FORMAT-1 Semester: 6th Semester..

Programme: B.Tech
Branch/Specialization: E&TC

SPRING END SEMESTER EXAMINATION-2023

Spring End Semester, B.Tech
CELLULAR COMMUNICATION
EC-3036
(For 2018-2020 AB Admitted Batches)
Time: 3 Hours Full Marks: 50
Answer any SIX questions.
Question paper consists of four SECTIONS i.e. A, B, C and D.
Section A is compulsory.
Attempt minimum one question each from Sections B, C, D.
The figures in the margin indicate full marks.
Candidates are required to give their answers in their own words as far as practicable
and all parts of a question should be answered at one place only.

Scheme of Evaluation (Qn. Set Code-1)

SECTION-A (Learning levels 1 and 2)
1 Answer the following questions. [1  10]
.
(a) What is frequency reuse? What is the empirical mathematical expression of the cluster size N in terms of i
and j?
Frequency Reuse means the same radio frequency channel will be reused after a certain geographical
distance (based on minimum interference) in the cellular coverage area. The empirical mathematical
expression is N =i2 + ij + j2, (i, j are positive integers).
(b) What is the significance of the Erlang-B formula in the grade of service (GOS) of a cellular network?
The Erlang B formula determines the probability that a call is blocked and is a measure of the GOS for a
trunked system which provides no queuing for blocked calls.
(c) What is the adjacent channel interference? How can it be minimized?
Interference resulting from signals which are adjacent in frequency to the desired signal is called adjacent
channel interference. By proper frequency assignment and by carefully designing the bandpass filter at the
receiver front end, adjacent channel interference can be reduced.
(d) What are the Coherence time and Doppler spread?
Doppler spread is a measure of the spectral broadening caused by the time rate of change of the mobile radio
channel. The Coherence time is the time domain dual of Doppler spread and is used to characterize the time
varying nature of the frequency dispersiveness of the channel in the time domain.
(e) What do you mean by the equalization?
The term equalization can be used to describe any signal processing operation that minimizes Inter-symbol
interference (ISI). Equalization removes ISI and noise effects from the channel.
(f) What are M-branches (M-fingers) of a RAKE receiver?
A RAKE receiver consists of a bank of M number of sub-receivers or correlators, each of which correlate to
a particular multipath component of the desired signal and these are known as M-branches (M-fingers) of a
RAKE receiver.
(g) State two important features of TDMA and two important features of CDMA.
TDMA: 1.TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception.
2. Data transmission for users of a TDMA system is not continuous, but occurs in bursts.
CDMA: 1.CDMA allows each station to transmit data over the entire frequency band all the time with
different code. 2. In a CDMA system Near-Far problem exists.
(h) Explain multicarrier communication.
The idea of multicarrier modulation is to divide the transmitted bitstream into many different substreams and
send these over many different subchannels. The data rate on each of the subchannels is much less than the
total data rate, and the corresponding subchannel bandwidth is much less than the total system bandwidth.
(i) What is WCDMA?
WCDMA is wide band CDMA and uses 5MHz channel bandwidth to send the data signals over the air

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 interface. The WCDMA uses the basic technology of CDMA.
(j) What is the transmit diversity mode of a MIMO system?
On Transmit Diversity mode, the transmitter will send copies of the same data stream by each antenna. This
will introduce redundancy on the system. This redundancy makes possible to reduce fading and also have a
better signal-noise ratio (SNR) at the receiver.
SECTION-B (Learning levels 1,2, and 3)
2 (a) Define “Erlang”. [1+3
. =4]
Brief Ans: One Erlang ( after the name of Erlang, a Danish mathematician) represents the amount of traffic
intensity carried by a channel that is completely occupied (i.e. 1 call-hour per hour or 1 call-minute per minute).
For example, a radio channel that is occupied for thirty minutes during an hour carries 0.5 Erlangs of traffic.

Explain with mathematical expressions “Erlang B” and“Erlang C” formulas.

Brief Ans: The Erlang B fonnula determines the probability that a call is blocked and is a measure of the GOS for
a trunked system which provides no queuing for blocked calls. The Erlang B formula determines the probability
that a call is blocked and is a measure of the GOS for a trunked system which provides no queuing for blocked
calls.
The Erlang B formula is

where C is the number of trunked channels offered by a trunked radio system and A is the total offered traffic.

The second kind of trunked system is one in which a queue is provided to hold calls which are blocked. If a channel
is not available immediately, the call request may be delayed until a channel becomes available. This type of
trunking is called Blocked Calls Delayed, and its measure of GOS is defined as the probability that a call is blocked
after waiting a specific length of time in the queue. This is Erlang C. To find the GOS, it is first necessary to find
the likelihood that a call is initially denied access to the system. The likelihood of a call not having immediate
access to a channel is determined by the Erlang C formula given as

(b) A hexagonal cell within a 4-cell system has a radius of 1.387 km. A total of 60 channels are used within the entire [4]
system. If the load per user is 0.029 Erlangs, and λ = 1 call/hour, compute the following for an Erlang C system that
has a 5% probability of a delayed call [from Erlang C chart for 5% delayed call probability, Traffic Intensity is 9
Erlang for 15 channels/cell]:
(a) How many users per square kilometer will this system support? (b) What is the probability that a delayed call
will have to wait for more than l0s? (c) What is the probability that a call will be delayed for more than 10 seconds?
Brief Ans: Given, Cell radius, R = 1.387 km . Then, Area covered per cell is 2.598 x (1.387)2 = 5 sq km
No. of cells per cluster =4, Total number of channels=60 Then, number of channels per cell = 60/4 =15 channels.
(a) From Erlang C chart, for 5% probability of delay with C = 15, traffic intensity = 9.0 Erlangs.
So, no. of users=total traffic intensity/traffic per user=9.0/0.029=310 users=310 users/5sq km=62 users/sq km.
(b) Given λ= 1, holding time H = Au/λ = 0.029 hour = 104.4 seconds. The probability that a delayed call will have
to wait for more than 10s is Pr=exp(-(C-A)t/H) = exp(-(15—9)10/l04.4) = 56.29 %
(c) Given Pr [delay >0] = 5% = 0.05.
Probability that a call is delayed more than 10 seconds, Pr [delay >10]= 0.05 x 0.5629 = 2.81 %

3 (a) Explain the Hata model for outdoor propagation with mathematical expression. [2+2
. Brief Ans: Write Hata model with necessary expressions. =4]

Calculate the Fresnel-Kirchhoff diffraction parameter for a knife-edge obstacle of height 20m, situated at a distance
of 1km from the transmitter and 3km from the receiver. The transmitter radiates 2GHz signal.
Brief Ans: Considering the direct path and the diffracted path in presence of a knife-edge obstruction (using
required diagram) derive Fresnel-Kirchhoff diffraction parameter.
Numerical: Given, d1=1km=1x103m, d2=3km=3x103m, h=20m.
The wavelength λ at 1GHz is λ=free-space velocity of light/frequency=0.15m.
The Fresnel-Kirchhoff diffraction parameter is
ν=h√[2(d1+ d2)/ λ d1 d2] = 20√(8/450)=2.666

(b) Calculate the path loss between two antennas at height h1 and h2, considering a direct path and a ground reflected [4]
KIIT-DU/2023/SOT/Spring End Semester Examination-2023
 path.
Brief Ans: To calculate the path loss between two antennas at height h1 and h2, with a direct path and a ground
reflected path, consider the following figure.

SECTION-C (Learning Levels 3 and 4)

4 (a) What are the angle (pattern) diversity and time diversity? Explain four major combining techniques with [4]
. appropriate diagrams.

Brief Ans: Every diversity scheme can apply any one of these 4 major combining techniques:

Selective Combining: By selecting the strongest signal among M diversity branches, one can reduce log-normal
fading and Rayleigh fading with M number of separated antennas. Fading reduces as M increases. A two-branch
selective combining receiver always needs two receiving front ends: one for receiving the maximal signal and other
for monitoring purposes.
Switched Combining: In switched beam combining, two diversity signals are selected, based on given threshold
level in one receiver. A signal A is selected to receive above a threshold level L, it receives until it falls below the
level L. Then receiver switches to signal B whether in B it is above or below L. If signal B is above L, it receives
signal and if it is below L, then depending on algorithm it returns back to signal A or stay in signal B until signal B
is above L.

Maximal Ratio Combining: Maximal ratio means maximal signal-to-noise ratio. This is the best combining
technique. As shown in Figure, here, each branch needs proper weight. At the baseband level combined signal is
sum of the instantaneous SNRs (γi ) on the individual branches

In maximal ratio combining, for a two branch combiner, two receivers are needed and the circuit is
complicated.
Equal Gain Combining: Equal gain combining is a co-phase combining which brings all phases to a common
point and combines them. The combined signal is a sum of the instantaneous fading envelope of the individual

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 branches:

Performance of equal gain combining is as good as maximal ratio combining and circuit is simpler
than maximal ratio combining and generally used in the base station.

(b) What are the factors on which adaptive equalization depends? [1+3
Brief Ans: The objective of the adaptive equalization is to adapt the coefficients to minimize the noise and =4]
intersymbol interference. Adaptive equalization depends on the time variation of the signal at a particular
environment, and the rate of convergence and the computational complexities of the adaptive algorithm used for the
equalization.
Explain the design principle of a Decision Feedback Equalizer (DFE).
Brief Ans: The basic idea behind the decision feedback equalization is that once an information symbol has been
detected and decided upon, the ISI that it induces on future symbols can be estimated and subtracted out before
detection of subsequent symbols. DFE is more appropriate for severely distorted wireless channels.

The block diagram for DFE is shown in figure. The Slicer (Clipping Circuit) makes a symbol decision, i.e.
quantizes input. ISI is then directly subtracted from the incoming signal using a feedback FIR filter.

In a DFE, filter tap coefficients can be adaptively tuned without any back-channel. DFE cannot cancel pre-cursor
ISI (Postcursor ISI is caused by the past bits, whereas, precursor ISI is caused by the future bits on the present bit).

5 (a) Explain in the design of a cellular cluster, how different methods are used for controlling handoff. [2+2
. =4]
Brief Ans: In the design of a cellular cluster, three basic methods of handoff are used, which are: Network-
controlled handoff, Mobile-assisted handoff and Mobile-controlled handoff.

Network-controlled Handoff: In Network-controlled handoff protocal, network takes a decision based on the
measurements of the RSSI of MSs at a number of BSs. It takes about 100-200 ms. 1st generation analog systems,
like, AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Systems), NMT (Nordic Mobile Telephone) etc.

Mobile-assisted Handoff: In the 2nd Generation digital TDMA system, hand off decisions are mobile assisted. In
mobile assisted handoff (MAHO), every mobile station (MS) measures the received power from the surrounding
base stations and continually reports to the serving base station and network takes the decision of handoff. MAHO
is initiated when received power from any of the neighbour base station exceeds the received power from the
serving base station.

Mobile-controlled Handoff: In Mobile-controlled handoff, MS completely controls the handoff process by

measuring signal strength from the surrounding BSs. When signal strength of serving BS is lower than the another
BS by a threshold, handoff decision takes place.

In a practical cellular network design, how umbrella cell concept is used? What is cell dragging?
Brief Ans: In practical cellular systems, problems occur because of a large range of mobile velocities (pedestrians
to high speed vehicles). Load of MSC becomes heavy when high speed users are passed between very small cells.
Umbrella cell concept may be used for high speed and low speed traffics by dividing the total geographical area
into a large cell and into a small cell. In Umbrella cell concept, multiple antennas are used at different heights to
cover Large cell and Small cell and the power is controlled to serve in these areas. Large cell for high speed traffics
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 (fewer handoff) and Small cell for low speed traffic are used.

The umbrella cell approach ensures that the number of handoffs is minimized for high speed users and provides
additional microcell channels for pedestrian users.
Cell Dragging: Cell dragging in microcellular zone results from pedestrian users that provide a very strong signal
to the base station, mainly, when there is a line-of-sight (LOS) radio path between the subscriber and the base
station.
(b) Compare the different features between FDMA, TDMA and CDMA. [2+2
=4]
Brief Ans:

FDMA TDMA CDMA

Channels are slotted in frequency Channels are slotted in time Allows each station to transmit data ov
er the entirefrequency band all the time
with different code
Capacity of the system Low Capacity of the system Medium Capacity of the system High

No need of Codeword No need of Codeword Need of Codeword

Guard bands between the adjacen Guard time of the adjacent slots Both guard bands and guard time are n
t channels are necessary are necessary ecessary

Mode of data transfer is continuo Mode of data transfer is burst s Mode of data transfer is digital signal
us signal ignal

Synchronization is not required Time Synchronization is requir No Synchronization is required

ed

Low Data Rate Medium Data Rate High Data rate

Hard Handoff Hard Handoff Soft Handoff

Low Flexibility Moderate Flexibility High Flexibility

No Near-Far problem No Near-Far problem Near-Far problem exists

What are the narrowband and wideband systems? Explain the features of WCDMA.
Brief Ans:
Narrowband Systems: The term narrowband is used to relate the bandwidth of a single channel to the expected
coherence bandwidth of the channel. In a narrowband multiple access system, the available radio spectrum is
divided into a large number of narrowband channels. Bandwidth is maximum 200 KHz (in GSM, LTE, NB-IoT..)

Wideband systems: In wideband systems, the transmission bandwidth of a single channel is much larger than the
coherence bandwidth of the channel. Thus, multipath fading does not greatly affect the received signal within a
wideband channel, and frequency selective fades occur in only a small fraction of the signal bandwidth. Bandwidth
is more than 1MHz.
WCDMA: WCDMA was selected as the Universal Mobile Telecommunication Systems (UMTS) terrestrial air
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 interface scheme for the Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) frequency bands by the European Telecommunications
Standards Institute (ETSI) in 1998. WCDMA uses 5MHz channel bandwidth to send the data signals over the air
interface. WCDMA mixes original signal with a pseudo random noise code, which is also known as Direct
Sequence WCDMA. Therefore, each user ends up with a unique code, where only users with correct code can
decode the message. Using the pseudo signal, original signal is modulated into a higher bandwidth, where original
signal’s spectral components sink in the noise. Therefore, without the code, jammers can only see the signal as
noise.

6 (a) What do you mean by the orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)? [1+3
. =4]
Brief Ans: In data communications & networking, orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) is a
method of digital data modulation, where a single stream of data is divided into several separate sub-streams for
transmission via multiple channels. OFDM uses the principle of FDM. Orthogonal signals are signals that are
perpendicular to each other. A main property of orthogonal signals is that they do not interfere with each other.

Demonstrate the design principle of an OFDM transmitter and receiver with IFFT/FFT using suitable diagram and
proper mathematical expressions.
Brief Ans: Description of OFDM Transmitter and Receiver with appropriate diagrams.
(b) What do you mean by the multicarrier CDMA (MC-CDMA)? [1+3
Brief Ans: The basic idea of multicarrier modulation is to divide the transmitted bitstream into many different =4]
substreams and send these over many different subchannels. Typically the sub channels are orthogonal under ideal
propagation conditions. The data rate on each of the subchannels is much less than the total data rate, and the
corresponding subchannel bandwidth is much less than the total system bandwidth. Multicarrier CDMA (MC-
CDMA) is a technique that combines the advantages of OFDM and CDMA. The MC-CDMA system is very useful
for next generation wireless communication systems because of its merits of high spectral efficiency and robustness
against ISI due to the presence of CDMA and OFDM.
Explain MC-CDMA modulator and demodulator with suitable diagram.
Brief Ans: Description of MC-CDMA Modulator and Demodulator with appropriate diagrams.

SECTION-D (Learning levels 4,5,6)

7 (a) Explain GSM system architecture with suitable diagram. [2+2
. =4]
Brief Ans: GSM mainly focuses on voice-oriented telephone services. These comprise encrypted voice
transmission, message services, and basic data communication with terminals as known from the PSTN or ISDN
(e.g., fax). As with all systems in the telecommunication area, GSM comes with a complex system architecture
comprising many entities, interfaces, and acronyms. A GSM system consists of three subsystems, the radio sub
system (RSS), the network and switching subsystem (NSS), and the operation subsystem (OSS). The Figure gives a
simplified overview of the GSM system.

Radio sub system (RSS): Radio subsystem (RSS) comprises all radio specific entities, i.e., mobile stations (MS)
and base station subsystem (BSS). GSM network comprises many BSSs, each controlled by a base station
controller (BSC). BSS performs all functions necessary to maintain radio connections to an MS, coding/decoding
of voice, and rate adaptation to/from the wireless network part. Besides a BSC, BSS contains several BTSs. BTS
comprises all radio equipment, i.e., antennas, signal processing, amplifiers necessary for radio transmission.

Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS): The NSS connects the wireless network with standard public
networks, performs handovers between different BSSs, comprises functions for worldwide localization of users and
supports charging, accounting, and roaming of users between different providers in different countries. The NSS
consists of the switches and databases, like, MSC, HLR, VLR.

Operation Subsystem (OSS): The operation subsystem (OSS), contains the necessary functions for network
operation and maintenance. The OSS possesses network entities of its own and accesses other entities, like, OMC,

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 AuC, EIR via SS7 signaling.
What is IS-95 system? Compare GSM with IS-95.
Brief Ans: Interim Standard 95 (IS-95) is a mobile phone system which uses CDMA based digital cellular
technology. This is a 2G mobile telecommunication standard (developed on 15th August 1995). IS-95 operates in
the 800 MHz and 1900 MHz frequency bands. IS-95 was launched with the interoperability advantage of 1G (first-
generation analog cellular network). IS-95 base stations and handsets are data packet capable, and the IS-95
network uses IP based equipment. This infrastructure provides a high degree of compatibility for network operators
implementing high-speed data services. IS-95 reverse link frequency band is 824-849MHz and forward link
frequency band is 869-894MHz.
Comparison Between GSM with IS-95:

Parameters GSM IS-95

Channel Bandwidth 200KHz 1250KHz or 1.25MHz

Frequency Spectrum 890-915 MHz 935-960MHz 800 or 1900 MHz

Multiple Access Technique TDMA CDM

Type of Handoff Hard Soft

Type of Modulation GMSK QPSK /BPSK

Number of Voice Channels 8 per channel 64 per channel

(b) What is the difference between multiple accessing and multiplexing? [1+3
Brief Ans: In a Multiple Access scheme a large number of mobile users are sharing (accessing) a finite number of =4]
radio spectrum. The sharing of spectrum is required to achieve high capacity and for high quality communications,
this must be done without severe degradation in the performance of the system. Multiple accessing is not
multiplexing. Multiplexing is the technology that is able to combine multiple communication signals together in
order for them to traverse an otherwise single signal communication medium simultaneously.

Explain the Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) in detail including TDMA frame structure.
Brief Ans: Time division multiple access (TDMA) systems divide the radio spectrum into time slots, and in each
slot only one user is allowed to either transmit or receive and each user occupies a cyclically repeating time slot. So
a channel may be thought of as particular time slot that reoccurs every frame, where N time slots comprise a frame.
TDMA systems transmit data in a buffer-and-burst method, thus the transmission for any user is non-continuous.
This implies that, unlike in FDMA systems which accommodate analog FM, digital data and digital modulation
must be used with TDMA. It can be seen that a frame consists of a number of slots. Each frame is made up of a
preamble, an information message, and tail bits. In TDMA/TDD, half of the time slots in the frame information
message would be used for the forward link channels and half would be used for reverse link channels. Data
transmission for users of a TDMA system is not continuous, but occurs in bursts. This results in low battery
consumption, since the subscriber transmitter can be turned off when not in use (which is most of the time).
Because of discontinuous transmissions in TDMA, the handoff process is much simpler for a subscriber unit, since
it is able to listen for other base stations during idle time slots. An enhanced link control, such as that provided by
mobile assisted handoff (MAHO) can be carried out by a subscriber by listening on an idle slot in the TDMA
frame.
TDMA Frame Structure: In TDMA/FDD systems, an identical or similar frame structure would be used solely for
either forward or reverse transmission, but the carrier frequencies would be different for the forward and reverse
links.

In general, TDMA/FDD systems intentionally induce several time slots of delay between the forward and reverse
time slots of a particular user, so that duplexers are not required in the subscriber unit.

In a TDMA frame (as shown in Figure), the preamble contains the address and synchronization information that
both the base station and the subscribers use to identify each other. Guard times are utilized to allow
synchronization of the receivers between different slots and frames. Trail Bits: Error detection bits (Checksum or
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 CRC).
8 (a) Describe the design principles of the transmitter and receiver of the Frequency-Hopped Spread-Spectrum (FH-SS) [4]
. system with suitable diagram.
Brief Ans: Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FH-SS) is a wireless technology that spreads a signal over
rapidly changing frequencies. If the rate of change of the carrier frequency is greater than the symbol rate then the
system is referred to as a fast frequency hopping system. If the channel changes at a rate less than or equal to the
symbol rate, it is called slow frequency hopping system.

(b) What is a MIMO system? What do you mean by the MIMO diversity gain? [3+1
=4]
Brief Ans: MIMO Wireless Systems is a spatial multiplexing method to increase spectral efficiency or transmit
diversity (space-time coding) techniques to improve link reliability. MIMO performance depends on antenna
height, spacing and nature of scatterer and in a MIMO system the antenna separation is more than the coherent
distance. MIMO Applications: WiFi, WiMAX, IEEE 802.11, 802.16, 4G/5G/6G, IoT....
In MIMO, the multiple antennas at the transmitter and receiver can be used to obtain the diversity gain instead of
capacity gain. This scheme is also referred to as MIMO beamforming.
Consider a narrowband MIMO (Multiple Input, Multiple Output) channel. Narrowband MIMO, is an advanced
radio technology which increases the data capacity of a narrowband network without requiring more spectrum. A
narrowband point-to-point communication system of Mt transmit and Mr receive antennas is shown in Figure. This
system can be represented a discrete-time model as:

of B and complex Gaussian noise with zero mean.

H is known as MIMO channel matrix. In a Narrow bandwidth MIMO, bandwidth is 1 MHz or less.
In a MIMO system, the channel capacity increases with number of receiving antennas. The maximum error-free
data rate that a channel can support is called the channel capacity.

When a diversity scheme is used, then the improvement in signal-to-noise ratio is expressed by Diversity Gain
(usually expressed in dB). Sometimes diversity gain is expressed in terms of power ratio.
What is space-time modulation?
Brief Ans: Because a MIMO channel has input–output relationship y=Hx+n, the symbol transmitted over the
channel each symbol time is a vector rather than a scalar, as in traditional modulation for the SISO channel.
Moreover, when the signal design extends over both space (via the multiple antennas) and time (via multiple
symbol times), it is typically referred to as a space-time code and the process of implementing it is called space-
time modulation. Some of the space-time codes are Block code, Trellis code, Alamouti Space Code.
KIIT-DU/2023/SOT/Spring End Semester Examination-2023
KIIT-DU/2023/SOT/Spring End Semester Examination-2023