Course Module

Thermodynamics Theory III

Advanced Work and Heat

Flow to and from Gases

THRM 317
Module 11 THRM 6020

MacPhail School of Energy Revised: Dec. 2014

www.sait.ca
Advanced Work and Heat Flow to and
from Gases
Rationale
Why is it important for you to learn this material?
The concept of work and heat flow as it relates to the expansion or compression
of gases will be studied in this lecture. You will encounter a system in the
industry where compressors, turbines, engines and expanders are integral to
their processes. It is therefore essential for you to study and learn how to perform
calculations of work and heat flow by applying the fundamentals of the basic gas
laws and derive a relationship from these fundamental laws to quantify or solve
complex problems.

Learning Outcome
When you complete this module, you will be able to:
Use a variety of methods to calculate work and heat flows during the
compression and expansion of gases.

Learning Objectives
Here is what you will be able to do when you complete each objective:

1. Use various formulae to calculate the quantity of work done during

thermodynamic processes.

2. Define and use the principal specific heats of gases in calculations.

3. Define and use the concepts of internal energy and enthalpy of gases.

4. Perform calculations involving specific heat ratios and characteristic gas

constants.

Performance Evaluation
To show you have mastered the material, you will be asked to:
1. Solve practice problems handed out by the instructor in the classroom.
2. Pass the term examination, which is worth 40% of your final grade.

1
 Introduction
Derivation and study of complex concepts of work and heat transfer to and from
gases will be discussed in this module. Prior to studying this module, it is
essential for you to have a thorough understanding of the basic gas laws (Boyle's
Law, Charles' Law, and the General Gas Law), and the work done by a gas
during expansion and on the gas during compression, up to and including the
First Law of Thermodynamics.

2
OBJECTIVE ONE
When you complete this objective, you will be able to:
Use various formulae to calculate the quantity of work done during
thermodynamic processes.

Learning Activities
Complete each of the following learning activities:

Pre-class
1. Read the THRM 6020 Module.

In Class
1. Attend the class lecture.
2. Complete the classroom practice problems.
3. Attend the classroom lectures/discussions.

Learning Material

The Characteristic Gas Constant (R)

Each gas has a constant which is specific to that gas and causes the equation
PV = mRT to be true. The characteristic gas constant (R) for any gas may be
found by the use of the equation:
R = Ro
M
Where:
R is the specific gas constant (kJ/kgK)
Ro is the universal gas constant (8.314 kJ/kmolK)
M is the molecular mass of the gas (kg/kmol)

A unit analysis follows:

R = J/molK
g/mol

Multiplying top and bottom by mol

g
R = J/gK or kJ/kgK
Alternate Work Formulae Involving R
3
 The equation for work in a constant pressure process can be presented as:
W = P(V2 - V1)
W = PV2 - PV1
Since:
PV = mRT
Then:
W = mRT2 - mRT1
W = mR (T2 - T1)

The equation for work in an isothermal process can be presented as:

W = PV ln V2
V1
Since:
P1V1 = P2V2

And:
V2 = P1
V1 P2

Then:
W = PV ln (P1/P2)

Since:
PV = mRT

Then:
W = mRT ln (V1/V2)

Or:

W = mRT ln (P1/P2)

The equation for work in a polytropic process can be presented as:

W = P1V1 – P2V2
n-1
Since:
PV = mRT

Then: W = mRT1 – mRT2

n-1

4
 = mR(T1 – T2)
n-1
The adiabatic process is a special case polytropic process where n =  and

W = mR(T1 – T2)
 -1

Example 1:

Assume that 1.7 kg of nitrogen at 21°C is isothermally expanded until its

pressure is one half of its original value. Using the molecular mass of nitrogen
(N2) as 28, calculate the quantity of work done.

Solution:

R = Ro
M

R = 8.314 kJ/kmolK
28 kg/mol

= 0.297 kJ/kgK

W = mRT ln (P1/P2)

= 1.7 kg x 0.297 kJ/kgK x (21°C + 273) x ln (2/1)

= 102.9 kJ (Ans.)

Example 2:

Calculate the work done if 2.4 kg of sulphur dioxide (molecular mass = 64) is
compressed according to the law PV1.21 = C from an initial temperature of 19°C to
a final temperature of 120°C.

Solution:

R = Ro
M

R = 8.314 kJ/kmolK
64 kg/mol

= 0.13 kJ/kgK

W = mR(T1 – T2)
n-1

5
 = 2.4 kg x 0.13 kJ/kgK (19°C - 120°C)
1.21-1

= -150 kJ (Ans.)

Note: The negative sign indicates work done on the gas during the compression
process.

6
OBJECTIVE TWO
When you complete this objective, you will be able to:
Define, and use in calculations, the principal specific heats of gases.

Learning Activities
Complete each of the following learning activities:

Pre-class
1. Read the THRM 6020 Module.

In Class
1. Attend the class lecture.
2. Complete the classroom practice problems.
3. Attend the classroom lectures/discussions.

Learning Material
Specific Heats
The specific heat of a substance is defined as the quantity of heat required to
change the temperature of unit mass of a substance through one degree. The
quantity of heat transferred can be calculated by the general formula:
Q = mC(T2 - T1)

Where:
Q is the quantity of heat (kJ)
m is the mass of the substance (kg)
C is the specific heat of the substance (kJ/kgK)
T2 - T1 is the temperature change (K or °C)
This formula applies to all “sensible” heat transfers, meaning heat transfers not
involving phase changes, but resulting in a change in temperature of the
substance.
Gases have significantly different characteristics than liquids and solids. It is
possible to transfer heat to or from gases under an infinite number of conditions
7
 of pressure and volume. Thus, the specific heat could have an infinite number of
values. There are two important cases, called the principle specific heats of a
gas. These are the specific heats at constant volume and at constant pressure.
The specific heat at constant volume (Cv) is the amount of heat required to
change the temperature of unit mass of the gas through one degree, if the
process occurs without change to the volume of the gas.
For a constant volume process then:
Q = mCv(T2 - T1)

Where:
Q is quantity of heat (kJ)
m is mass of the gas (kg)
Cv is the specific heat of the gas under constant volume
conditions (kJ/kgK)
T2 - T1 is the temperature change (K or °C)

The specific heat at constant pressure (Cp) is the amount of heat required to
change the temperature of unit mass of gas through one degree, if the
process occurs without change to the pressure of the gas.
For the constant pressure process then:
Q = mCp(T2 - T1)
Where:
Q is quantity of heat (kJ)
m is mass of the gas (kg)
Cp is the specific heat of the gas under constant pressure
conditions (kJ/kgK)
T2 - T1 is the temperature change (K or °C)
Table 1 below illustrates values of Cp and Cv for various gases. Because specific
heat values vary with temperature, the values which are stated in tables from one
source may be different than those from another source, depending on the
temperature range over which they were derived. The values in Table 1 are
typical values in the 0° - 100°C range.

8
 Table 1 - Specific Heats of Gases
Source: SAIT Solis Learning Module # 027-13-10-24 prepared by Energy and Natural Resources Department

Example 3:

An air receiver contains 20 kg of air at 3200 kPa gauge pressure and 16°C.
Calculate the new gauge pressure and the heat energy transferred if the air is
heated to 35°C. Use R = 0.287 kJ/kgK, Cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK, and atmospheric
pressure = 100 kPa.

Solution:

This is a constant volume process; therefore, by Charles Law:

P1/T1 = P2/T2

P2 = P1 x T2
T1

= (3200 + 100) kPa absolute x (35°C + 273)

(16°C + 273)

= 3517 kPa (absolute)

Pgage = Pabsolute - Patmospheric

= 3517 kPa -100 kPa

= 3417 kPa (Ans.)

Q = mCv(T2 - T1)
9
 = 20 kg x 0.718 kJ/kg°C x (35°C - 16°C)
= 272.8 kJ (Ans).

Example 4:

The dimensions of a room are 12 m x 16.5 m x 4 m. The air is completely

changed every 30 minutes and is maintained at 21°C. If the outside air
temperature is 30°C, calculate the heat required to be extracted from the supply
air, in kJ/h. Use the following values: for air. R = 0.287 kJ/kgK, Cp = 1.005
kJ/kgK, atmospheric pressure = 92 kPa.

Solution:

Room volume 12 m x 16.5 m x 4 m = 792 m3

Volume changed per hour 792 m3 x 2 = 1584 m3/h

PV= mRT
m = PV/RT

m = ___92 kPa x 1584 m3 /h______

0.287 kJ/kgK x (21°C + 273)

= 1727.1 kg/h

Q = mCp(T2 - T1)

= 1727.1 kg/h x 1.005 kJ/kg°C x (30°C - 21°C)

Q = 15 621.6 kJ/h (Ans

10
OBJECTIVE THREE
When you complete this objective, you will be able to:
Define, and use the concepts of, internal energy and enthalpy of gases.

Learning Activities
Complete each of the following learning activities:

Pre-class
1. Read the THRM 6020 Module.

In Class
1. Attend the class lecture.
2. Complete the classroom practice problems.
3. Attend the classroom lectures/discussions.

Learning Material
Internal Energy
The internal energy of a gas is the energy that is stored in the gas by virtue of the
energies possessed by the molecules. It is “owned” or possessed by the gas,
and is thus a property of the gas. According to Joule’s Law, the internal energy of
a gas is a function of temperature only, and is independent of pressure and
volume.
Consider a constant volume process taking place in a closed system. Since there
is no change in volume of the working fluid, there can be no work done. By the
first law of thermodynamics:

Q = (U2 - U1) + W
= (U2 - U1) + 0
Since:
Q = mCv(T2 - T1)
Then:

11
 mCv(T2 - T1) = U2 - U1

This indicates that heat supplied at constant volume changes only the internal
energy of the gas. Conversely, if heat is transferred away from a gas at constant
volume, the internal energy of the gas will decrease.
The relationship (U2 - U1) = mCv(T2 - T1) was demonstrated here using a constant
volume process. However, the equation can be applied to any process.
Example 5:
Calculate the change in internal energy of 0.19 kg of working fluid in an engine if
its temperature is increased by 517°C. Assume the working fluid is air, and Cv =
0.718 kJ/kgK.
Solution:
U2 - U1 = mCv(T2 - T1)
= 0.19 kg x 0.718 kJ/kgK x (517 K)
= 70.5 kJ (Ans.)
Example 6:
In a constant volume process, 153 kJ of heat are added to 0.42 kg of working
fluid. Calculate the change in internal energy and the change in temperature of
the working fluid if it is carbon dioxide, for which Cv = 0.632 kJ/kgK.
Solution:
Q = mCv(T2 - T1)
Since
Q = U2 - U1 in a constant volume process,
U2 - U1 = 153 kJ (Ans.)
U2 - U1 = mCv(T2 - T1)
T2 - T1 = U2 – U1
mCv

= ______153 kJ________
0.42 kg x 0.632 kJ/kgK

= 576 K (Ans.)

Enthalpy

The specific heat of a gas at constant pressure is always higher than the specific
heat at constant volume (that is, Cp>Cv). This is due to the fact that external
12
work is done during a constant pressure process, but not during a constant
volume process. Some of the heat energy transferred during a constant pressure
process is used to do work, and some is used to increase the internal energy of
the working fluid.
Enthalpy is defined as the sum of internal energy and external work done.

H = U + PV

Typically in thermodynamics, of interest are changes in internal energy and in

enthalpy, which are calculated using:

U2 - U1 = mCv(T2 - T1)

And:
H2 - H1 = mCp(T2 - T1)

Example 7:

Assume that 0.23 kg of air at 100 kPa, 0.1934 m3 and 20°C are enclosed in a
gas tight cylinder with a movable piston. Heat energy is transferred to the air to
raise its temperature to 142°C.

(a) If the piston is prevented from moving, so that the process occurs at
constant volume, calculate the heat supplied and the final pressure.
(b) If the piston is allowed to move, such that there is no change in
pressure, calculate the heat supplied and the final volume.
(c) Calculate the difference in heat supplied between the two processes,
using results of (a) and (b).
(d) Calculate the external work done in the constant pressure process.

Use Cv = 0.718 kJ/kgK and Cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK.

Solution:

T1 = 20°C + 273 = 293 K

T2 = 142°C + 273 = 415 K

T2 - T1 = 415 K - 293 K = 122 K

(a) Q = mCv(T2 - T1)

= 0.23 kg x 0.718 kJ/kgK x 122 K

= 20.15 kJ (Ans.)

From Charles Law:

P1/T1 = P2/T2

13
 P2 = P1 x T2
T1

= 100 kPa x 415

293 K

= 141.64 kPa (Ans.)

(b) Q = mCp(T2 - T1)

= 0.23 kg x 1.005 kJ/kgK x 122 K

= 28.2 kJ (Ans.)

From Charles Law:

V1/T1 = V2/T2

V2 = 0.1934 m x 415 K
293 K
= 0.2739 m3 (Ans.)
(c) Difference = 28.2 kJ - 20.15 kJ
= 8.05 kJ (Ans.)
(d) Work done = P(V2 - V1)
= 100 kPa x (0.2739 m3 - 0.1934 m3)
= 8.05 kJ (Ans.)
Note: The external work done = difference in heat supplied.

14
OBJECTIVE FOUR
When you complete this objective, you will be able to:
Perform calculations involving specific heat ratios and characteristic gas
constants.

Learning Activities
Complete each of the following learning activities:

Pre-class
1. Read the THRM 6020 Module.

In Class
1. Attend the class lecture.
2. Complete the classroom practice problems.
3. Attend the classroom lectures/discussions.

Learning Material
Specific Heat, Specific Heat Ratio and the Characteristic Gas Constant
A relationship exists between the principle specific heats of gases and the
characteristic gas constant. Consider a constant pressure process where the
heat added (Q) is equal to the change in enthalpy (H2 - H1).
From the non-flow energy equation:
Q = (U2 - U1) + W
H2 - H1 = (U2 - U1) + W
mCp(T2 - T1) = mCv(T2 - T1) + mR(T2 - T1)
After cancelling m(T2 - T1)
Cp = Cv + R
This relationship is very useful in dealing with many gas law problems.
Example 8:
Given that methane (CH4) has a specific heat at constant pressure of 2.234
kJ/kgK, determine its specific heat at constant volume. The molecular mass of
methane is 16.
15
 Solution:
R = Ro
M
R = 8.314 kJ/kmolK
16 kg/mol

= 0.5196 kJ/kgK
Cp = Cv + R
Cv = Cp - R
= 2.234 kJ/kgK - 0.5196 kJ/kgK
= 1.714 kJ/kgK (Ans.)
Example 9:
Heat is transferred to 1.36 kg of air, causing its temperature to increase from
40°C to 468°C. Calculate the quantity of heat transferred, external work done and
the increase in internal energy if:
(a) The process occurs at constant volume.
(b) The process occurs at constant pressure.
Use Cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK and R = 0.287 kJ/kgK.
Solution:
Cp = Cv + R
Cv = Cp - R
= 1.005 kJ/kgK - 0.287 kJ/kgK
= 0.718 kJ/kgK
T2 = 468°C + 273 = 741 K
T1 = 40°C + 273 = 313 K
(a) Q = mCv(T2 - T1)
= 1.36 kg x 0.718 kJ/kgK x (741 K - 313 K)
= 417.9 kJ (Ans.)
Since there is no change in volume, there is no external work done.
W = 0 (Ans.)
Q = (U2 - U1) + W
U2 - U1 = Q - W
= 417.9 kJ - 0
= 417.9 kJ (Ans.)
16
All of the heat supplied in a constant volume process increases the internal
energy of the working fluid:
(b) Q = mCp(T2 - T1)
= 1.36 kg x 1.005 kJ/kgK x (741 K - 313 K)
= 584.99 kJ (Ans.)
W = mR(T2 - T1)
= 1.36 kg x 0.287 kJ/kgK x (741 K - 313 K)
= 167.1 kJ (Ans.)
U2 - U1 = mCv(T2 - T1)
= 1.36 kg x 0.718 kJ/kgK x (741 K - 313 K)
= 417.9 kJ (Ans.)
Alternatively:
Q = (U2 - U1) + W
U2 - U1 = Q - W
= 584.99 kJ - 167.1 kJ
= 417.89 kJ (Ans.)

Relationships Between , Cp, Cv and R

The relationship between pressure and volume, when discussing the
compression and expansion of gases, is

PV n = C
The “n” is known as the index of expansion, and for most practical problems
ranges in value from about 1 to 2. There is a specific value of n where no heat
flows into or out of the process. This value is referred to as  (gamma).
An expansion or compression where the index is gamma is called an adiabatic
process, and follows the law

PV  = C

Gamma can be calculated using the ratio of the principle specific heat values;
that is:

 = Cp/Cv
By transposing:

Cp = Cv
17
 Since:
R = Cp - Cv

= Cv - Cv

or:

R = Cv (- 1)

Transposing:

Cv = R/-1
Example 10:

For a certain gas, R and  are 4.12 kJ/kgK and 1.409 respectively.

(a) Calculate the specific heat at constant volume.

(b) Calculate the specific heat at constant pressure.

(c) Identify the gas.

Solution:

(a) Cv = R/-1

Cp = Cv
= 1.409 x 10.07 kJ/kgK
= 14.19 kJ/kgK (Ans.)
(c) R = Ro
M

M = Ro
R

M = 8.314 kJ/kmolK
4.12 kg/mol
= 2.02 kg/kmol
Hydrogen gas (H2) has a molecular weight of 2.02 kg/kmol (Ans.)

18
Specific Values of u AND h
Specific values (that is, per kg) are also sometimes used with gases. As with
steam, tables of values could be developed for gases with specific values.
However, tables are not usually used.
Since it is common to deal with gas temperatures well below 0°C, it is usual to
use absolute zero (0 K) as the datum when dealing with specific values of
enthalpy and internal energy. This eliminates any need to deal with negative
values.
Values of specific enthalpy (h) and specific internal energy (u) are calculated as
follows:
h = CpT
u = CvT
where:
h is specific enthalpy (kJ/kg)
u is specific internal energy (kJ/kg)
Cp is specific heat at constant pressure (kJ/kgK)
Cv is specific heat at constant volume (kJ/kgK)
T is absolute temperature (K)
Example 11:
Four kilograms of a gas are heated at constant pressure from a temperature of
-48°C to 30°C. This heating process requires 189.4 kJ of energy, and delivers
38.25 kJ of external work. Calculate the:

(a) Specific heat at constant pressure.

(b) Specific enthalpy before and after heating.
(c) Specific heat at constant volume.
(d) Specific internal energy before and after heating.
Solution:
T1 = -48°C + 273 = 225 K
T2 = 30°C + 273 = 303 K
(a) Q = mCp(T2 - T1)
Cp = ___Q_____
m(T2 –T1)

Cp = _____189.4 kJ______
4 kg x (303 K- 225 K)
19
 Cp = 0.607 kJ/kgK (Ans.)

(b) h1 = CpT1
= 0.607 kJ/kgK x 225 K
= 136.6 kJ/kg (Ans.)
h2 = CpT2
= 0.607 kJ/kgK x 303 K
= 183.9 kJ/kg (Ans.)
(c) W = mR(T2 - T1)
R = _____W_______
m(T2 – T1)

R = _____38.25 kJ_______
4 kg x (303 K- 225 K)

= 0.1226 kJ/kgK

Cv = Cp - R

= 0.607 kJ/kgK - 0.1226 kJ/kgK

= 0.484 kJ/kgK (Ans.)
(d) u1 = CvT1
= 0.484 kJ/kgK x 225 K
= 108.9 kJ/kg (Ans.)
u2 = CvT2
= 0.484 kJ/kgK x 303 K
= 146.7 kJ/kg (Ans.)

20
1
 SAIT’s vision is sharply focused – to be
recognized as Canada’s premier polytechnic,
one of the world’s finest, setting the standard
Course Module

in education, training and innovation.

SAIT shall be an innovative organization

equipping people to compete successfully in
the changing world of work by providing
relevant, skill-oriented education.

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED:

This material may not be reproduced in whole or part

without written permission from the Director,
Centre for Instructional Technology and Development.

Southern Alberta Institute of Technology,

1301 16 Ave. N.W. Calgary AB T2M 0L4

Printed in Canada

on Recycled Paper