability in the market.
Nevertheless, at least the performance characteristics could be obtained within the limited
facility available in the laboratories. Further, understanding various elements associated
with any particular turbine is possible with this kind of facility.

DESCRIPTION:
While the impulse turbine is discussed elsewhere in standard
textbooks, Kaplan turbine, the reaction type which is of present concern consists of main
components such as propeller (runner) scroll casing and draft tube. Between the scroll
casing and the runner, the water turns through right angle into axial direction and passes
through the runner and thus rotating the runner shaft. The runner has four blades which can
be turned about their own axis so that the angle inclination may be adjusted while the
turbine in motion. When runner blade angles are varied, high efficiency can be maintained
over wide range of operating conditions. In the other words even at parts loads, when a low
discharge is following through the runner, a high efficiency can be attained in case of
Kaplan turbine, whereas this provision does not exist in francis and propeller turbines
where, the runner blade angles are fixed and integral with hub.

The actual experimental facility supplied consists of a centrifugal

pump set, turbine unit, sump tank, venturimeter arranged in such a way that the whole unit
works on recirculating water system. The centrifugal pump set supplies the water from the
sump tank to the turbine through gate valve which has the marking to the meter the known
quantity of water. The water after passing through the turbine units enters the same tank
through the draft tube. The water then flows back to the sump tank through the
venturimeter for the measurement of flow rate.

The loading of the turbine is achieved by electrical AC generator

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 25 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

connected to lamp tank. The provision for; measurement electrical energy AC voltmeter
and ammeter turbine speed (digital RPM indicator), Head on the turbine (pressure gauge),
are built-in on to the control panel.

PROCEDURE:
1) Connect the supply p6inp-motor unit to 3 ph, 440V, 30A, electrical supply, with neutral
and earth connections and ensure the correct direction of pump-motor unit.
2) Keep the gate closed.
3) Keep the electrical load at maximum, by keeping all the switches at ON - position.
4) Press the green button of the supply pump starter and then release.
5) Slowly, open the gate so that turbine rotor picks up the speed and Attains maximum at
full opening of the gate.
6) Note down the venturimeter pressures, speed, pressure, vacuum on the control panel, and
tabulate results.
7) Close the gate & then switch OFF the supply water pump set.
8) Follow the procedure described below for taking down the reading for evaluating the
performance characteristics of the Kaplan turbine.

A. TO OBTAIN CONSTANT SPEED CHARACTERISTICS: (Operating

Characteristics)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 26 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

1. Keep the propeller vane opening at maximum or any desired position.

2. For different electrical loads on turbine I generator, change the gate position, so that
the speed is held constant; say at 1000 rpm. See that the voltage does not exceed 250V
to avoid excess voltage on Bulbs.
3. Reduce the gate opening setting to different position and repeat (2) for different speed
1000 rpm, 900 rpm and tabulate the results.
4. The above readings will be utilized for drawing constant speed
Characteristics Viz.,
a) Percentage of fun load Vs Efficiency.
b) Efficiency and BHP Vs Discharge characteristics.

B.TO OBTAIN CONSTANT HEAD CHARACTERISTICS: (Main Characteristics)

1. Select the guide vane angle position.
2. Keep the gate closed, and start the pump.
3. Slowly open the gate and set the pressure on the gauge.
4. For different electrical loads, change the rotor pitch position and maintain the constant
head and tabulate the results.

C. TO OBTAIN RUN-AWAY SPEED CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Switch OFF all the load on the turbine and the voltmeter.
2. Keep propeller vane angle at optimum position (Head, h = 0.75 Kg/cm2).
3. Slowly open the gate to maximum and note down the turbine speed. This is the runaway
speed which is maximum.
NOTE' Run-away speed is also influenced by the tightening in gland packing of the
turbine shaft. More the tightness, less the run-away speed.

D. PERFORMANCE UNDER UNIT HEAD - UNIT QUANTITIES:

In order to predict the behavior of a turbine working under varying

conditions and to facilitate comparison between the performances of the turbines of the
same type but having different outputs and speeds and working under different heads, it is
often convenient to express the test results in terms of certain unit quantities.

From the output of a turbine corresponding to different working heads it is

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 27 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

possible to compute the output which would be developed if the head was reduced to unity
(say 1mt); the speed being adjustable so that the efficiency remains unaffected.

a)Unit Speed,
Nu= N/√H

b)Unit Power,
Pu= P/H 3/2

c)Unit Discharge,
Qu=Q/√H

d)Specific Speed,
The specific speed of any turbine is the speed in rpm of a turbine
geometrically similar to the actual turbine but of such a size that under corresponding
conditions it will develop 1 metric horse power when working under Unit head (i.e., 1
meter).The specific speed is usually computed for the operating conditions corresponding
to the maximum efficiency.

Nu= N√P/H 5/4

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Do not start the pump if the voltage is less than 300 V.

2. Do not forget to give electrical neutral and earth connection correctly.
3. To start and stop the supply always keep the gate closed.
4. Fill the water enough so that the pump does not choke

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 28 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

DESIGN OF KAPLAN TURBINE

DATA:
*Maximum Head available on Turbine H = 10 Mts
*Maximum Flow Rate available through Runner Q= 2500Lts/Min.(approx).
* Propeller Diameter D = 150 nun
*Number of Blades = 4
*Hub Diameter d= 60 mm
*Propeller Vane angle adjustable from Zero to maximum to change the head on turbine.
*Energy meter constant = 1500 rev I KWH

FORMULAE USED
1. Output Power:
Electrical Power, BPelec= (n x 1000 x 3600) / EMC x t x 1000inKW
Where, n = number of rev lust ion of energy meter disc
EMC = Energy meter constant in revlKW.hr =750 rev/kwhr
t= time for n revln of energy meter disc in sec
Shaft Power, BP SHAFT = BP ELEC / 0.7
70 % is the transmission efficiency

2. Discharge Rate through Venturimeter

Q = Cd (A1xA2 (2xgxHv) 1/2)/ (A12 – A22)1/2
Where,Cd= Coefficient of discharge= 0.98
A1 = Inlet area of venturi meter (150mm diameter) = 0.0177 m2
A2 = Throat area of venturimeter (75 mm diameter) = 4.418 xl 0-3 m2
g = 9.81 m/s2
Hv = Head on venturimeter, m = 10 h = 10 (PI-PT)
3. Hydraulic input to the turbine (in KW)
PHYD = W Q H /1000
Where,
W = 9810 Kg/m3
Q = Flow rate of water in m3/sec from formulae-2.
H = Head on turbine in m
4. Head on the Turbine.1Hunit discharge
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 29 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

H=10x(PI + Pv/760)
5.Turbine Efficiency
% η tur =BP SHAFT / HxPhyd X 100
6. Unit quantities
a) unit speed Nu= N/(H)1/2
b) unit power Pu = P/(H)3/2
c) unit discharge Qu= Q/(H)1/2
7. Specific speed
Ns= N* (P) ½ / (H) 5/4
8. Percentage full load = Part load P/Max. load P ×100
TABLE OF CALCULATIONS

Dellivery Suction Venturi meter Readings Time for n

Vane Number of Speed ‘N’ Pressure, Pressure, rev of
Position Bulbs on in RPM ‘P’ in Kg/ ‘Pv’, in Pressure on Pressure on energy
cm2 mm of Hg Inlet side, ‘PI’ Throat, ‘PT’ meter, t sec
in Kg/cm2 in Kg/cm2

unde
Unit

Unit
Qua
ntiti

Hea
Venturimeter, Hv

Hydraulic Input,

es
BPSHAFT in watts

d
Efficiency in%
BPELEC in watts

r
Output Power,

Output Power,

In 'Q' in m3/s

PHYD in KW
Discharge

full Load
speed Ns
Head on

of water

Specific
'H' in m
Head
in m

%of

Unit Power

Discharge ,
speed
Unit

Unit
Nu

Qu
Pu

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 30 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS:

1) Why do we prefer unit characteristics to be plotted for a turbine?

2) Reaction Turbines are further classified as.
3) Why the runner blades are adjustable during operation?
4) What type of flow runner is Kaplan runner?
5) What is the other name of Stator Blades?
6) What is the role of casing in a reaction turbine?

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 31 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

STUDY THE MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF A FRANCIS TURBINE

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1) To determine the Constant head characteristic curves or main characteristic curves

2) To determine the Constant speed characteristic curves or operating characteristic
curves

AIM: -
To study the main characteristics of given Francis turbine at constant head and
speed.

APPARATUS: - Francis turbine test rig, tachometer

SPECIFICATIONS:-
1) MOTOR capacity – 7.5 H.P,3PH ,440v,50Hz

2) Turbine- 150mm dia impeller, speed 2400 rpm, max flow of water-1200lpm,max head-
20m

3) Loading –A.C generator

4) Electrical supply-3ph,440v

5) Pressure gauge -0-2kg/cm2 to measure discharge pressure.

6) Vacuum gauge 0-760 mm of hg to measure suction pressure.

INTRODUCTION
Hydraulic (or water) turbines are the machines which use the energy of water
(Hydro-power) and convert it into mechanical energy. Thus the turbine becomes the prime
mover to run the electrical generators to produce the electricity, Viz., Hydro-electric power.

The turbines are classified as Impulse & Reaction types. In impulse turbine,
the head of water is completely converted into a jet, which impulses the forces on the

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 32 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

turbine. In reaction turbine, it is the pressure of the flowing water, which rotates the runner
of the turbine. Of many types of turbine, the pelton wheel, most commonly used, falls into
the category of turbines. While francis & kaplan falls in category of impulse reaction
turbines.

Normally, pelton wheel (impulse turbine) requires high heads and low
discharge, while the francis & kaplan (reaction turbines) required relatively low heads and
high discharge. These corresponding heads and discharges are difficult to create in
laboratory size from the limitation of the pumps availability in the market. Nevertheless, at
least the performance characteristics could be obtained within the limited facility available
in the laboratories. Further, understanding various elements associated with any particular
turbine is possible with this kind of facility.

DESCRIPTION

While the impulse turbine is discussed elsewhere in standard text books, francis turbine, the
reaction type which is of present concern consists of main components such as propeller
(runner) scroll casing and draft tube. Between the scroll casing and the runner, the water
turns through right angle and passes through the runner and thus rotating the runner shaft.
When guide vane angles are varied, high efficiency can be maintained over wide range of
operating conditions.
The actual experimental facility supplied consists of a centrifugal pump set,
turbine unit, sump tank and venturimeter arranged in such a way that the whole unit works
on recirculating water system. The centrifugal pump set supplies the water from the sump
tank to the turbine through gate valve. The water after passing through the turbine unit
enters back to the sump tank through the draft tube. The water then flows back to the sump
tank through the venturimeter with pressure gauges for the measurement of flow rate.

The loading of the turbine is achieved by A.C Genarator.The provision for;

measurement of brake force (energy meter), turbine speed (digital RPM indicator), head on
the turbine (pressure gauge), head over the venturimeter (pressure, vaccum gauge, 2 no's)
are built-in on to the control panel.
The water enters a volute casing which completely surrounds the runner.
The cross sectional area of volute decreases along the fluid path in such a way as to keep
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 33 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

the fluid velocity constant in magnitude.Fr<Vll the volute the fluid passes between
stationary guide vanes, mounted all around the periphery of the runner. The function of
these guide vanes is to direct the fluid on to the runner at required angle. Each vane is
pivoted and, by a suitable mechanism all may be turned in synchronism so as to alter the
flow rate of the machine. In its passage through the runner the fluid is deflected by the
runner blades so that angular momentum is changed. From the centre of the runner the fluid
is turned to axial direction and flows to tail race via the draft tube. The lower end of the
draft tube must, under all conditions of operation, be submerged below the level of water in
the tail race. Only in this way it can be ensured that a turbine is full of water.

THEORY
Francis turbine is a inward mixed flow reaction turbine named after the
American Engineer James B.Francis.In a Francis Turbine, water enters the runner at its
outer periphery and flows out axially at its centre. This arrangement provides a large
discharge area with the given diameter of the runner. A part of the net available energy of
the water is converted into kinetic energy and the rest of the major portion remains as
pressure energy, as water enters the runner. The runner rotates due to reaction pressure
caused by the pressure difference at the runner entry and exit.

The principal component parts of Francis turbine are:

1. Scroll casing:-Its spiral shaped closed passage of gradually reducing cross s-
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 34 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

ectional area, enclosing the runner. Its function is to distribute the flow uniformly along the
periphery of the runner in such a way that the velocity remains constant at every point.
2. Guide Mechanism:-There are two main functions of the guide mechanism
a) To regulate the quantity of water supplied to the runner and
b) To adjust the direction of flow so that there is minimum shock at the
entrance to runner blades.
It consists of a series of guide vanes of aerofoil section fixed between to rings, in the
form of a wheel known as guide whee1.Each guide vane can be rotated about its pivot
centre, which is connected to a regulating ring by means of a link and lever. By operating
the regulating ring the guide vanes can be rotated, varying the width of the passage
between adjacent vanes, thus altering both the flow angle as well as the quantity of flow.

3.Runner:-The runner consists of a series of curved vanes arranged evenly around

the circumference, in the annular space between two plates. I t may be cast in one piece or
made of separate steel plates welded together. The runner vanes are so shaped that water
enters radically at the outer periphery and leaves it axially at the inner periphery. This
change in the direction of flow from radial to axial as it passes over the curved vanes
changes the angular momentum of the fluid thereby producing the torque, which rotates the
runner. The runner is keyed to shaft of the turbine.
4. Draft Tube:-It is a gradually expanding closed passage connecting the runner to
the tailrace (collecting tank).The lower end of the draft tube is always kept submerged in
water. The function of a draft tube is to convert the high kinetic energy of flow at runner
exit into pressure energy, thus increasing the efficiency of the turbine. It enables the turbine
to be installed above the tail race level without any loss of head.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 35 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

PROCEDURE

1. Connect the supply pump-motor unit to 3 ph, 440V, 30A, electrical supply, with neutral
and earth connections and ensure the correct direction of pump motor unit.
2. Keep the gate (butterfly valve) closed.
3. Keep the loading switches in off position.
4. Press the green button of the supply pump starter & then release.
5. a) Slowly, open the gate so that the turbine rotor picks up the speed and attains
maximum at full opening of the gate.
b) Keep the guide vane angles at required position.
6. a) Apply load on the turbine by switching on the loading switches (each time 2
switches).Note down speed, pressure, vacuum on the control panel, pressure gauge
readings of the venturimeter, and tabulate the results.
b) Change the position of the guide vane angles and repeat the readings. If necessary,
the gate valve (butterfly valve) also can be used for speed control.
7. Close the gate and then switch OFF the supply water pump set.
8. Follow the procedure described below for taking down the reading for evaluating the
performance characteristics of the Francis Turbine.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 36 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

A. To OBTAIN CONSTANT SPEED CHARACTERISTICS: (Operating

Characteristics)

1. Keep the guide vane opening at a particular position.

2. For loading the turbine, switch on the loading switch’s (2 switches each).
3. Note down all the readings in observation column for all loadings. Speed can be
maintained constant with help of butterfly valve.
4. Vary the gate opening setting to different position and repeat (2) for different speeds say
1000 rpm and tabulate the results.
5. Similarly vary the vane position and note down different speed readings. The above
readings will be utilized for drawing constant speed characteristics

B.TO OBTAIN CONSTANT HEAD CHARACTERISTICS: (Main Characteristics)

1. Select the guide vane angle position.

2. Keep the gate closed, and start the pump.
3. Slowly open the gate and set the pressure on the gauge.
4. For different electrical loads, change the guide vane angle position, and maintain the
constant head and tabulate the results as given in Table.

C.TO OBTAIN RUN-AWAY SPEED CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Switch OFF all the load on the turbine.
2. Keep guide vane angle at optimum position.
3. Slowly open the gate to maximum and note down the turbine speed. This is the run-away
speed which is maximum.

NOTE: Run-away speed is also influenced by the tightening in gland packing of the
turbine shaft. More the tightness, less the run-away speed.

D.PERFORMANCE UNDER UNIT HEAD - UNIT QUANTITIES:

In order to predict the behavior of a turbine working under varying

conditions and to facilitate comparison between the performances of the turbines of the
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 37 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

same type but having different outputs and speeds and working under different Heads, it is
often convenient to express the test results in terms of certain unit quantities. Unit
quantities refer to the turbine parameters which are obtained when a particular turbine
operates under a unit head. These quantities help to study the performance of a turbine
independent of actual head, discharge and power
output Thus making it possible to predict the behavior of a turbine working under different
conditions, and compare the performance of turbines of different sizes but of same type.
The different unit quantities are:

1. UNIT SPEED:-It is the theoretical speed at which a given turbine would

operate under a given head (i.e. at 1m)unit speed, Nu = N/H I/2

2. UNIT DISCHARGE:-It is the theoretical discharge at which a given turbine

would operate under a unit head and unit speed, Qu = Q/H I/2

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Do not start the pump if the voltage is less than 300 V.
2. Do not forget to give electrical neutral and earth connection correctly.
3. To start and stop the supply always keeps the gate closed.
4. Fill the water enough so that the pump does not choke..

FORMULAE USED
1. Output Power:

Electrical Power, BPelec= (n x 1000 x 3600) / EMC x t x 1000inKW

Where, n = number of rev lust ion of energy meter disc
EMC = Energy meter constant in rev/KW.hr =750 rev/kwhr
t= time for n revln of energy meter disc in sec
Shaft Power, BP SHAFT = BP ELEC / 0.7
70 % is the transmission efficiency

2. Discharge Rate through Venturimeter

Q = Cd (A1_xA2 (2xgxHv) 1/2)/ (A12_A22)1/2

Where, Cd= Coefficient of discharge= 0.98
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 38 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

AI = Inlet area of venturimeter (150mm diameter) = 0.0177 m2

A2 = Throat area of venturimeter (75mm dia) = 4.418 x l 0-3 m2
g = 9.81 m/s2
Hv = Head on venturimeter, m = 10 h = 10 (PI-PT)

3. Hydraulic input to the turbine (in KW)

PHYD = W Q H /1000
Where,
W = 9810 Kg/m3
Q = Flow rate of water in m3/sec from formulae-2.
H = Head on turbine in m

4. Head on the Turbine.1Hunit discharge

H=10(PI + Pv/760)

5.Turbine Efficiency
% η tur =BP SHAFT / HPhyd X 100

6. Unit quantities
1. unit speed Nu= N/ (H)1/2
2. unit power Pu = P/ (H)3/2
3. unit discharge Qu= Q/ (H)1/2
7. Specific speed
Ns= N* (P) ½ / (H) 5/4
8. Percentage full load = Part load P/Max. load P × 100

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 39 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

TABLE OF CALCULATIONS

Dellivery Suction Venturi meter Readings Time for n

Vane Number of Speed ‘N’ Pressure, Pressure, rev of
Position Bulbs on in RPM ‘P’ in Kg/ ‘Pv’, in Pressure on Pressure on energy
cm2 mm of Hg Inlet side, ‘PI’ Throat, ‘PT’ meter, t sec
in Kg/cm2 in Kg/cm2

Unit

Unit
Qua

Hea
ntiti

und
Venturimeter, Hv

Hydraulic Input,

es

er
BPSHAFT in watts

d
Efficiency in%
BPELEC in watts
Output Power,

Output Power,

In 'Q' in m3/s

PHYD in KW
Discharge

full Load
speed Ns
Head on

of water

Specific
'H' in m
Head
in m

Unit Power
%of

Discharge
speed
Unit

Unit
Nu

Qu
Pu

VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS:

1) Why do we prefer unit characteristics to be plotted for a turbine?
2) Francis Turbine is further classified as.
3) Why the runner blades are adjustable during operation?
4) Francis runner is which type of flow runner.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 40 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

STUDY OF THE OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF A CENTRIFUGAL

PUMP
Learning objectives:-
1) To know why priming is done
2) To know about an impeller
3) To study the different characteristics of a centrifugal pump with constant speed and
constant head.
Aim: -
To study the operating characteristics of centrifugal pump.

Apparatus: -
Centrifugal pump test rig, stopwatch, tachometer.

Specifications:-
Electrical service: 230V, 15A, 1ph, 50Hz,AC with Neutral & Earth connection
Pump: Centrifugal pump (Kirloskara make), 1HP, Max. Speed – 3000 rpm
Pressure Gauges: 0-2 Kg/cm2 range connection before delivery valve.
Vacuum Gauge: 0-760 mm of Hg, connected after suction valve
Energy meter: Single phase, Energy meter constant: 1200 rev/KW-hr
Speed Indicator: 0-9999 RPM (Digital Type)
Control Valves: Suction & Delivery
Total head: 8-12 m
Collecting tank: 0.12 m2 with butterfly valve

Description of apparatus:-
The present test rig is a self contained unit operated on closed circuit basis. The pump,
electric AC motor, collecting-measuring tank set, control panel are mounted on rigid frame
work with anti-vibration mounts. The following are the provisions incorporated with the
unit

1. For conducting the experiments at three or two speeds using AC motor.

2. The speed is indicated on digital RPM indicator.
3. To measure overall power to the AC motor using Energy meter.
4. The delivery and suction head are measured by using pressure & Vacuum Gauges.
5. For changing the pressure (Delivery Head) and Vacuum (Suction Head) by
operating the valves.
6. The flow rate is calculated using measuring (collecting) tank.
7. The overflow and butterfly valve are provided in collecting/measuring tank for
recirculation of water for closed circuit operation.
8. Change the belt to different speed positions and repeat the experiment.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 41 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

9. Repeat the experiment for different Discharge.

Theory:-

Centrifugal pumps are classified as rotodynamic type of pumps in which a dynamic

pressure is developed which enables the lifting of liquids from a lower to a higher level.
The basic principle on which a centrifugal al urn works is that when a certain mass of
liquid is made to rotate by an external force, it is thrown away from the central axis of
rotation and a centrifugal head is impressed which enables it to rise to a higher level. Now
if more liquid is constantly made available at the center of rotation, a continuous supply of
liquid at higher level may be ensured. Since in these pumps the lifting of the liquid is due
to centrifugal action, these pumps are called centrifugal pumps. In addition to the
centrifugal action, as the liquid passes through the revolving wheel or impeller, its angular
momentum changes, which also results in increasing the pressure of the liquid?
According to the general direction of flow of liquid within the passage of the rotating
wheel or impeller the rotodynamic pumps are classified as,
(i) Centrifugal pumps,
(ii) Half axial or screw or mixed flow pumps,
(iii) Axial flow or propeller pumps. .

In the impeller of a centrifugal pump the liquid flows in the outward radial direction,
while the flow of liquid in a propeller pump impeller is in the axial direction, parallel to the
rotating shaft. The mixed flow pump impeller has an intermediate form so that the flow of
liquid is in between the radial and axial directions. However, there are no rigid boundaries
separating these three types of pumps, and often all the three types of pumps are called
centrifugal pumps.
In general all the rotodynamic pumps closely resemble reaction type of hydraulic
turbines and they may be regarded as reversed reaction turbines. Thus the action of a
centrifugal pump is just the reverse of a radially inward flow reaction turbine. Similarly the
axial flow pumps are reverse of propeller or Kaplan turbines and the mixed flow pumps are
the reverse of mixed flow type turbines such as Francis turbine. In the present chapter only
centrifugal pumps have been described.
The main advantage of a centrifugal pump is that its discharging capacity is very
much greater than that of a reciprocating pump which can handle relatively small quantity
of liquid only, A centrifugal pump can be used for lifting highly viscous liquids such as
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 42 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

oils, muddy and sewage water, paper pulp, sugar molasses, chemicals etc. But a
reciprocating pump can handle only pure water or less viscous liquids free from impurities
as otherwise its valves may cause frequent trouble. A centrifugal pump can be operated at
very high speeds without any danger of separation and cavitation. As such it can be
coupled directly through flanged coupling to electric motor. The maximum speed of a
reciprocating pump is limited from the considerations of separation and cavitation. As such
reciprocating pumps can be operated at low speeds only and for that these pumps are
mostly belt driven. The maintenance cost of a centrifugal pump is low and only periodical
check up is sufficient. But for a reciprocating pump the maintenance cost is high because
the parts such as valves etc. may need frequent replacement. However, a reciprocating
pump can build up very high pressures as high as 69 x 106 N/m2 {700 kg(f)/cm2} or even
more and hence these pumps are used for lifting oil from very deep oil wells.
COMPONENT PARTS OF A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
Fig. shows the main component parts of a centrifugal pump which is described below:
(i) Impeller. It is a wheel or rotor which is provided with a series of backward curved
blades or vanes. It is mounted on a shaft which is coupled to an external source of energy
(usually an electric motor) which imparts the required energy to the impeller thereby
making it to rotate.

The impellers may be classified as. (a) Shrouded or closed impeller, (b) semi-open
impeller; and (c) open impeller, which are all shown in Fig. A 'closed or shrouded impeller'
is that whose vanes are provided with metal cover plates or shrouds on both sides. These
plates or shrouds are known as crown plate and lower or .base plate as shown in Fig. The
closed impeller provides better guidance for the liquid and is more efficient. However, this
type of impeller is most suited when the liquid to be pumped is pure and comparatively free
from debris.

If the vanes have only the base plate and no crown plate, then the impeller is known as
'semi-open type impeller'. Such an impeller is suitable even if the liquids are charged with
some debris.

An 'open impeller' is that whose vanes have neither the crown plate nor the base plate.
Such impellers are useful in the pumping of liquids containing suspended solid matter, such
as paper pulp, sewage and water containing sand or grit. These impellers are less liable to
clog when handing liquids charged with a large quantity of debris.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 43 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

(ii) Casing. It is an airtight chamber which surrounds the impeller. It is similar to the
casing of a reaction turbine. The different types of casings that are commonly adopted are
described later.

(iii) Suction Pipe. It is a pipe which is connected at its upper end to the inlet of the pump or
to the centre of the impeller which is commonly known as eye. The lower end of the
suction pipe dips into liquid in a suction tank or a sump from which the liquid is to be
pumped or lifted up.
The lower end of the suction pipe is fitted with a foot valve and strainer. The liquid
first enters the strainer which is provided in order to keep the debris (such as leaves,
wooden pieces and other rubbish) away from the pump.. It then passes through the foot
valve to enter the suction pipe. A 'foot valve' is a non -return or one-way type of valve
which opens only in the upward direction. As such the liquid will pass through the foot
valve only upwards and it will not allow the liquid to move downwards back to the sump.
(iv) Delivery Pipe. It is a pipe which is connected at its lower end to the outlet of the pump
and it delivers the liquid to the required height. Just near the outlet of the pump on the
delivery pipe a delivery valve is invariably provided. A delivery valve is a regulating valve
which is of sluice type and is required to be provided in order to control the flow from the
pump into delivery pipe.

WORKING OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

The first-step in the operation of a centrifugal pump is priming. Priming is the

operation in which the suction pipe, casing of the pump and portion of the delivery pipe up
to the delivery valve are completely filled with the liquid which is to be pumped, so that all
the air from this portion of the sump is driven out and no air pocket is left. It has been

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 44 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

observed that even the presence of a small air pocket in any of the portion of pump may
result in no delivery of liquid from the pump. the necessity of priming a centrifugal pump
is due to the fact that the pressure generated in a centrifugal pump impeller is directly
proportional to the density of the fluid that is in contact with it. Hence if an impeller is
made to rotate in the presence of air, only a negligible pressure would be produced with the
result that no liquid will be lifted up by the pump. As such it is essential to properly prime a
centrifugal pump before it can be started. The various methods used for priming a
centrifugal pump are discussed later.
After the pump is primed, the delivery valve is still kept closed and the electric motor
is started to rotate the impeller. The delivery valve is kept closed in order to reduce the
starting torque for the motor. The rotation of the impeller in the casing full of liquid
produces a forced vortex which imparts a centrifugal head to the liquid and thus results in
an increase of pressure throughout the liquid mass. The increase of pressure at any point is
proportional to the square of the angular velocity and the distance of the point from the axis
of rotation. Thus if the speed of the impeller of the pump is sufficiently high, the pressure
in the liquid surrounding the impeller is considerably increased. Now as long the delivery
valve is closed and the impeller is rotating, it just churns the liquid in the casing. When the
delivery valve is opened the liquid is made to flow in an outward radial direction thereby
leaving the vanes of the impeller at the outer circumference with high velocity and
pressure. At the eye of the impeller due to the centrifugal action a partial vacuum is
created. This causes the liquid from the sump, which is at atmospheric pressure, to rush
through the suction pipe to the eye of the impeller thereby replacing the liquid which is
being discharged from the entire circumference of the impeller. The high pressure of the
liquid leaving' the impeller is utilized in lifting the liquid to the required height through the
delivery pipe.
As the liquid flows through the rotating impeller it receives energy from the vanes
which results in an increase in both pressure and velocity energy. As such the liquid leaves
the impeller with a high absolute velocity. In order that the kinetic energy corresponding to
the high velocity of the leaving liquid is not wasted in eddies and efficiency of the pump
thereby lowered, it is essential that this high, velocity of the leaving liquid is gradually
reduced to a lower velocity of the delivery pipe, so that the larger portion of the kinetic
energy is converted into useful pressure energy. Usually this is achieved by shaping the
casing such that the leaving liquid flows through a passage of gradually, expanded area,
The gradually increased cross-sectional area of the casing also helps in maintaining
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 45 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

uniform velocity of flow throughout, because as the flow proceeds from the tongue T to the
delivery pipe, more and more liquid is added from the impeller. There are different types of
casings that are adopted for this purpose and on the basis of the type of casing used; the
centrifugal pumps are classified into different types as described in the next section.

TYPES OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

According to the type of casing provided, centrifugal pumps are classified into the
following two classes:
(1) Volute pump.
(2) Diffuser or turbine pump,
1. Volute Pump. In a volute pump the impeller is surrounded by a spiral shaped casing
which is known as volute chamber. As shown in Fig. 24 '2 the shape of the casing is such
that the sectional area of flow around the periphery of the impeller gradually increases from
the tongue T towards the deliver)' pipe. This increase in the cross-sectional area results in
developing a uniform velocity throughout the casing, because as the flow progresses from
the tongue T towards the delivery pipe, more and more liquid is added to the stream from
the periphery of the impeller. The volute casing may be designed to have the velocity of
flow approximately equal to that of the liquid leaving the impeller. If the casing is designed
according to this consideration then the loss of energy is considerably reduced, but the
conversion of kinetic energy 'into useful pressure energy will not be possible. On the other
hand if the casing is so designed that the casing velocity may be kept down to the value of
the velocity in the delivery pipe, then there will be considerable loss of energy due to the
difference between the casing velocity and that of the liquid discharged from the impeller.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 46 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

As such a compromise design is often used in which the casing is gradually enlarged so
that the velocity is gradually reduced, from the velocity of the liquid leaving the impeller to
that in the delivery pipe. The vortex chamber is usually formed as a part of the casing with
its side walls parallel or nearly parallel as shown in Fig. It acts as a diffuser wherein the
conversion of kinetic energy into pressure energy takes place as explained below. The
liquid after leaving the impeller enters the vortex chamber with a whirling motion, that is
the liquid particles move radially away from the centre following a rotary path while
passing through this chamber. Since no work is done on the liquid as it passes through this
chamber, its energy remains constant (except for the slight loss by friction). Therefore the
torque produced for the liquid does not change and hence a free vortex is formed as the
liquid passes through the vortex chamber. Since for a free vortex the velocity of whirl
varies inversely as its radial distance from the centre, there is a reduction in velocity of
flow of liquid as it passes through the vortex chamber. The reduction -in velocity is
accompanied by an increase in pressure. As such a vortex chamber serves a dual purpose of
reducing the velocity and increasing the efficiency of the pump by converting a large
amount of kinetic energy into pressure energy. The liquid after leaving the vortex chamber
passes through the volute chamber surrounding it, which further increases the efficiency of
the pump.

2. Diffuser or Turbine Pump. In the diffuser pump, the impeller is surrounded by a

series of guide vanes mounted on a ring called diffuser ring as shown in Fig. The diffuser
ring and the guide vanes are fixed in position. The adjacent guide vanes provide gradually
enlarged passages for the flow of liquid. The liquid after leaving the impeller passes
through these passages of increasing area, wherein the velocity of flow, decreases and the
pressure increases. The guide vanes are so designed that the liquid emerging from the
impeller enters these passages without shock. This condition may however be achieved by
making the tangent to the guide vane at the inlet tip to coincide with the direction of the
absolute velocity of liquid leaving the impeller. After passing through the guide vanes the
liquid flows into the surrounding casing which may be circular, and concentric with the
impeller or it may be volute shaped like that of volute pump. However, the common
practice is to adopt circular casings for these pumps.

These pumps which are provided with diffuser ring and guide vanes very much
resemble a reversed turbine and hence they are also known as turbine pumps. It has been
found from tests that a well designed diffuser pump is capable of converting as much as 75

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 47 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

percent of the kinetic energy of the liquid discharged from the impeller into pressure
energy. However these pumps will work with maximum efficiency only for one rate of
discharge at given impeller speed. This is so because the guide vanes will be correctly set
or shaped for one rate of discharge only and for other discharges a loss of energy by shock
or turbulence will occur at the entrance to the guide vanes, thereby resulting in a low
efficiency. Moreover turbine pumps are more costly than the simple volute pumps. As such
the arrangement of diffuser ring is usually employed only in multistage pumps.

The centrifugal pumps may also be classified on the basis of certain other

factors as indicated below:

(a) Number of impellers per shaft.
(b) Relative direction of flow through impeller.
(c) Number of entrances to the impeller.
(d) Disposition of shaft, and
(e) Working head.

According to the number of impellers provided the pumps may be classified as single-
stage and multi-stage. A single stage centrifugal pump has only one impeller mounted on
the shaft. A multi-stage centrifugal pump has two or more impellers connected in series,
which are mounted on the same shaft and ate enclosed in the same casing.

On the basis of the direction of flow of the liquid through the impeller the pump may
be classified as radial flow pump, mixed 'flow pump and axial flow pump. A radial flow
pump is that in which the liquid flows through the impeller in the radial direction only.
Ordinarily all the centrifugal pumps are provided with radial flow impellers. In mixed flow
pumps the liquid flows through the impeller axially as well as radially, that is there is a
combination of radial and axial flows. A mixed flow impeller is just a modification of
radial flow type in this respect that the former is capable of discharging a large quantity of
liquid. As such mixed flow pumps are generally used where a large quantity of liquid is to
be discharged to low heights. In axial flow pumps the flow through. The impeller is in the
axial direction only. Axial flow pumps are usually designed to deliver very large quantities
of liquid at relatively low heads. However, it is not justified to call. Axial flow pumps as
centrifugal pumps, because there is hardly any centrifugal action in their operation.
Depending on the number of entrances to the impeller the centrifugal pumps may be
classified as single suction pump and double suction pump. In a single action (or entry)
pump liquid is admitted from a suction pipe on one side of the impeller. In a double suction
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 48 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

(or entry) pump liquid enters from both sides of the impeller. A double suction pump has
an advantage that by this arrangement the axial thrust on the impeller is neutralized. Further
it is suitable for pumping large quantities of liquid since it provides a large inlet area.
The centrifugal pumps may be designed with either horizontal or vertical disposition of
shafts. Generally the pumps are provided with horizontal shafts. However, for deep wells
and mines the pumps with vertical shafts are more suitable because the pumps with
vertically disposed shafts occupy less space.
According to the head developed, the centrifugal pumps may be classified as low head,
medium head and high head pumps. A low head pump is the one which is capable of
working against a total head up to 15 m. A medium head pump is that which is capable of
working against a total head more than 15 m but up to 40.m. A high head pump is the one
which is capable of working against a total head above 40 m. Generally high head pumps
are multi-stage pumps.

Performance of Pumps – Characteristic Curves:-

A pump is usually designed for one speed, flow rate and head, but in actual practice the
operation may be at some other conditions of head or flow rate and for changed conditions
the behavior of pump may be quite different. In order to predict the behavior and
performance of pump under varying conditions tests are performed and the results of test
are plotted. The curves are called characteristic curves

(a). Main and operating characteristics

(b). Constant efficiency curves
(c). Constant curves and constant discharge curves

(a). Main and operating characteristics:-

In order to obtain the main characteristic curves of pump it is operated at different
speeds. For each speed rate of flow discharge is varied by means of a delivery valve and for
different values of manometric head Hm, shaft power P and overall efficiency o, are
measured or calculated. The same operation is repeated for different speeds of pump. Then
Hm Vs Q, P Vs Q and o Vs Q curves for different speeds are plotted, so that three sets of
curves are obtained, which represent main characteristics of pump.

(b). Constant efficiency curves:-

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 49 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

The iso-efficiency curves facilitate direct determination of range of operations of a

pump with a particular efficiency.

(c). Constant head and constant discharge curves :-

These heads are useful in determining the performances of a variable speed pump
for which the speed constantly varies.

Procedure:-
1. Fill the sump tank with clean water.
2. Keep the suction & delivery valves open.
3. Connect the power cable to 1 ph, 220 V, 15 Amps.
4. Select the required speed using step cone pulley arrangement.
5. Keep the delivery valve fully open after priming.
6. Switch ON the mains and motor.
7. Note down the speed using digital RPM indicator.
8. Note down the pressure gauge, Vacuum gauge and time for number of revolutions
of Energy meter disc.
9. Operate the butterfly valve too note down the collecting tank reading against the
known time, and keep it open when the readings are not taken.
10. Repeat the experiment for different openings of the delivery valve (pressure & flow
rate), note down the readings as indicated in the tabular column.
11. Repeat the experiment for different speeds so that the pressure gauge reading are
shown and repeat the steps 4 & 9.
12. After the experiment is over, keep the delivery valve open and switch OFF the
mains.
13. Calculate the results using formulae given and tabulate it.
14. Draw the graphs of Head Vs Discharge.

Model calculations:-
1. Basic Data/Constants:
1 HP = 745 watts
2
1 Kg/cm = 760 mm of Hg (10 m of water)
Density of water “ρw” = 9810 N/m3
Energy meter constant = 1200 rev/Kw-hr
Area of collecting tank = 0.12 m2
2. Electric power as indicated by energy meter:
Hpelec = (n*1000*60*60)/(1200*t*1000) in KW
Hpshaft = Hpelec * 0.60 in KW
Where “n” is no. of revolutions of energy meter disc
“t” is time taken for n revolutions in seconds
0.60 is Transmission Efficiency
3. Discharge rate “Q” in m3/sec:
Q = (A*R)/(1000*T) in m3/sec
Where “A” is area of collecting tank (0.12 m2)
“R” is rise in level f water collected in mm
“T” is time in seconds for “R” cm rise of water
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 50 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

4. Total head “H” in mtr:

H = (10*P)+(Pv*(13.6/1000))+X
Where “P” is pressure in Kg/cm2
“Pv” is the vacuum pressure in mm of Hg
“X” is correction head = 0.7 m
5. Hydraulic power (Delivered by the pump):
Hppump = (wQH)/1000 in KW
Where “w” = 9810 N/m3
“Q” is discharge from step 3
“H” is Head from step 4
6. Pump efficiency:
%ηpump = Ppump/Pshaft

Graphs:-
(a). Qact Vs Ht (b). Qact Vs o (c). Qact Vs SP

Precautions:-
1. Don’t start the pump if the voltage is less than 180 V.
2. Don’t forgot to give neutral and earth connections to the unit.
3. Frequently (at least once in three months) grease/oil the rotating parts.
4. At least once in a weak, operate the unit and avid clogging of moving parts.
5. Replace the water possibly once in a month.
6. Don’t exceed 1.5 kg/cm2 on pressure gauge reading and never fully close the
delivery valve.
7. Priming is must before starting the pump. Pump should never be run empty.
8. Use all the controls and switches carefully.

Result:-
The main operating characteristic curves of centrifugal pump are observed.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 51 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Observations:-
Speed/Valve Delivery Pr. Suction Pr. Time for 3 Time taken for
Position “P” in “Pv” in mm revs of 10 cm rise in
Kg/cm2 of Hg energy meter water level
“t”

Speed P Pv Total Qa in Ppump Hp Elec Hp Shaft η

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 52 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Head m3/s in
“H” in
KW In KW In KW
m

VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS:-

1) Can cavitation take place in a pump? If so where and why?
2) Comment on relation ship between design point specific speed and specific speed
obtained from the observations.
3) What is the nature of curves plotted
4) Plot the pump characteristic curve for each pump speed and discuss the relationship
between head and discharge.
5) Compute the water horsepower at each flow rate and head difference.
6) Discuss the accuracy of the method used to determine the flow rate and head difference
across the pump. Estimate the magnitude of any suspected error.
7) Discuss how you would develop an experiment to evaluate the efficiency of the Pump.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 53 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

MULTISTAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP TEST RIG

Learning objectives:-
1. To know why priming is done.
2. To know about an impeller.
3. To study the different characteristics of a centrifugal pump with constant speed and
constant head.

AIM:-
To study the operating characteristics of a multi stage centrifugal pump.
APPARATUS:-
Multiple stage Centrifugal pump test rig, stopwatch, tachometer.
SPECIFICATIONS:-
1) Electrical supply- 440v,A.C, 3 PH
2) Motor- 7.5 H.P,2850 RPM
3) Centrifugal pump-4-stage,7.5 h.p,2850 rpm
4) Pressure gauge-1 for each stage-4 No’s
5) Suction vacuum gauge 0-760 mm Hg
6) Measuring tank size-0.25 m2 area

THEORY:
In general, a pump may be defined as a mechanical device which, when interposed in a
pipe line, converts the mechanical energy supplied to it from some external source into
hydraulic energy, thus resulting in the flow of liquid from lower potential to higher
potential.
The pumps are of major concern to most Engineers and Technicians.
The types of pump vary in principle and design. The selection of the pump for any
particular application is to be done by understanding their characteristics. The most
commonly used pumps for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes are: Centrifugal,
Piston, Axial flow, Air jet, Diaphragm and Turbine pumps. Most of these pumps fall into
the main class, namely: Rotodynamic, Reciprocating (Positive Displacement), Fluid (Air)
operated pumps. These pumps are also available in multistage versions.
While the principle of operation of others pumps is discussed elsewhere, the
Multistage Centrifugal Pump which is of present concern falls into the category of
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 54 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Rotodynamic Pumps. In this pump, the liquid is made to rotate in a closed chamber (Volute
Casing) thus creating the Centrifugal action which gradually builds the pressure gradient
towards outlet thus resulting in the continuous flow. These pumps compared to Reciprocat-
ing Pumps are simple in construction, more suitable for handling viscous, turbid ( muddy)
liquids, can be directly coupled to high speed electric motors ( without any speed
reduction ), easy to maintain. But, their hydraulic heads per stage at low flow rates is
limited, and hence not suitable for very high heads compared to Reciprocating pumps of
same capacity and stage. But, as the pump is of Multistage (Four - Stage) construction, the
pressure gradually builds up in successive stages, all most equally in stage. The present test
rig allows the students to understand and draw the operating characteristics at various
heads, flow rates and speeds, and also study the pressure buildup pattern in all the four
stages.
DESCRIPTION:
The present pump test rig is a self-contained unit operated on closed
circuit basis. The Pump, Electric Motor, Collecting Tank, Sump Tank and Control Panel
are arranged with the following provisions:

1. For conducting the experiments at Constant Speed.

2. For measuring the input power to the pump by Energy Meter.
3. For recording the RPM using Digital RPM Indicator.
4. For recording the pressure in each stage and vacuum.
5. For changing the pressure (Delivery Head) and Vacuum (Suction Head) by operating the
Valves.
6. For measuring the discharge by Collecting Tank - Level Gauge provision.
7. For recirculating of water back to the sump tank by overflow provision. .

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 55 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

PROCEDURE:

All the necessary instruments along with its accessories are readily
connected. It is just enough to follow the instructions below:

1. Fill in the Sump Tank with clean water.

2. Keep the delivery valve open.
3. Connect the power cable to 3 ph, 440 V, 20 A with earth connection.
4. Switch-ON the Mains, so that the Mains-ON indicator glows. Now, switch-ON the
pump.
5. Now, you will find the water starts flowing to the measuring tank.
6. Close the delivery valve slightly, so that the delivery pressure is readable.
7. Operate the delivery valve to note down the collecting tank reading, against the known
time, keep it open when the readings are not taken.
8. Note down Pressures in each stage.
9. Note down the other readings as indicated in the tabular column.
10. Repeat the experiment for different openings of the delivery valve.. .
11. Tabulate the readings.
12. After the experiment is over keep all the delivery, valves open.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Do not start the pump if the voltage is less than 300 V.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 56 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

2. Do not forget to give electrical neutral and earth connection correctly.

3. Add a little" Machine Coolant" to the water to prevent rusting of parts.
4. There is no danger of water being not there in the Sump Tank, since the measuring tank
is fitted with overflow pipe.

CONCLUSIONS:
The readings are tabulated.
The performance curves are drawn for one particular speed. The similar curves
could be drawn for other sets of readings.
The characteristic curves obtained are similar to the typical curves normally
obtained for this kind of pumps.
An attempt has been made to give an insight to the students as to how the test rig
can be used to draw the performance characteristics of various pumps. The performance
curves also show the expected trend quantitatively. It should not be assumed as the
quantitative analysis as the performance varies with Suction, Head and Speed other than
the ones created, and also gland packing tightness.
The information presented in this report is to be looked into from the point of view
of academic value rather than commercial value. A lot more information can be drawn
using this test rig and from the knowledge of the standard text books.
SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:-.

1) Electrical Power As Indicated By Energy Meter:

HP ELEC = n ×1000×3600/ EMC×t×1000
Where,
t= Time taken for n rev of energy meter.
EMC= energy meter constant (200 rev/K.W.hr)
2) Discharge Rate
Q= A×R/1000×T
3) Total Head:
H=10(Delivery Pressure + Vacuum Head) .
=10 (P+ Pv /760)
Where, P = P4. Kg/cm2
Pv =760 mm of Hg.
4. Hydraulic Horse Power (Delivered by the Pump):
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 57 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

HP PUMP =WQH/1000

Where,
W= 9810 N/m3
Q= Flow rate of water in m3/sec
H= Head on turbine in mts
5. Pump Efficiency:
% η PUMP = HP PUMP / HP ELEC
6. Overall efficiency
% η Overall= HP PUMP / HP SHAFT

TABLE OF CALCULATIONS

Discharge
‘P’ Kg/Cm2 Vacum in Energy Meter Discharge Height Height of
Delivery Pressure / mm of Hg reading for 1 of Water Collected Water
Head stage ‘Pv’ revn. In secs ‘t’ in mm ‘h’ Collected in
mm ‘T’
I II III IV

Head in Discharge in
H Ppump HPelec HPSHART % pump % overall Remarks
meter m3/ Sec

VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS :-

1) What is the nature of curves plotted

2) Plot the pump characteristic curve for each pump speed and discuss the relationship
between head and discharge.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 58 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

3) Compute the water horsepower at each flow rate and head difference.
4) Discuss the accuracy of the method used to determine the flow rate and head difference
across the pump. Estimate the magnitude of any suspected error.
STUDY THE PERFORMANCE OF RECIPROCATING PUMP

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:-
To calculate the efficiency of reciprocating pump
To determine the relationship between efficiency and head
AIM: -
To study the performance of reciprocating pump.

APPARATUS: -
Reciprocating pump test rig, tachometer, stopwatch.

SPECIFICATIONS:-
Electrical service: 230V, 15A, 1ph, 50Hz,AC with Neutral & Earth connection
Pump: Centrifugal pump (Kirloskara make), 1HP, Max. Speed – 400 rpm (rated)
Pressure Gauges: 0-7 Kg/cm2 range connection before delivery valve.
Vacuum Gauge: 0-760 mm of Hg, connected after suction valve
Energy meter: Single phase, Energy meter constant: 1200 rev/KW-hr
Speed Indicator: 0-9999 RPM (Digital Type)
Control Valves: Suction & Delivery
Total head: 30-35 m
Collecting tank: 0.12 m2 with butterfly valve
Recommended Oil: SAE 20-40 Oil, 250 ml

Description of apparatus:-
The apparatus consists of single cylinder, double acting reciprocating pump mounted
on the sump tank. The pump is driven by A.C motor with stepped cone pulley. An energy
meter measures electrical input to motor. Measuring tank is provided to measure the
discharge of the pump. The pressure and vacuum gauges provided to measure the delivery
pressure and suction vacuum respectively.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 59 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Theory:-
In general a pump may be defined as a mechanical device which when interposed in a
pipeline, converts the mechanical energy supplied to it from some external source into
hydraulic energy and transfers the same to the liquid through the pipeline, thereby
increasing the energy of the flowing liquid. Almost all the pumps increase the pressure
energy of the liquid which is subsequnetly converted into potential energy as the liquid is
lifted from a lower level to higher level. The various pumps may broadly be classified into
the following two types:
(i) Positive-displacement pumps.
(ii) Rotodynamic pumps (or dynamic-pressure pumps).
The 'positive displacement' pumps are those pumps in which the liquid is
sucked and then it is actually pushed or displaced due to the thrust exerted on it by a
moving member, which results in lifting the liquid to the required height. These pumps
usually have one or more chambers which are alternately filled with the liquid to be
pumped and then emptied again. As such the discharge of liquid pumped by these pumps
almost wholly depends on the speed of the pump. The most common example of the
positive displacement type of pumps is that of reciprocating pumps.
The 'rotodynamic pumps' have a rotating element, called impeller, through which-as the
liquid passes its angular momentum changes, due to which the pressure energy of the liquid
is increased; As such a rotodynamic pump does not push the liquid as in the case of a
positive displacement pump. The centrifugal pumps are the most common examples of
rotodynamic pumps.

MAIN COMPONENTS AND WORKING OF A RECIPROCATING PUMP

A reciprocating pump essentially consists of a piston or plunger which moves to and
fro in a close fitting cylinder, as shown in Fig. The cylinder is connected to suction and
delivery pipes, each of which is provided with a non-return or one way valve called suction
valve and delivery valve respectively. The function of non-return or one way valve is to
admit liquid in one direction only. Thus the suction valve allows the liquid only to enter the
cylinder and the delivery valve permits only its discharge from the cylinder. The piston Of
the plunger is connected to a crank by means of a connecting rod. As the crank is rotated at
uniform speed by a driving engine or motor, the piston or plunger moves to and fro (or
backward and forward) in the cylinder. When the crank rotates from e =0' to e = 180', the
piston or plunger which is initially at its extreme left position (that is, it is completely
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 60 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

inside the cylinder), move to its extreme right position, (that is, it moves outwardly from
the cylinder). During the outward movement of the piston or plunger a partial vacuum
(pressure below atmospheric) is created in the cylinder, which enables the atmospheric
pressure acting on the liquid surface in the well or sump below, to force the liquid up the
suction pipe and fill the cylinder by forcing open the suction valve. Since during this
operation of the pump the liquid is sucked from below it is known as its suction stroke.
Thus at the end of the suction stroke the piston or plunger is at its extreme right position,
the crank is at e = 180' (i.e., at its outer dead centre), the cylinder is full of liquid, the
suction valve is closed and the delivery valve is just at the point of opening.
When the crank rotates from e = 180 º to e = 360 º the piston or plunger moves
inwardly from its extreme right position towards left. The inward movements of the piston
or plunger causes the pressure of the liquid in the cylinder to rise above atmospheric, due to
which the suction valve closes and the delivery valve opens. The liquid is then forced up
the delivery pipe and raised to the required height. Since during this operation of the pump
the liquid is actually delivered to the required height, it is known as its delivery stroke. At
the end of the delivery stroke the piston or plunger is at extreme left position, the crank is
at e = O º or 360 º (i.e., at its inner dead centre) so that it has completed one full revolution,
and both the suction and the delivery valves are closed. The same cycle is repeated as the
crank rotates. This is in general the working principle of a reciprocating 'pump.

TYPES OF RECIPROCATING PUMPS

The reciprocating pumps can be classified according to the liquid being in contact with
one side or both the sides of the piston or plunger; and according to the number of
cylinders provided.
According to the first basis of classification the reciprocating pumps may be classified

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 61 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

as:
(i) Single acting pump.
(ii) Double acting pump.
If the liquid is in contact with one side of the piston or plunger only, it is known as
single acting pump. Thus as shown in Fig. a single acting pump has one suction and one
delivery pipe and in one complete revolution of crank there are only two strokes-one
suction and one delivery stroke. On the other hand if the liquid is in contact with both the
sides of the piston or plunger, it is known as double acting pump .As shown in Fig. a
double acting pump has two suction and two delivery pipes with appropriate valves, so that
during each stroke when suction takes place on one side of the piston, the other side
delivers the liquid. In this way in the case of a double acting pump in one complete
revolution of the crank there are two suction strokes and two delivery strokes.
According to the number of cylinders provided the reciprocating pumps may be
classified as:
(i) Single cylinder pump.
(ii) Double cylinder pump.
(iii) Triple cylinder pump.
(iv) Duplex double acting pump.
(v)Quintuplex pump.

Function of air vessel: -

The air vessel is a cast iron chamber, which has opening at the base, through which water
can flow, one chamber is fitted on the suction pipe just near to suction valve and one on the
delivery pipe just near the delivery valves. Each channel is converted through a small
length of pipe. For efficient working, vacuum vessels should be 3 to 5 times the discharge
per stroke and the air vessel on the delivery side 6 to 10 times the discharge per stroke.

During the middle of delivery stroke, when pump is facing the water into the
delivery pipe at a velocity greater than the average, excess water flows into the air vessel
and compresses the tapped air in upper portion of the chamber. At the end of the stroke
when water flows into the delivery pipe at a rate less than the average water flows out of air
vessel from the excess amount of water already stored to keep the discharge more uniform.
This fluctuating water column causes the acceleration head to be reduced that in between
pump cylinder and the air vessel, which allows the pump to run at higher speeds. Thus in
this way it saves large amount of power lost in developing accelerating heads on suction
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 62 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

side, water first collects in the air vessel and then flows in cylinder on delivery side. Water
first goes to air vessel and then flows with a uniform velocity. An air vessel provided in a
reciprocating pump acts like a flywheel of an engine.

Other functions of an air vessel:-

1. Reduces the possibility of separation and cavitation.

2. Allows pump to run at high speed.
3. Suction head can be increased by increasing the length of pipe below air vessel.
4. Large amount of power is saved due to low acceleration head.
5. Uniform discharge.

Operating characteristic curves of reciprocating pump :-

The operating characteristic curves indicate the performance of the reciprocating

pump are obtained by plotting discharge, power input and overall efficiency against the
head developed by the pump when it is operating at a constant speed under ideal
conditions. The discharge of a reciprocating pump operating at constant speed is
independent of the head developed by the pump. However, in actual practice it is observed
that the discharge of a reciprocating pump slightly decreases as head developed by pump
increases almost linearly beyond a certain minimum value with the increase in head
developed by the pump. The overall efficiency of this pump also increases with increase in
head developed by the pump.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 63 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Procedure :-

1. Fill the sump tank with clean water.

2. Keep the suction & delivery valves open.
3. Connect the power cable to 1 ph, 220 V, 15 Amps.
4. Select the required speed using step cone pulley arrangement.
5. Switch ON the mains and motor.
6. Note down the speed using digital RPM indicator.
7. Note down the pressure gauge, Vacuum gauge and time for number of revolutions
of Energy meter disc.
8. Operate the butterfly valve too note down the collecting tank reading against the
known time, and keep it open when the readings are not taken.
9. Repeat the experiment for different openings of the delivery valve (pressure & flow
rate), note down the readings as indicated in the tabular column.
10. Repeat the experiment for different speeds so that the pressure gauge reading are
shown and repeat the steps 4 & 9.
11. After the experiment is over, keep the delivery valve open and switch OFF the
mains.
12. Calculate the results using formulae given and tabulate it.
13. Draw the graphs of Head Vs Discharge.

Precautions:-
1. Don’t start the pump if the voltage is less than 180 V.
2. Don’t forget to give neutral and earth connections to the unit.
3. Frequently (at least once in three months) grease/oil the rotating parts.
4. At least once in a weak, operate the unit and avid clogging of moving parts.
5. Replace the water possibly once in a month.
6. Never allow to raise the discharge pressure above 4kgf/cm2
7. Use all the controls and switches carefully

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 64 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Model calculations:-

1. Basic Data/Constants:
1 HP = 745 watts
1 Kg/cm2 = 760 mm of Hg (10 m of water)
Density of water “ρw” = 9810 N/m3
Energy meter constant = 1200 rev/Kw-hr
Area of collecting tank = 0.12 m2
2. Electric power as indicated by energy meter:
Hpelec = (n*1000*60*60)/(1200*t*1000) in KW
Hpshaft = Hpelec * 0.60 in KW
Where “n” is no. of revolutions of energy meter disc
“t” is time taken for n revolutions in seconds
0.60 is Transmission Efficiency
3. Discharge rate “Q” in m3/sec:
Q = (A*R)/(1000*T) in m3/sec
Where “A” is area of collecting tank (0.12 m2)
“R” is rise in level f water collected in mm
“T” is time in seconds for “R” cm rise of water
4. Total head “H” in mtr:
H = (10*P)+(Pv*(13.6/1000))+X
Where “P” is pressure in Kg/cm2
“Pv” is the vacuum pressure in mm of Hg
“X” is correction head = 0.5 m
5. Hydraulic power (Delivered by the pump):
Hppump = (wQH)/1000 in KW
Where “w” = 9810 N/m3
“Q” is discharge from step 3
“H” is Head from step 4
6. Pump efficiency:
%ηpump = Ppump/Pshaft

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 65 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Graphs:-

1. Ht Vs Qact

2. Ht Vs SP

3. Ht Vs o

Result:-

The performance curves are obtained and are compared with standard ones.

OBSERVATIONS

Delivery Pr. Suction Pr. Time for 3 revs Time taken for 10
Speed/Valve
“P” in “Pv” in mm of energy meter cm rise in water
Position
Kg/cm2 of Hg “t” level

Delivery Pr. Suction Pr. Time for 3 revs Time taken for 10
Speed/Valve
“P” in “Pv” in mm of energy meter cm rise in water
Position
Kg/cm2 of Hg “t” level

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 66 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Speed P Pv Total Qa in Ppump in Hp Elec Hp Shaft η

Head m3/s
KW In KW In KW
“H” in
m

VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS

1) what is a pump?
2) Classify types of pumps
3) The discharge of a reciprocating pump operating at constant speed is----------- of the
head developed by the pump.
4) In actual practice it is observed that the discharge of a reciprocating pump slightly
----------- as head developed by pump increases almost linearly.

CALIBRATION OF VENTURIMETER
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 67 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Learning objectives:-
1) To know about the flow through a venturi.
2) To know the discharge of a venturi.
3) To measure the discharge of fluid

Aim: - To determine the coefficient of discharge of venturimeter.

Apparatus: - Flow measurement device apparatus, stopwatch.

Specifications:-
1) Supply pipe of Φ25mm (3/4”) connected to inlet manifold.
2) Venturimeter size inlet Φ 25 mm and throat Φ12.5mm
3) Orifice meter size inlet Φ 25mm and throat Φ12.5mm
4) Differential mercury manometer of 60cm height.
5) Measuring tank Area 0.075 m2.

Description of apparatus:-
The apparatus consists of self-contained unit operated on a closed circuit basis consisting of
flow meter, venturimeter, orificemeter and measuring tank.
Venturimeter :
The basic principle on which the venturimeter works is that by reducing the cross
sectional area of the flow passage, a pressure difference is created and the measurement of
the pressure difference enables the determination of the discharge through the pipe
Venturimeter consists of (1).an inlet section followed by a convergent cone, (2).a
cylindrical throat and (3).a gradually divergent cone. The inlet section of the venturimeter is of
the same diameter as that of the pipe, which is followed by a convergent cone. The convergent
cone is a short pipe, which tapers from the original
size of the pipe to that of the throat of the venturimeter. The throat of a venturimeter is a short
parallel side tube having its cross sectional area smaller than that of the pipe. The divergent
cone of the venturimeter is gradually diverging with its cross sectional increasing from that of
the throat to the original size of the pipe. At the inlet section and the throat, i.e. section 1 of
venturimeter taps is provided through pressure rings. The convergent cone of venturimeter has
total included angle of 21 1 and its length parallel to the axis is approximately equal to 2.7
(D - d) where ‘D’ is diameter at inlet section and‘d’ is diameter at throat.
Since the cross sectional area o throat is smaller than the cross sectional area of the inlet
section, the velocity of flow will become greater than that at the inlet section, according to the
continuity equation. The increase in the velocity of flow at the throat results in the decrease in
the pressure at this section. As such a pressure difference is developed between the inlet
section and the throat of the venturimeter. The pressure difference between these sections can
be determined by connecting a differential manometer between the pressure taps provided at
the sections or by connecting a separate pressure gauge at each of the taps. The measurement
of the pressure difference between these sections enables the rate of flow of fluid to be
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 68 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

calculated. For a greater accuracy in the measurement of the pressure difference, the cross
sectional area of the throat should be reduced considerably, so that the pressure at the throat is
reduced so much that the pressure at this section drops below the vapour pressure of the
flowing fluid, then the flowing fluid may vaporize and air bubbles may be formed in the liquid
at this section. This results in cavitations.
In order to avoid the phenomena of cavitations to occur, the diameter of the throat can be
reduced only upto a certain limited value. In general, the diameter of the throat may vary from
1/3 to 3/4 of the pipe diameter and more commonly the diameter at the throat is kept equal to
1/2 of the pipe diameter.

.
1. Integratery type turbine flow meter:
This device consists of a small impeller fitted in the fluid flow. As the fluid passes the
impeller rotates and rotation of impeller is transferred to indicating dial through a gear
train. These instruments are used where told quantity of fluid is to be measured rather than
the flow rate. However, with the help of stopwatch, flow rate also can be determined.

Let time required for 10 lts of water flow be‘t’ sec.

Then flow rate Q = 10/t lts/s = 0.01/t m3/s
Normally, dials of these instruments are calibrated in it. Most common use of these
instruments is for city water supply.
2. Rotameter:
The rotameter is also known as variable-area meter as shown in figure. It consists of a
vertical transparent conical tube in which there is a rotor or float having a sharp circular upper
edge. The float has grooves on its head, which ensures that as liquid flow part, it causes rotor
or float to rotate about its axis. The rotor is heavier than the liquid and hence it will sink to the
bottom of the tube when the liquid is at rest. But as the liquid begins to flow through the meter,
it lifts the float until it reaches a steady level corresponding to the discharge. The rate of flow
of liquid can then be read from graduations engraved on the tube by prior calibration, the sharp
edge of the float serving as a pointer. The rotating motion of the float helps to keep it steady.
In this condition of equilibrium, the hydrostatic and dynamic thrusts of the liquid on the under
side of the rotor will be equal to the hydrostatic thrust on the upper side, plus the apparent

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 69 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

weight of the rotor. Top edge of float serves as a pointer. A calibration scale is fixed near the
tubes. They can be calibrated in LPS, LPH; m3/hr, etc.
The flow meter and rotameter are not suitable for the system where surges or water
hammers are likely to occur, as it damages the instrument.

3. Venturimeter:
The basic principle on which the venturimeter works is that by reducing the cross
sectional area of the flow passage, a pressure difference is created and the measurement of
the pressure difference enables the determination of the discharge through the pipe.
Venturimeter consists of (1).an inlet section followed by a convergent cone, (2).a
cylindrical throat and (3).a gradually divergent cone. The inlet section of the venturimeter is of
the same diameter as that of the pipe, which is followed by a convergent cone. The convergent
cone is a short pipe, which tapers from the original size of the pipe to that of the throat of the
venturimeter. The throat of a venturimeter is a short parallel side tube having its cross sectional
area smaller than that of the pipe. The divergent cone of the venturimeter is gradually
diverging with its cross sectional increasing from that of the throat to the original size of the
pipe. At the inlet section and the throat, i.e. section 1 of venturimeter taps is provided through
pressure rings. The convergent cone of venturimeter has total included angle of 21 1 and its
length parallel to the axis is approximately equal to 2.7 (D - d) where ‘D’ is diameter at inlet
section and‘d’ is diameter at throat.
The length of the throat is equal to‘d’. The divergent cone has a total included angle
lying between 5 to 15 (preferably about 6). This results in converging cone of the
venturimeter to be of smaller length than its diverging cone. This is so because from the
consideration of the continuity equation it is obvious that in the convergent cone the fluid is
being accelerated from the inlet section to the throat section, but in the divergent cone the fluid
is retarded from the throat section to the end section of the venturimeter. The acceleration of
the flowing fluid may be allowed to take place rapidly in a relatively small length, without
resulting in appreciable loss of energy. However, if the retardation of flow is allowed to take
place rapidly in a relatively small length then the flowing fluid will not remain in contact with
the boundary of the diverging flow passage or in other words the flow separates from the walls
and the eddies are formed which in turns results in excessive energy loss. Therefore, in order
to avoid the possibility of flow separation and the consequent energy loss, the divergent cone
of the venturimeter is made longer with a gradual divergence. Since the separation of flow may

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 70 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

occur in the divergent cone of the venturimeter, this portion is not used for discharge
measurements.
Since the cross sectional area o throat is smaller than the cross sectional area of the inlet
section, the velocity of flow will become greater than that at the inlet section, according to the
continuity equation. The increase in the velocity of flow at the throat results in the decrease in
the pressure at this section. As such a pressure difference is developed between the inlet
section and the throat of the venturimeter. The pressure difference between these sections can
be determined by connecting a differential manometer between the pressure taps provided at
these sections or by connecting a separate pressure gauge at each of the taps. The measurement
of the pressure difference between these sections enables the rate of flow of fluid to be
calculated. For a greater accuracy in the measurement of the pressure difference, the cross
sectional area of the throat should be reduced considerably, so that the pressure at the throat is
reduced so much that the pressure at this section drops below the vapour pressure of the
flowing fluid, then the flowing fluid may vaporize and air bubbles may be formed in the liquid
at this section. This results in cavitations. In order to avoid the phenomena of cavitations to
occur, the diameter of the throat can be reduced only upto a certain limited value. In general,
the diameter of the throat may vary from 1/3 to 3/4 of the pipe diameter and more commonly
the diameter at the throat is kept equal to 1/2 of the pipe diameter.

Procedure:-
All the necessary instrumentations along with its accessories are readily connected. It is just
enough to follow the instructions below:
Fill in the sump tank with clean water.
Keep the delivery valve closed
Connect the power cable to one I Phase, 220 volts, 10 Amps with earth connection
Switch ON the pump and open the delivery valve

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 71 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Open the corresponding ball valve of the venturimeter pipeline

Adjust the flow through the control valve of the pump.
Open the corresponding ball valves fitted to venturi tappings
Note down differential head readings in the manometer
Open butterfly valve to note down the collecting tank reading against the known time and keep it
open when the readings are normal
Change the flow rate and repeat the experiment.

Model calculations:-

Actual discharge Qact = (A*R)/( 100t).

A =Area of the measuring tank in m2

R = rise of water level for time t seconds in cm.

t = time taken in seconds for R, cm rise of water

a1 = cross sectional area at inlet of the pipe ( = 25mm)

a2 = cross sectional area at throat ( = 12.5mm)

Qth = a1* a2 (2gh)1/2/ (a12 – a22)1/2 m3/s

Cd = coefficient of discharge, it is the order of 0.96-0.98

Cd = Qact /Qthe

Precautions:-
1. Don’t start the pump if the voltage is less than 180 volts
2. Don’t forgot to give electrical neutral and earth connections correctly
3. It is danger if no water being there in the sump tank
4. Initially put clean water free from foreign material and change once in three months
5. Remove the air bubbles if any, before taking the readings.
6. Atleast every week, operate the unit for five minutes to prevent the clogging of the
moving parts.

Result:-Calibrated value of coefficient of discharge for venturimeter is ---------

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 72 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Graphical value of coefficient of discharge for venturimeter is ---------

Observations:

Manometer Reading Time Taken For 10cm

Openings
mm of Hg rise of water t sec

(i)

(ii)

D= 25 mm
(iii)
d = 12.5 mm

(iv)

(v)

(vi)
readings, mm

rise of water

Area (a1) m2

Area (a2) m2
Manometer

Time taken
Openings

for 10 cm

Area (A)

Qact m3/s
Qth m3/s
of Hg

sec

Cd
D= 25 0.075
(i) mm m2
d = 12.5
(ii) mm

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 73 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

(vi)

MODEL GRAPHS:

Trouble shooting:

 If pump gets jam, open the back cover of pump and rotate the shaft manually.
 If pump gets heat up, switch OFF the main power for 15 minutes and avoid closing
the flow control valve and by-pass valve at a time.

VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS:-

1. Which meter in your opinion is the best one to use?

2. Which meter incurs the smallest pressure loss?
3. Is this necessarily the one that should always be used?
4. Which is the most accurate meter?
5. What is the difference between precision and accuracy?

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 74 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

CALIBRATION OF ORIFICEMETER
Learning objectives:-
1) To know about the flow through an orifice
2) To know the discharge of an orifice.
3) To measure the discharge of fluid

Aim: - To determine the coefficient of discharge of orifice meter.

Apparatus: - Flow measurement device apparatus, stopwatch.
Specifications:-
1) Supply pipe of Φ25mm (3/4”) connected to inlet manifold.
2) Venturimeter size inlet Φ 25 mm and throat Φ12.5mm
3) Orificemeter size inlet Φ 25mm and throat Φ12.5mm
4) Differential mercury manometer of 50cm height.
5) Measuring tank area 0.075 m2

Description of apparatus:-

1. Integratery type turbine flow meter:

This device consists of a small impeller fitted in the fluid flow. As the fluid passes the
impeller rotates and rotation of impeller is transferred to indicating dial through a gear
train. These instruments are used where told quantity of fluid is to be measured rather than
the flow rate. However, with the help of stopwatch, flow rate also can be determined.
Let time required for 10 lts of water flow be ‘t’ sec.
Then flow rate Q = 10/t lts/s = 0.01/t m3/s
Normally, dials of these instruments are calibrated in it. Most common use of these
instruments is for city water supply.

2. Rotameter:
The rotameter is also known as variable-area meter as shown in figure. It consists of a
vertical transparent conical tube in which there is a rotor or float having a sharp circular
upper edge. The float has grooves on its head, which ensures that as liquid flow part, it
causes rotor or float to rotate about its axis. The rotor is heavier than the liquid and hence it
will sink to the bottom of the tube when the liquid is at rest. But as the liquid begins to flow
through the meter, it lifts the float until it reaches a steady level corresponding to the
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 75 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

discharge. The rate of flow of liquid can then be read from graduations engraved on the
tube by prior calibration, the sharp edge of the float serving as a pointer. The rotating
motion of the float helps to keep it steady. In this condition of equilibrium, the hydrostatic
and dynamic thrusts of the liquid on the under side of the rotor will be equal to the
hydrostatic thrust on the upper side, plus the apparent weight of the rotor. Top edge of float
serves as a pointer. A calibration scale is fixed near the tubes. They can be calibrated in
LPS, LPH; m3/hr, etc.
The flow meter and rotameter are not suitable for the system where surges or water
hammers are likely to occur, as it damages the instrument.

3. Orificemeter:
An orifice meter is another simple device used for measuring the discharge through
pipes. Orifice meter also works on the same principle as that of venturimeter i.e. by
reducing the cross sectional area of the flow passage, a pressure difference between the two
sections is developed and the measurement of the pressure difference enables the
determination of the discharge through the pipe.
Orifice meter is a cheaper arrangement for discharge measurement through pipes and its
installation requires a smaller length as compared with venturimeter.

An orifice meter consists of a flat circular plate with a circular hole called orifice, which
is concentric with the pipe axis. The thickness of the plate ‘t’ is less than or equal to 0.05
times the diameter of the pipe. From the upstream face of the plate the edge of the orifice is
made flat for a thickness ‘t1’ less than or equal to 0.02 times the diameter of the pipe and
for measuring thickness of the plate it is beveled with the bevel angle lying between 30 to
45 (preferably 45).
However, if the plate thickness ‘t’ is equal to ‘t 1’, then no leveling is done for the edge
of the orifice. The plate is clamped between the two pipes flanges with the leveled surface
facing downstream as shown in figure. The diameter of the orifice may vary from0.2 to
0.85 times the pipe diameter, but generally the orifice diameter is kept as 0.5 times the pipe
diameter. Two pressure taps are provided, one at section 1 and on the upstream side of the
plate and the other at section 2 on the downstream side of the orifice plate. The upstream
pressure tap is located at a distance of 0.9 to 1.1 times the pipe diameter from the orifice
plate. The position of the downstream pressure tap, however, depends on the ratio of the
orifice diameter is less than the pipe diameter as the fluid flows through the orifice the

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 76 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

flowing stream converges which results in the acceleration of the flowing fluid in
accordance with the consideration of continuity. The effect of convergence of flowing
stream extends upto a certain distance upstream from the orifice plate and therefore
pressure tap on the upstream side is provided away from the orifice plate at a section where
this effect is non-existent. However, on the downstream side the pressure tap is provided
quite close to the orifice plate at the section where the converging jet of fluid has almost the
smallest cross-sectional area (which is known as vena contracta) resulting in almost the
maximum velocity of flow and consequently the minimum pressure at this section.
Therefore a maximum possible pressure difference exists between the section 1 and 2,
which is measured by connecting a separate pressure gauge at each of the pressure taps.
The jet of fluid coming out of the orifice gradually expands from the vena contracta to
again fill the pipe. Since in the case of an orifice meter an abrupt change in the cross
sectional area of the flow passage is provided and there being no gradual change in the
cross sectional area of the flow of passage as in the case of a venturimeter, there is a grater
loss of energy in an orifice meter than in venturimeter.
Q = Cd a0 a1 (2gh)1/2/ (a12 - a02)1/2
where Cd = coefficient of discharge for orificemeter
a0 = area of orifice
a1 = area of the pipe
h = differential head
The coefficient of discharge of an orificemeter is much smaller than that for a
venturimeter. This is because in the case of an orificemeter, there are no gradual
converging and diverging flow passages as in the case of a venturimeter, which results in a
greater loss of energy and consequent reduction of the coefficient of discharge for an
orificemeter.
The value of coefficient of discharge is a function of Reynolds’s number and (d 0/d1 =
m). Typical values of C d are given. Note also that the value of C d depends on the specific
construction of the orifice meter (i.e., the placement of pressure tap) whether the orifice
plate edge is square or beveled.
As high values of Re (greater then 105) the coefficient is nearly constant for given value
of ‘m’. Also coefficient of discharge decreases with increasing values of the coefficient of
contraction.
The orifice meter described above is known as sharp edged orifices and usually when
chamfered on one side must be used with the square edge facing the flow. In general for
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 77 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

high values of ‘Re’ and ’m’, the coefficient of discharge is approximately 0.6 to 0.61
indicting that losses are fairly high.
Orifice meter is having the value of C d as 06 to 0.65. Head loss across it is very high.
Length of orificemeter is short. Cost is low. It gives reasonably good values. This is fitted
to the pipes of large diameter.
Venturimeter is having the value of Cd as 0.95 to 0.98. Head loss across it is very low.
Length of venturimeter is long. Cost is high. It gives very good results. This is fitted to the
pipes of small diameter.

Procedure:-
All the necessary instrumentations along with its accessories are readily connected. It is just
enough to follow the instructions below:
Fill in the sump tank with clean water.
Keep the delivery valve closed
Connect the power cable to one I Phase, 220 volts, 10 Amps with earth connection
Switch on the pump and open the delivery valve
Open the corresponding ball valve of the venturimeter pipeline
Adjust the flow through the control valve of the pump.
Open the corresponding ball valves fitted to venturi/Orifice tappings
Note down differential head readings in the manometer
Open butterfly valve to note down the collecting tank reading against the known time
and keep it open when the readings are normal
Change the flow rate and repeat the experiment.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 78 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Model calculations:-
Actual discharge Qact = (A*R)/( 100t).

A =Area of the measuring tank in m2

R = rise of water level for time t seconds in cm.

t = time taken in seconds for R, cm rise of water

a1 = cross sectional area at inlet of the pipe ( = 25mm)

a2 = cross sectional area at throat ( = 12.5mm)

Qth = a1* a2 (2gh)1/2/ (a12 – a22)1/2 m3/s

Cd = coefficient of discharge, it is the order of 0.96-0.98

Cd = Qact /Qthe

Precautions:-
1. Don’t start the pump if the voltage is less than 180 volts
2. Don’t forgot to give electrical neutral and earth connections correctly
3. It is danger if no water being there in the sump tank
4. Initially put clean water free from foreign material and change once in three months
5. Remove the air bubbles if any, before taking the readings.
6. Atleast every week, operate the unit for five minutes to prevent the clogging of the
moving parts.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 79 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Observations:

Manometer Reading Time Taken For 10cm

Openings
mm of Hg rise of water t sec

(i)
D= 25 mm
(ii)
d = 12.5 mm
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
readings, mm

rise of water
Manometer

Time taken
Openings

for 10 cm

Area (a1)

Area (a2)
Area (A)
of Hg

Qact
Qth
sec

Cd
(i)

(ii)
D= 25
(iii) mm 0.075
d = 12.5 m2
(iv) mm

(v)

(vi)

Result:-
Calibrated value of coefficient of discharge for orifice meter is ---------
Graphical value of coefficient of discharge for orifice meter is ---------
VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS:-
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 80 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

1. Which meter in your opinion is the best one to use?

2. Which meter incurs the smallest pressure loss?
3. Is this necessarily the one that should always be used?
4. Which is the most accurate meter?
5. What is the difference between precision and accuracy?

DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE OF A MOUTH PIECE

Learning objectives:-
1) To know about the coefficient of discharge of a mouth piece
2) To know the characteristics of the free jets and their comparison

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 81 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Aim: - To determine the coefficient of discharge for a small Mouthpiece by falling head
method.

Apparatus: - Mouthpiece test rig, stopwatch.

Specifications:-

(a). Area of tank, A = 0.3m x 0.3m

(b). Area of mouthpiece, a = d2/4 m2
where diameter, d = 12mm

Description of apparatus:-
The apparatus consists of a self-contained unit operated on a closed circuit basis,
consisting of an intake tank which is fed from a centrifugal pump fitted below the intake
tank. Water enters into the tank from the bottom of the tank through a regulating valve and
leaves through a mouthpiece. A piezometer is fitted to the intake tank for measurement of
water head in intake tank.

Theory:-
A mouthpiece is a short tube of length not more than two to three times diameter,
which is fitted to a circular opening or orifice of the same diameter, provided in a tank or
vessel containing fluid such that it is an extension of the orifice and through which also the
fluid may be discharged.
The mouthpiece may be classified on the basis of their shape, position and the
discharge conditions. According to the shape of the mouthpiece may be classified as
cylindrical, convergent, divergent and convergent-divergent. According to the position of
mouthpiece may be classified as external and internal mouthpiece. An external mouthpiece
is the one, which is fitted to tank or reservoir such that it is projected outside. An internal
mouthpiece is also called re-entrant or Borda’s mouthpiece, which is fitted to a tank or
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 82 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

reservoir such that it is projected inside the tank or reservoir and it, is generally of
cylindrical shape only. According to discharge conditions the mouthpiece may be classified
as running free and running full mouthpieces. Generally the conditions of discharge will be
developed only in the case of internal mouthpieces.

Procedure:-
1. Switch on the pump and allow the water to enter the intake tank through regulating
valve.
2. Control the regulating valve till the water level in the tank becomes steady.
3. Measure the head ‘H’ using a piezometer tube fixed to the intake tank.
4. Measure the discharge time of mouthpiece corresponding to the fall of head H 1 to H2
from the intake tank. Take about four readings.

Model calculations:-
A = 0.09 m2
a = (0.012)2/4 = 1.131 x 10-4 m2

Cd = 2A (H11/2 – H21/2)/a (2g) 1/2 t m3/s

Where A = area of tank
a = area of mouthpiece
H1 = initial head = 0.8 m
H2 = final head = 0.7 m
t = time taken for falling of head from H1 to H2
= 32.1 sec
Cd = 2 x 0.09 (H11/2 – H21/2)/1.131 x 10-4 x (2 x 9.81)1/2 t

Precautions:-
1. When taking reading with the piezometer tube, see that air is not trapped in the tube.

Result:-
The coefficient of discharge for a small mouthpiece is _______.

Observations;

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 83 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Sno. Head on mouthpiece Time Cd=

H1 cm) H2 (cm) T (sec) 2A(H1-H2)/at(2g)1/2
1. 80 70
2. 70 60
3. 60 50
4. 50 40
5. 40 30
6. 30 20

VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS:-

1) Do you observe any difference between the experimental and theoretical trajectories?
2) What is a vena contracta?
3) What is coefficient of contraction?
4) What is coefficient of discharge?

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 84 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

DETERMINE THE FRICTION FACTOR OF DIFFERENT PIPES

Learning objectives:-
1) To study the frictional flow characteristics for fully developed flow through pipes

2) To estimate the power consumption type and size of a pump required for given
application.

Aim: - To determine the darchy’s friction factor ‘f’ of different diameter pipes of different
materials.

Apparatus: - Pipe friction apparatus, stopwatch.

Specifications of apparatus:-
Galvanized iron pipe -  27 mm
Galvanized iron pipe -  21 mm
Galvanized iron pipe -  15 mm

Description of apparatus:-
The apparatus consists of four pipes of various materials. GI pipe of 22.5 mm and 16
mm, copper of 14mm and aluminum of 13 mm so that losses of head can be compared for
different diameters and different materials. A flow control valve is provided at inlet of
pipes, which enables experiments to be conducted at different flow rates that are at
different velocities.

Tapings are provided along the length of pipes so that drop of head can be visualized
along the length of pipe. Each pipe is provided with valve at outlet which enables heads to
be controlled.

Theory:-
Fluids are transported through the pipe in various applications like distribution of gas to
domestic through pipes, supply of steam is thermal systems may provide for adequate
pumping required.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 85 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

It is necessary to study the frictional flow characteristics for fully developed flow
through pipes. The prediction of friction for flow through a pipeline enables the designer to
estimate the power consumption type and size of a pump required for given application.
The friction factor depends upon the flow of fluids depends externally on the roughness
of the surface. In laminar flow, this friction resists the fluid to flow. In turbulent flow, it is
due to resistance offered by viscosity of fluid and surface roughness. Experiment have
shown that the frictional resistance varies with degree of roughness of surface area of
easing in contact with fluid, velocity in laminar flow and as square of velocity in turbulent
flow, inversely as viscosity of fluid. The frictional resistance causes loss of head h f and it is
given by Darchy’s equation.

Procedure:-

All the necessary instrumentations along with its accessories are readily connected. It is just
enough to follow the instructions below:
1. Fill in the sump tank with clean water.

2. Keep the delivery valve closed

3. Connect the power cable to one I Phase, 220 volts, 10 Amps with earth connection

4. Switch on the pump and open the delivery valve

5. Open the corresponding ball valve of the pipeline

6. Adjust the flow through the control valve of the pump.

7. Note down differential head readings in the manometer

8. Open butterfly valve to note down the collecting tank reading against the known time and
keep it opens when the readings are normal

9. Change the flow rate and repeat the experiment.

Model calculations:-
1) Losss of Head due to friction (hf);
hf =12.6*H/1000 m.

H=Difference in Mercury column in mm of Hg in double column Manometer. 12.6 &

1000 are conversion factors.

2. Actual Discharge(Q):

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 86 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Qact = (A*R)/(100t).

A =Area of the measuring tank in 0.075 m2

R = rise of water level for time t seconds in cm.

t = time taken in seconds for R, cm rise of water.

3. Velocity Head(V):

V= =

a1= Area of pipe to which the fitting is fitted.

4) Friction Factor (f):

f=

f= L=1.3m

5) Reynolds Number:

Re= = (for circular pipe)

V= average velocity of flow

D= diamater of pipe

= Kinematic viscosity coefficient of the fluid (water) =1X10-6 m2/sec

Precautions:-
1. Take care that there are no air bubbles in the apparatus while noting the piezometric
readings.
2. There should not be any leakage from pipe fittings.

Result:-
Darcy weisbach friction factor of different pipes are determined Friction,
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 87 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

1. (Dia =27 mm)=…………..

2. (Dia =21 mm) =…………..

3. (Dia =15 mm) =…………..

Observations:-

Manometer reading mm Time Taken for 10cm rise

Type of pipe
of Hg of water t sec

27mm

21 mm

15 mm

Valve Type of Manometer Time Are hf Re Dischar- V f

openin pipe reading mm taken a(A) ge (Q)
g of Hg for
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 88 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

10cm
raise of
water t
s
Full
1 ‘‘
¾
(Dia =
½
27 mm)
¼
Full
3/4 ‘‘
¾
(Dia =
½
21 mm)
¼
Full
1/2 ‘‘
¾
(Dia =
½
15 mm)
¼

Viva Voce Questions:-

1) What is the effect of e/d on pipe friction?
2) How would you calculate the power required to pump a given fluid through a long pipe
line with a known diameter made of a specified material?
3) What is the effect of an upstream disturbance and roughness on the critical entry
distance for a pipe flow?
4) Comment the importance of Reynolds number.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 89 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

DETERMINE THE LOSSES IN PIPE FITTINGS

Learning objectives:-
1. To know the loss of head due to bend (large bend).

2. To know the loss of head due to elbow (small bend).

3. To know the loss of head due to sudden enlargement.

4. To know the loss of head due to sudden contraction.

5. To know the loss of head at the entrance of the pipe.

6. To know the loss of head at the exit of the pipe.

7. To know the loss of head due to obstruction in a pipe

.

Aim :- To determine the losses of various pipe fittings.

Apparatus :- Pipe fitting apparatus, stopwatch.

Description of apparatus :-
The apparatus consists of various fittings live pipe bends (large bend), pipe elbow (small
bend), sudden expansion of the flow and sudden contraction of the flow. The setup consists of
15mm piping, in which the above fittings are installed. A pressure tapping is provided at inlet
and outlet of each fitting, which is connected to a common differential manometer. A gate
valve at inlet and a bypass valve at pump discharge control the flow of water.

Specification of apparatus :-

1. Basic piping of 25mm size

2. 25mm small bend
3. 25mm large bend
4. Sudden expansion from  10mm to  25mm
5. Sudden contraction from  25mm to  10mm
6. 1/2 h.p centrifugal pump to circulate the water through the piping.
7. Multiple tapping differential manometers
8. Sunk tank of suitable capacity
9. Measuruing tank area 0.075 m2.
9. Measuruing tank-300mm x 300mm x300mm height.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 90 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Theory :-

While installing a pipe line for conveying a fluid, it is generally not possible to install a
long pipeline of same size all over and straight for various reasons, live space restrictions,
aesthetics, location of output, etc. Hence, the pipe size varies and it changes its direction. Also,
various fittings required to be used. All these variations of sizes and fittings cause the loss of
fluid head.

When a fluid is flowing through a pipe, the fluid experiences some resistances due to
which some energy of the fluid is lost. The loss of energy is broadly classified as major losses
and minor losses. The major loss of energy as the fluid flows through the pipe is caused due to
friction.

The loss of energy due to change in velocity of the flowing fluid in magnitude and
direction is called minor loss of energy. The minor loss of energy includes the following
cases :

1. Loss of head due to bend (large bend).

2. Loss of head due to elbow (small bend).

3. Loss of head due to sudden enlargement.

4. Loss of head due to sudden contraction.

5. Loss of head at the entrance of the pipe.

6. Loss of head at the exit of the pipe.

7. Loss of head due to obstruction in a pipe.

In case of long pipe the above losses are small as compared to the losses of head due to
friction and hence they are called minor losses and may be neglected. But in case of short
pipes these may be considered since they are having significant loss when compared to
frictional losses.

Knowledge of head loss through transition enables the designer to select the type of fittings
and to optimize the number of fittings so that to reduce the head loss. These losses also help to
know the pumping power and discharge through pipe systems in advance.

When the fluid emerging from the smaller pipe to larger pipe, the fluid emerging from
smaller pipe being able to take a sharp turn at the corners follows a path shown by the
streamline. Consequently at this section the flow separates from the boundary, forming regions
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 91 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

of separation in which the turbulent eddies are formed which result in the loss of energy which
is ultimately dissipated as heat. The region of separation however extends up to some distance
on the downstream where the flowing liquid again follows the boundary of the pipe of larger
cross section area.

When the liquid flows from the larger pipe to the smaller pipe, it is not possible to apply the
impulse momentum equation to a control volume. This is because just upstream of the junction
between two pipes, in the wider pipe the streams are curved and the liquid is accelerated, due
to which the pressure at the annular face varies in an unknown manner, which cannot be
determined easily. Moreover in region just upstream of the junction there being converging or
accelerating flow of no major loss of energy occurs. However, immediately downstream of the
junction as the liquid flows from the wider pipe to the narrower pipe a vena-contracta is
formed; after which the stream of liquid widens to fill completely the narrower pipe. In
between the narrower pipe and the wall of pipe a lot of eddies are formed which cause a
dissipation of energy. It is due to the formation of these eddies and dissipation of energy that
the most of the loss of the energy is caused in the case of a sudden contraction.

When the liquid enters a pipe from a large vessel (or tank or reservoir) some loss of
energy occurs at the entrance of the pipe, which is sometimes known as the inlet loss of
energy. The flow pattern at the entrance to the pipe is similar to that in case of sudden
contraction and hence the loss of energy at the entrance to the pipe is assumed to be the same
as in case of sudden contraction.

The outlet end of the pipe carrying a liquid may be either left free so that the liquid is
discharged freely in the atmosphere. The liquid leaving the pipe at its outlet and still posses a
kinetic energy corresponding to the velocity of flow of fluid in the pipe, which is ultimately
dissipated in the form of free jet. When the outlet end of a pipe is connected to a large
reservoir, the flow is pattern is similar to that of the sudden enlargement and hence the loss of
head may also be determined with the condition that A2.

The loss of energy due to an obstruction in a pipe takes place on account of the reduction in
the cross-sectional area of the pipe by the pressure of the obstruction, which is followed by an
abrupt enlargement of the stream beyond the obstruction.

The loss of energy can be considerably, reduced if in place of a sudden contraction or a

sudden enlargement is provided. This is so because, in a gradual contraction or a gradual
enlargement the velocity of the fluid is gradually increased or reduces, and thus, as far as

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 92 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

possible, the formation of eddies responsible for the dissipation of energy is eliminated. The
device that reduces the velocity of fluid gradually is known as a diffuser. Generally the loss of
head in a gradual contraction or a gradual enlargement may be expressed as h l =k [(v1 –v2)/2g]
2
. The value of k depends on angle of convergence or divergence and on the ratio of upstream
and downstream cross sectional areas. For gradual contraction the value of ‘k’ is usually very
small even for larger increase as the angle of divergence increases.

The bends are provided in a flow passage to change the direction of flow. The change in
direction of flow also results in causing loss of energy. The loss in the bends is due to the
separation of flow form the boundary and the consequent formula of the eddies result in the
dissipation of energy in turbulence. The loss of heads in bends provided in pipes may be
expressed as hl=kv2/2g. The value of k depends on the total angle of bend and on the relative
radius of curvature R/d, where ‘R’ is the radius of curvature of the pipe axis and‘d’ is the
diameter of the pipe.

Procedure:-

All the necessary instrumentations along with its accessories are readily connected. It is just
enough to follow the instructions below:

1. Fill in the sump tank with clean water.

2. Keep the delivery valve closed

3. Connect the power cable to one I Phase, 220 volts, 10 Amps with earth connection

4. Switch on the pump and open the delivery valve

5. Open the corresponding ball valve of the pipeline

6. Adjust the flow through the control valve of the pump.

7. Open the corresponding ball valves fitted to fitting

8. Note down differential head readings in the manometer

9. Open butterfly valve to note down the collecting tank reading against the known time and
keep it open when the readings are normal

10. Change the flow rate and repeat the experiment.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 93 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Model calculations:

Elbow:

In elbow there is no change in the magnitude of velocity of water, but there is change in
the direction of water, hence head loss exists.

hexpt = k*0.5* (V2/2g) ; find out the value of k.

Pipe bends:

Similar to elbow, loss of head at bend is due to the change in the direction of water. But
unlike the elbow, change of direction is not abrupt; hence loss of head is less as compared to
elbow.

Sudden contraction:

At sudden contraction the velocity of water increases, which causes pressure head to drop
(according to Bernoulli’s theorem), in addition to this there is loss of head due to sudden
contraction.

Sudden expansion:

At sudden expansion of flow, pressure increases due to reduce in velocity, but there
is a pressure drop due to sudden expansion also.

Rise of pressure due to reduction in velocity, hv = (Vo2/2g) – (Vi2/2g)

Loss of head due to sudden expansion

Actual, he = k (Vi-Vo)2/2g

1. Actual Discharge(Q):
Qact = (A*R)/(100t).

A =Area of the measuring tank in m2

R = rise of water level for time t seconds in cm.

t = time taken in seconds for R, cm rise of water.

2. Loss of Head due to Fitting(hf) :

hf=12.6*H/1000 m.

H=Difference in Mercury column in mm of Hg in double column Manometer.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 94 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

12.6 & 1000 are conversion factors.

3. Velocity Head(V):

V= =

a1= Area of pipe to which the fitting is fitted.

4. Additional Friction Loss(K):

K= =

5. Additional Frictional Loss for sudden Expansion(K):

K= V2=

6. Additional Frictional Loss for sudden contraction(K):

K=

Conclusion:-

1. For any type of fitting, there is a loss of head but its magnitude depends

upon the type of fitting.

2. Loss of head occurs due to change in magnitude or direction of the fluid

velocity.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 95 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Precautions:-

1. Open both the manometer cocks slowly and simultaneously, otherwise

the mercury will run away from the manometer.

2. Operate the valves gently. Do not rotate them forcibly.

3. Always use clean water for the experiment.

Observations:

Manometer reading mm Time taken for

Type of Fitting. S.No.
of Hg. 10 cm rise of water

SUDDEN 2
CONTRACTION 3

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 96 -
 N
Type of Fitting.

SUDDEN
CONTRACTIO

3
2
1
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
S.No.

Area of inlet section (a1)

4
3

Area of inlet section (a2)

Manometer reading mm

- 97 -
Time taken for 10cm rise of water t
sec
Area (A)

Discharge Q in m3/s

Loss of Head hf in m

Velocity (V1) in m/s

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Velocity (V2) in m/s
FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Additional frictional Loss

 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Model Graphs:

1. Hf Vs V2/(2g)
2. Hf Vs (

Result:-

1. The loss of head for elbow is -----

2. The loss of head for pipe bend is -----

3. The loss of head for sudden contraction is -----

4. The loss of head for sudden expansion is -----

VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS:-

1) Why head loss for sudden expansion is more than the head loss for a sudden contraction
for the same diameter ratio.
2) What is the device that reduces the velocity of fluid gradually?
3) What is the reason for the loss in the bends due to the separation of flow form the
boundary which result in the dissipation of energy in turbulence?

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 98 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

VERIFICATION OF BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:-
1) To know about how Bernoulli’s theorem can be proved
2) To give an interpretation in terms of different forms of energy possessed by the fluid.
Aim: - To verify Bernoulli’s theorem.

Apparatus: - Bernoulli’s apparatus, stopwatch.

Description of apparatus:-
The apparatus consists of a self contained operated unit on a closed circuit basin,
consisting of a centrifugal pump, sump tank, balancing tanks. A rectangular variable cross
sectional area conduct fixed in between feed tank and balancing tank with connection with
piezometric tubes at different sections for the measurement of pressure head. A collecting
tank is provided for actual discharge measurement. The rectangular flow channel is tapered
along the length. Flow area at inlet is maximum and its goes on reducing towards outlet.

Theory:-
It states that in a steady irrotational flow of an incompressible fluid the total energy at a
point is constant. Bernoulli theorem may be thought of work energy theorem on the
principal of conservation of energy. Each term of the equation can be given interpretation
in terms of different forms of energy possessed by the fluid. Bernoulli’s equation can be
written as
P1/g +V12/2g +Z1= constant
The total energy means summation of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy
or datum energy.
If ‘P’ is the pressure acting on an area of fluid and if the fluid moves a distance x due to
this pressure then
Pressure energy = work done
= force x displacement
= P x area x displacement
= P x A x x
= Pressure x volume.
Pressure energy per unit volume = pressure x x x A/A x x

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 99 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

= pressure ‘P’
The kinetic energy of a working of a fluid of mass ‘m’ moving with a velocity ‘v’ is given
by mv2/2.
Therefore, KE per unit volume = mv2/2 volume =  v2/2
Where ‘’ is density of fluid.
If a fluid of mass ‘m’ is at a height from the surface of earth, its PE is mgh.
Potential Energy per unit volume = mgh/volume = gh
Bernoulli’s also be define as for a streamline of a non-viscous, incompressible fluid in a
steady state of flow, the sum of pressure energy, KE and PE remains constant.
Consider, the Bernoulli’s equation
P+ v2/2 + gh = constant
Dividing the equation by W = g, we get
P/g + v2/2g + h =constant
where P/g is called pressure head
v2/2g is called velocity head
h is called datum head or gravitational head or PE

Assumptions made in Bernoulli’s equation:-

1. The viscous effects are negligible.
2. The flow is steady.
3. The equation applies along a streamline.
4. The fluid is incompressible.
5. No energy is added or removed from the fluid along the streamline.
For the flow of real fluids since there is always some energy of flowing fluid
converted into heat due to viscous and turbulent shear and consequently, there is a certain
amount of energy loss. Hence for the flow of real fluid
P1/g + v12/2g + z1 = P2/g + v22/2g + z2 + hl
where ‘hl’ is the loss of energy between the points under consideration.
For a compressible flow density is not constant for isothermal process, the Bernoulli’s
equation is given as
P logeP/g + v2/2g + h = constant
For adiabatic process;
(K/k-1)P/g + v2/2g + h =constant

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 100 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Applications of Bernoulli’s equation:-

1. Aerodynamic lift
2. Rotation of a spinning ball
3. Fluid flow applications of venturimeter, orifice meter and pitot tube.
4. Nozzle meter or flow meter
5. To deal the problems of flow under a sluice gate which is a construction
in an open channel.
6. Free discharge jet
7. Radial flow
8. Free vertex rotation
9. In pumps, compressors, turbines and open channels.

Procedure:-
Fill in the sump tank with clean water.
Keep the delivery valve closed.
Connect the power cable to one I Phase, 220 volts, 10 Amps with earth connection.
Switch ON the pump. Now, you will find water flowing the collecting tank through
Venturimeter.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 101 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Now, you find the different piezometric heads for corresponding points of
venturimeter for constant supply head and delivery head
Note down all the piezometric readings and velocity head at particular point is also
noted separately by bringing the inserted probe to that point.
Note down the height of the water at supply tank and delivery tank
Change the delivery head by pushing down the overflow pipe and repeat the
experiment.
Also, change the flow rate and repeat the experiment

Model calculations:-

(a) Area of flow channel A = d2/4

Actual discharge Q = Volume /time
Velocity of water = Q/A = V
Hence velocity head V2/2g
(b) Pressure head
H = P/W or H =h
where h = Water rise from top channel
(c) Now datum line is same at inlet and outlet
Hence, z1 = z2 = z3 = 0
According to Bernoulli’s equation
P1/W + v12/2g + z1 = P2/W + v22/2g + z2
H1 + v12/2g + z1 = H2 + v22/2g + z2
(As z1 = z2 for channel)
H1 + v12/2g = H2 + v22/2g = c
Find out the value of c for each section (at same flow rate)
It is same for all sections
Model Graphs:-
1. Pressure head Vs various piezometric tapping.
2. Velocity head Vs Various piezometric tapping.

H p/g V2/2g

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 102 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

X X X
2
“p/g” is pressure head, “ V /2g” is velocity head, “H” is total head and “X” is no. Of
Tappings

Conclusion:-
1. Total energy of flow is same over the entire length (particularly it is not
same and goes on reducing towards outlet.)
2. If pressure head falls and velocity head increases from inlet to outlet.

Precautions:-
1. Not down the pressure head after the level stabilized.
2. Air should not be entrapped into piezometric tubes. Check if there are
air bubbles before noting the readings.
3. After noting the discharge, drain the measuring tank.
4. After completion of experiment, drain all the water from the equipments.

Result: - Hence the Bernoulli’s theorem is verified.

Observations:-

Time
Static head taken for
Balancing
S.no. r cm rise
head ‘mm’
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10 of water
T ’s’
Area
491 357 245 153 120 150 202 279 369 471
mm2
1

2
3

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 103 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

S.no. P1/w=h A(m2) V=Qact/A V2/2g(m) Total

head
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

S.no. P1/w=h A(m2) V=Qact/A V2/2g(m) Total

head
1

10

VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS:-

1) What is principle of conservation of energy?
2) Why a Bernoulli’s apparatus is designed?
3) Why there is more pressure drop in narrower path than in wider path?

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 104 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

HYDRAULIC RAM

Learning objectives:-

Aim: - To find the efficiency.

Apparatus: - Hydraulic ram apparatus, stopwatch, tachometer.

Specifications:-
1. Supply tank -- 500 ltrs. (Approx) Capacity.
2. Supply head -- 1m with 50 mm supply piping.
3. Measuring tank -- 14ltr. Capacity.
4. Delivery pipe -- 15 mm piping with 2.5 mtr delivery head.

Theory:-
Hydraulic ram is pump which utilizes the energy of large quantity of low head water to
lift small quantity of this water to a greater head. It requires no external energy.
Hydraulic ram consists of a supply pipe running from source of water to waste valve.
Near the waste valve is connected an air vessel with delivery valve. Delivery pipe is
connected down side of air vessel. Initially, waste valve is open. Water from supply tank
flows out through waste valve. Due to acceleration of water column through supply pipe,
pressure in valve chamber increases. At a particular instant, static thrust due to static water
column in supply tank together with dynamic thrust due to accelerating water flow,
overcomes the weight of valve, causing instantaneous closure of valve. Due to
instantaneous closure of waste valve, water is suddenly brought to rest, causing further rise
of pressure because of water hammer effect. Because of water hammer, delivery valve is
forced to operand water in supply pipe enters delivery valve chamber. Some of this water
directly flows to delivery pipe and some is stored in air vessel. The flow continues till
pressure in waste valve chamber reduces. As pressure reduces, delivery valve closes and
waste valve opens. The cycle is thus continued.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 105 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Procedure:-

Start the water supply to supply tank. Open the supply valve of valve supply pipe. Lift the
waste valve by hand so that it stucks up to its seats. When the supply valve is full open,
push waste valve downwards, so that its closing cycle is started. Adjust the inlet water flow
to supply tank so that water just overflows through the collar. This assures constant head
over waste valve. When sufficient pressure is built up in air vessel, water starts flowing out
through delivery pipe. Note down the observations and fill up the table

Observations:-

Sr. Supply of water flow Delivery flow

No (Q lpm) (q pm)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 106 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Calculations:-
i) Delivery flow (q)

ii) Supply water (Q)

iii) Waste water flow (Q') = (Q - q) =

iv) Supply head (h) =
v) Discharge head (H) =

Therefore, Rankine's efficiency

= (qH / Qh) x 100 %

Precautions:-

1) Do not interrupt the operation of waste valve.

2) Empty the tank after completion of the experiment.

Viva Voce Questions:-

1) What is the function of a hydraulic ram
2) What is the use of an air vessel in a hydraulic ram
3) At which type of heads a hydraulic ram is used.
4) What is water hammer effect.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 107 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

CALIBRATION OF TRIANGULAR NOTCH

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:-
1) To study the flow over a notch
2) To calibrate the flow over notch for the discharge measurement in a free surface
flow.
Aim: - To determine the coefficient of discharge of triangular notch.

Apparatus: - Triangular notch test rig, stopwatch.

Description of apparatus:-
The test rig consists of an open channel of approximately 1.5m and 0.3m wide and 0.2m
depth. The supply of the channel is taken from the bottom at one end of the channel. At the
other end a triangular notch is fitted at the upstream. For the measurement of head over
notch a hook gauge is fitted. A collecting tank is provided for the measurement of actual
discharge. The entire unit is operated on closed circuit basis.
Theory:-
A notch or a weir is an overflow device placed across an open channel for the purpose
of measuring or controlling the flow. A notch may be defined as “An opening provided in
the side of a tank (below top edge) such that the liquid surface in a tank of opening.” A
weir is an obstruction placed across a free surface flow such that the flow takes place over
it.

A weir is the same given to a concrete or masonry built across a river (or stream) in
order to raise the level of water on the upstream side and allow the excess water to flow
over its entire length to the down stream side. Weirs may also be used for measuring the
rate of flow of water in rivers or streams. Notches are made of metallic plates are also
provided in narrow channels (particularly in lab channels) in order to measure the rate of
flow of liquid. As such in general notches are used for measuring the rate of flow of liquid
from a tank or in a channel.
The sheet of water flowing through a notch or a weir is known as the ‘nappe’ or
vein. The bottom edge of a notch or the top of the weir over which the water flows is
known as the ‘still or crest’, and its height above the bottom of a tank or channel is known
as ‘crest height’.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 108 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Classification of notches:-
Notches may be classified according to following criteria
(i) shape (ii) end conditions.
According to shape of opening notches are classified as:
(a) Rectangular notch (b) Triangular or V notch
(c) Trapezoidal notch (d) parabolic notch
(e) Stepped notch.
The edges of all these notches are leveled on the downstream side so as to have
sharp edged sides and crest, resulting in minimum contact with the flowing fluid. Since the
liquid surface is always below the top edge of the notch, a notch is usually provided with
only crest and sides with no top edge.
Notches may also be classified according to effect of sides on nappe emerging from
a notch, as notch “with end contraction” and notch “without end contraction” or super
pressed notch.
If the sides of the notch cause contraction of nappe then it is said to be notch with
end contraction (or contracted notch). On the other hand if there is no contraction of nappe
due to the sides then it is said to be a notch without end contraction.

Flow over a V-notch:-

A triangular weir is an ordinary weir, which is having a triangular opening provided in
its body, so that water is discharged through this opening only. V-notch is most preferred
overflow device for measuring relatively very small rates of flow especially in laboratory
furies. Generally, a triangular notch is preferred over a rectangular notch for measuring low
discharge. This is so because with low discharge, the head over crest of notch may be so
small that it may not be possible to measure it accurately. For such cases a triangular notch
may be used because the crest length for a triangular notch is equal to zero and even
therefore for a low discharge the head over the crest is fairly large, which can be measured
more accurately.

Advantages of triangular notch and rectangular notch:

1. The nappe emerging from a triangular notch has same shape for all the
heads. As such the value of Cd for a triangular notch is fairly constant
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
- 109 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

for all heads. On the other hand for a rectangular notch, the shape of
the nappe is affected by the head and hence the Cd value varies with
load.
2. For measuring a low discharge a triangular notch is very useful.
3. In most of the cases of flow over a V-notch the velocity of apparatus may be neglected
without introducing an appreciable error.
4. Ventilation of a triangular notch is not necessary.

Procedure:-
1. Fill the triangular notch in the flow channel.
2. Fill up the water in the sump tank.
3. Close the water supply gate valve to channel and fill up the water in channel up to still
level.
4. See that water does not leak from the notch.
5. Check the leakage of hosepipe and also keep collector diverted in the sump tank.
6. Take down the initial reading of crest level (still level) by the sliding depth gauge.
7. Now start the pump and open the gate valve slowly so that water starts
flowing over notch.
8. Let water level become stable and note down the height of water surface at the upstream
side by the sliding depth gauge.
9. Close the drain valve of measuring tank, direct the collector into measuring tank and
note down the time taken for collection of 10ccwater.
10. Take the readings for different flow rate.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 110 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Model calculations:-
Head over notch H = (h1 – h2) m
=
h1 = h2 =
Actual discharge Qa = 0.01/t m3/sec
t=
Qa =
Theoretical discharge Qth = (8/15) (2g)1/2 tan (/2) H5/2
=
Qth =

Cd = Qa / Qth =

Result:-
The Cd of the triangular notch is ------
The graphical Cd value of the triangular notch is ------
Observations:
Initial final
Hook Hook Net Net Time
s.no. Gauge Gauge Head Head for 10 Qact Qth Cd
Reading Reading In cm In m lts
(h1) cm (h2) cm
1
2
3
4
5
6

VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS:-

1) Why should be the geometrical shape of a notch be well defined and regular?
2) Are there any means of increasing the value of Cd for a given notch?
3) What is meant by end contractions? Do they occur in all types of notches?

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 111 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

TURBINE FLOW METER SET UP

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:-
1) To know about the flow of water in turbine.
2) To know about the deviations in the flow.

Aim: - To calibrate the given turbine flow meter

Procedure:-

1) Connect the instrument to 1ph, 230v, 10 amps supply.

2) Fill the sump tank with water
3) Switch on the power switch ,“ MAINS ON ”starts glowing as well as digital flow
indicator
4) Initial Setting: Start the pump using supply pump starter, Regulate the valve and set
the water flow near to maximum flow using rotameter (almost 25LPM).
5) Note down the time taken for each 20cm rise in water level in the piezometer for
the above setting
6) Observe the digital flow indicator ,note down the readings in pulse per second
shown at the upper indication
7) Now using the equation given calculate the factor and enter it in the indicator using
button “SET”. Once set button is pressed, using upper arrow and downward arrow
button factor can be fed to the indicator. Now press “ENT” button to get the
discharge in LPM through the turbine flow meter.
8) To get different set of readings, using valve at different flow rates at rotameter (eg:
5,10,..) and also note down the time taken for each 20 cm rise in water level in
piezometer.
9) Calculate the actual discharge from the equation .plot the graph as given. Repeat the
experiment for different discharges.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 112 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

PRECAUTIONS AND THINGS TO REMEMBER:-

1) Do not pump if the voltage is less than 180v

2) Do not forget to give the electrical neutral & earth connections correctly
3) Each time before starting the experiment initial setting is a must.

Formulae for calculations:-

1. Actual discharge Q cal:-

Q cal in L.P.M= A X R X 60000 /100 X t

Where A is the area of collecting tank=------------------- sqm

R is the rise of water level in collecting tank in cm.
t is the time for R cm of water rise in collecting tank in sec.

Calculation for the factor

Factor= QROTAMETER IN LPM/Turbine flow meter rotation in pulse per sec

GRAPH :

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 113 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

Q DIGITAL VS Q CAL
Q DIGITAL VS DEVIATION

TABLE OF READINGS AND CALCULATIONS

Digital Flow Rise of water

Time for rise of
Rate Q Pulse / level in Actual Discharge Deviation
‘R’ cm of water
digital in Sec Piezometer H ‘Qcal’ in LPM Qdigital- Qcal
in sec
LPM in cm

VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS:-

1) What is the use of a turbine flow meter
2) What is a velocity flow sensor
3) What are the important parameters to be considered in turbine flow meter

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 114 -
 FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULILC MACHINERY LAB

REFERENCES

1. Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Power Engineering by D.S. Kumar, Kotaria & Sons.
2. Fluid Mechanics and Machinery by D. Rama Durgaiah, New Age International.
3. Hydraulic Machines by Banga & Sharma, Khanna Publishers.
4. Instrumentation for Engineering Measurements by James W. Dally, William E.
Riley ,John Wiley & Sons Inc. 2004 (Chapter 12 – Fluid Flow Measurements).

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING M V G R COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

- 115 -