Engineering Physics

Gunanidhi Lamsal
Lecturer in Physics
 Contents

S.N. Chapter Page no.

1 Oscillation 3

2 Acoustics 34

3 Heat and Thermodynamics 43

4(a) Interference 80

4(b) Diffraction 96

4(c) Polarization 111

4(d) Lens System 124

4(e) Laser & Optical Fiber 138

5(a) Electric Force and Field 147

5(b) Capacitor 173

6 Electromagnetism 186

7 Electromagnetic Waves 207

8 Photon and Matter Wave 217

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 Mechanics
Chapter 1: Oscillation
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM): The periodic to and fro motion in which acceleration of an
oscillating body is directly proportional to the displacement from mean position and is always directed
towards the mean position is called SHM.

i.e. acceleration ∝ displacement

or, a ∝ 𝑥

or, a=-𝜔02 𝑥

where 𝜔02 is proportionality constant and –ve sign indicates that acceleration is directed towards mean
position.

Differential Equation of SHM: If 𝑥 be the displacement of a particle from mean position due to
a restoring force F then from Hooke’s law, F= -k 𝑥………………………..(i) where k is force constant.

If m be the mass of the particle then from Newton’s Second law, F=ma…………………..(ii)

Now from equations (i) and (ii)

ma= -k 𝑥

𝑑2𝑥
or, m 𝑑𝑡 2 = -k 𝑥

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘
or, + 𝑥 =0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘
or, 𝑑𝑡 2
+𝜔02 𝑥 =0……………………(iii) where 𝜔0 =√𝑚

Here, equation (iii) represents the differential equation of SHM whose angular frequency is given by
𝑘
𝜔0 =√𝑚.

The solution of equation (iii) can be written as 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝜔0 𝑡 ± 𝜙) where A is amplitude and 𝜙 is
phase constant.

3
Characteristics of SHM:
1) Displacement: It is the distance covered by the oscillating body from mean position and is given
by 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝜔0 𝑡 ± 𝜙)
2) Velocity: It is the rate of change displacement.
𝑑𝑥
i.e. velocity v= 𝑑𝑡 = - 𝐴 𝜔0 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜔0 𝑡 ± 𝜙) = 𝜔0 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝜔0 𝑡 ± 𝜙 + 𝜋/2)
This shows that velocity leads the displacement by phase angle 𝜋/2
Also, v= - 𝜔0 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜔0 𝑡 ± 𝜙)= ± 𝜔0 𝐴√1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( 𝜔0 𝑡 ± 𝜙)
= ± 𝜔0 √𝐴2 − 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( 𝜔0 𝑡 ± 𝜙)
or, v=± 𝜔0 √𝐴2 − 𝑥 2
This gives the velocity of a particle executing SHM.
∴ vmax=± 𝜔0 A at 𝑥 = 0 i.e. at mean position
and vmin=0 at 𝑥 = ±𝐴 i.e. at extreme positions.
3) Acceleration: It is the rate of change of velocity.
𝑑𝑣 𝑑
i.e. acceleration a= = {− 𝜔0 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜔0 𝑡 ± 𝜙)}= - 𝜔0 2 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝜔0 𝑡 ± 𝜙)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
or, a= - 𝜔0 2 𝑥
This gives the acceleration of a particle executing SHM.
∴ amax=± 𝜔0 2 𝐴 at 𝑥 = ±𝐴 i.e. at extreme positions
𝑎𝑛𝑑 amin=0 at 𝑥 = 0 i.e. at mean position.
4) Time period: It is the time taken by the oscillating body for one complete oscillation.
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2𝜋
i.e. time period, T= =
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜔0
5) Frequency: It is the number of complete oscillations made by a particle in one second and is
1
given by f=𝑇
6) Phase: The phase of an oscillating body gives the position and direction of motion of the
oscillating body since it last passed through its mean position.
In the displacement equation 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠( 𝜔0 𝑡 ± 𝜙), ( 𝜔0 𝑡 ± 𝜙) is called phase angle and 𝜙
is phase constant or initial phase.

Energy of SHM
A particle executing SHM has two types of energy. Due to displacement from mean position, it
has potential energy and due to velocity, it has kinetic energy. The sum of kinetic energy and
potential energy give total energy. Since there are no any resistive force acting in the system,
the total energy is always constant.
1 1
Now, Kinetic energy, K.E. = 2 mv2 = 2 m 𝜔0 2 (𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 ) ( ∵ v=± 𝜔0 √𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 )
1 1 𝑘
and potential energy P.E.= k𝑥 2 = m 𝜔0 2 𝑥 2 (∵ 𝜔0 =√ )
2 2 𝑚
1 1
∴ Total mechanical energy E= K.E. +P.E. = 2 m 𝜔0 2 (𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 ) + 2 m 𝜔0 2 𝑥 2
1
𝑜𝑟, E= 2
m 𝜔0 2 𝐴2

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 This shows that total mechanical energy is conserved.

Fig: Variation of energy with displacement

Examples of SHM
1) Compound Pendulum/Physical pendulum: A compound pendulum consists of a rigid body of any
shape which is capable of oscillating about horizontal axis passing through it. The distance between
point of suspension and centre of gravity is called length of pendulum.

Consider a rigid body of mass m is suspended through a rigid support about a point S. If he body
is displaced by small angle 𝜃 (𝜃 <40) and released then it oscillates in to and fro motion due to
restoring torque 𝜏= -𝑚𝑔𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

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 Where –ve sign indicates that restoring torque is directed towards mean position.
or, 𝜏= -𝑚𝑔𝑙 𝜃 ……………………………..(i) ( ∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 for small angle)
If I be the moment of inertia of the rigid body about an axis passing through S, then from
𝑑2 𝜃
Newton’s second law, 𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼 = 𝐼 𝑑𝑡 2
……………………..(ii)
Now from equations (i) & (ii)
𝑑2 𝜃
𝐼 𝑑𝑡 2
= -𝑚𝑔𝑙 𝜃
𝑑2 𝜃 𝑚𝑔𝑙
or, + 𝜃=0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐼
𝑑2 𝜃 𝑚𝑔𝑙
or, 𝑑𝑡 2
+ 𝜔0 2 𝜃 = 0 ………………………..(iii) where, 𝜔0 = √ 𝐼
Here, equation (iii) shows that the motion of compound pendulum is simple harmonic in nature
𝑚𝑔𝑙
whose angular frequency is given by 𝜔0 = √ 𝐼

𝜔0 1 𝑚𝑔𝑙
∴ Frequency, 𝑓 = = √
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝐼

1 𝐼
Hence, time period, 𝑇= 𝑓 =2𝜋 √𝑚𝑔𝑙

We have from Parallel axis theorem, 𝐼 = 𝐼𝐶𝐺 + 𝑚𝑙 2 = 𝑚𝑘 2 + 𝑚𝑙 2 where k is radius of

gyration.
𝑚𝑘 2+𝑚𝑙 2 𝑙 2+𝐾 2 𝑙+𝑘 2/𝑙
∴ 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √ 𝑚𝑔𝑙
= 2𝜋 √ 𝑔𝑙
= 2𝜋 √ 𝑔

𝐿
𝑜𝑟, 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √𝑔
where, 𝐿 = 𝑙 + 𝑘 2 /𝑙 is equivalent length of simple pendulum. (𝐿 > 𝑙)

2) Bar Pendulum: It is the special case of compound pendulum which consists of uniform and
symmetrical metal bar having finite numbers of holes at equal distance on either side of C.G. The
time period of bar pendulum is determined by suspending the pendulum at each holes except C.G.

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 Consider a bar pendulum of mass m is suspended through a rigid support about a point S. If he
body is displaced by small angle 𝜃 (𝜃 <40) and released then it oscillates in to and fro motion
due to restoring torque 𝜏= -𝑚𝑔𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
Where –ve sign indicates that restoring torque is directed towards mean position.
or, 𝜏= -𝑚𝑔𝑙 𝜃 ……………………………..(i) ( ∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 for small angle)
If I be the moment of inertia of the rigid body about an axis passing through S, then from
𝑑2 𝜃
Newton’s second law, 𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼 = 𝐼 ……………………..(ii)
𝑑𝑡 2
Now from equations (i) & (ii)
𝑑2 𝜃
𝐼 𝑑𝑡 2
= -𝑚𝑔𝑙 𝜃
𝑑2 𝜃 𝑚𝑔𝑙
or, + 𝜃=0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐼
𝑑2 𝜃 𝑚𝑔𝑙
or, + 𝜔0 2 𝜃 = 0 ………………………..(iii) where, 𝜔0 = √
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐼

Here, equation (iii) shows that the motion of compound pendulum is simple harmonic in nature
𝑚𝑔𝑙
whose angular frequency is given by 𝜔0 = √ 𝐼

𝜔0 1 𝑚𝑔𝑙
∴ Frequency, 𝑓 = 2𝜋
=2𝜋 √ 𝐼

1 𝐼
Hence, time period, 𝑇= 𝑓 =2𝜋 √𝑚𝑔𝑙
We have from Parallel axis theorem, 𝐼 = 𝐼𝐶𝐺 + 𝑚𝑙 2 = 𝑚𝑘 2 + 𝑚𝑙 2 where k is radius of
gyration.

𝑚𝑘 2+𝑚𝑙 2 𝑙 2+𝐾 2 𝑙+𝑘 2/𝑙

∴ 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √ 𝑚𝑔𝑙
= 2𝜋 √ 𝑔𝑙
= 2𝜋 √ 𝑔

𝐿
𝑜𝑟, 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √𝑔
where, 𝐿 = 𝑙 + 𝑘 2 /𝑙 is equivalent length of simple pendulum. (𝐿 > 𝑙)

Question 1: Show that there exist four collinear points in a bar pendulum/compound pendulum which
have same time period.

𝑙 2+𝐾 2
We have time period of bar pendulum is 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √ 𝑔𝑙
……………………..(a)

If we plot the graph of 𝑇~𝑙, the graph is as shown is figure.

7
From figure it is seen that there exist four collinear points (A,B,C&D) having same time period at O.

On squaring equation (a) we have,

4𝜋 2 2
𝑇2 = (𝑙 + 𝐾 2 )
𝑙𝑔

or, 4𝜋 2 𝑙 2 + (−𝑔𝑇 2 )𝑙 + 4𝜋 2 𝑘 2 =0

This is quadratic in 𝑙 so it possesses two roots. If 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 be the two roots then,

𝑏 𝑔𝑇 2
𝑙1 + 𝑙2 = − =
𝑎 4𝜋 2
4𝜋 2 𝐿
∴𝑔 = (𝑙1 + 𝑙2 )= 4𝜋 2 2 ( ∵ 𝐿 = 𝑙1 + 𝑙2 )
𝑇2 𝑇

𝑐
Again, 𝑙1 𝑙2 = 𝑎 = 𝑘 2

∴ 𝑘 = √𝑙1 𝑙2

From above results, we see that there are two lengths of pendulum having same time period, on either
side of C.G. Hence there are four different collinear points having same time period.

8
Question 2: Show that point of suspension and point of oscillation are interchangeable.

Point of oscillation: Any point which lies at a distance of 𝑘 2 /𝑙 from C.G. on the opposite side of point of
suspension is called point of oscillation.

Consider S be point of suspension, G be C.G. and O be the point of oscillation. When the pendulum is
suspended from S then we have SG= 𝑙1 and OG= 𝑘 2 /𝑙1 .

𝑙 +𝑘 2/𝑙1
In this case time period is 𝑇1 = 2𝜋 √ 1
𝑔

𝑘2
When the pendulum is suspended from O then OG=𝑙2 and SG= 𝑙 .
2

𝑙 +𝑘 2/𝑙2
In this case, time period is 𝑇2 = 2𝜋 √ 2
𝑔

We have, 𝑘 = √𝑙1 𝑙2

∴ 𝑘 2 = 𝑙1 𝑙2

𝑘2 𝑘2
or, 𝑙1 = and 𝑙2 =
𝑙2 𝑙1

𝑘2
𝑙1+𝑘 2/𝑙1 +𝑙2 𝑙 +𝑘 2 /𝑙2
= 2𝜋 √ 2
𝑙
Now, 𝑇1 = 2𝜋 √ 𝑔 𝑔
= 2𝜋 √ 2 𝑔
= 𝑇2

This shows that point of suspension and point of oscillation are interchangeable.

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Question 3: Show that time period is minimum when length of pendulum is equal to radius of
gyration.

or

Show that time period is minimum when point of suspension and point of oscillation are equidistant
from C.G.

𝑙 +𝑘 2 /𝑙1 𝐿
We have time period of compound pendulum is 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √ 1 𝑔
= 2𝜋 √𝑔

Where, 𝐿 = 𝑙1 + 𝑘 2 /𝑙1

Here, 𝑙1 is the distance of point of suspension from C.G. or length of pendulum and k is radius of
gyration.

For minimum time period, 𝐿 must be minimum.

𝑑𝐿
For minimum 𝐿, 𝑑𝑙 = 0
1

𝑑 𝑘2
or, 𝑑𝑙 (𝑙1 + 𝑙1
)=0
1

𝑘2
or, 1 − 𝑙2 = 0
1

or, 𝑘 2 = 𝑙12 ……………….(a)

or, 𝑘 = 𝑙1

𝑑2 𝐿 𝑑 𝑑𝐿 𝑑 𝑘2 2𝑘 2 2
again, 𝑑𝑙2 = 𝑑𝑙 (𝑑𝑙 ) = 𝑑𝑙 (1 − 𝑙12
)=
𝑙13
=𝑙 >0
1 1 1 1 1

This shows that time period is minimum when length of pendulum is equal to radius of gyration.

If 𝑙2 be the distance of point of oscillation from C.G. then

𝑘 = √𝑙1 𝑙2

or, 𝑘 2 = 𝑙1 𝑙2

or, 𝑙12 = 𝑙1 𝑙2 ∵ using equation (a)

or, 𝑙1 = 𝑙2

Hence time period is minimum when distance of point of suspension and distance of point of oscillation
are equidistant from C.G.

Note: If 𝑙 = 0 then time period is maximum (𝑇 = ∞)

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3) Torsion Pendulum: A torsion pendulum consists of a circular disc which is suspended through a rigid
support by means of a metallic wire passing through C.G. of the disc.

Consider a circular disc of mass m and radius R is suspended through a rigid support by means of
a wire of length 𝑙 and radius r. If the disk is turned by 𝜃 and released then it oscillates about an
angle 2𝜃 due to restoring couple
𝜏 = −𝐶𝜃…………………(i)
Where –ve sign indicates that restoring couple is directed towards the mean position and 𝐶 is
𝜋𝜂𝑟4
torsional constant whose value is 𝐶 = 2𝑙
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝜂 is modulus of rigidity of the wire.
If I be the moment of inertia of the disc about an axis passing through C.G., then from Newton’s
second law,
𝑑2 𝜃
𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼 = 𝐼 𝑑𝑡 2
………………………(ii)
Now from equations (i) and (ii)
𝑑2 𝜃
𝐼 2 = −𝐶𝜃
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝜃 𝐶
or, 𝑑𝑡 2
+ 𝐼
𝜃=0
𝑑2 𝜃 𝐶
or, + 𝜔0 2 𝜃 = 0 ………………………..(iii) where, 𝜔0 = √
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐼
Here, equation (iii) shows that the motion of torsion pendulum is angular simple harmonic in
𝐶
nature whose angular frequency is given by 𝜔0 = √ 𝐼

𝜔0 1 𝐶
∴ Frequency, 𝑓 = 2𝜋
= 2𝜋 √ 𝐼

1 𝐼
Hence, time period, 𝑇= 𝑓 =2𝜋 √𝐶

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This gives the time period of torsion pendulum. This shows that time period is not affected even
if the amplitude of oscillation is large, provided elastic limit of the wire is not exceeded.

Determination of modulus of rigidity of a wire using torsion pendulum

𝐼
We have the time period of torsion pendulum is 𝑇=2𝜋 √𝐶……………………..(i)

When a circular ring of moment of inertia 𝐼1 is placed over the circular disc then the time period is

𝐼+𝐼1
𝑇1 = 2𝜋 √ 𝐶
………………………..(ii)

𝑚𝑅12+𝑚𝑅22
Here, 𝐼1 = 2
where, 𝑚 is mass and 𝑅1 & 𝑅2 are internal and external radii of circular ring.

Now from equations (i) and (ii)

4𝜋 2
𝑇12 2
−𝑇 = 𝐼
𝐶 1

4𝜋 2 8𝜋 2 𝐼1 𝑙
or, 𝑇12 − 𝑇 2 = 𝐼1 =
𝜋𝜂𝑟 4 𝜋𝜂𝑟 4
2𝑙
8𝜋𝐼 𝑙
or, 𝜂 = (𝑇2 −𝑇12)𝑟4
1

This gives the modulus of rigidity of metallic wire.

Also we can write

𝑇12 − 𝑇 2 𝐼1
=
𝑇2 𝐼
𝑇2
or, 𝐼 = (𝑇2 −𝑇2 ) 𝐼1
1

This gives the moment of inertia of circular disc.

4) 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 Spring System:

If the oscillation of a system is due to the restoring force stored in a spring, then it is called mass
spring system.

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 Consider a spring of spring constant k whose one end is fixed to a horizontal frictional less
surface and other end is attached to a block of mass m. If the mass is displaced by x and is
released then it oscillates in to and fro motion due to restoring force
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 …………………….(i)

From Newton’s Second law, we have

𝑑2 𝑥
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2
……………(ii)

From equations (i) and (ii), we have

𝑑2 𝑥
𝑚 = −𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘
or, 𝑑𝑡 2
+ 𝑚𝑥 = 0

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘
or, + 𝜔0 2 𝑥 = 0…………………….. (iii) where, 𝜔0 = √
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚

Here, equation (iii) shows that the motion of mass spring system is simple harmonic in nature
𝑘
whose angular frequency is given by 𝜔0 = √𝑚

𝜔0 1 𝑘
∴ Frequency, 𝑓 = = √
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑚

1 𝑚
Hence, time period, 𝑇= 𝑓 =2𝜋 √ 𝑘

Free Oscillation: If the oscillation of a system is only due to the effect of restoring force, then it is called
free oscillation. In this oscillation, the amplitude remains constant with increase in time but it is rare in
actual practice.

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Damping Force: The force which opposes the motion of a system due to which the amplitude goes on
decreasing with increase in time is called damping force. For example, air resistance, frictional force,
viscous force etc.

The damping force present in a system is directly proportional to the velocity of the system.

i.e. Damping force, 𝐹𝑑 ∝ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣

or, 𝐹𝑑 ∝ 𝑣

or, 𝐹𝑑 = −𝑏𝑣

where, b is damping coefficient and –ve sign indicates that damping force acts in the opposite direction
of velocity.

Damped Oscillation:
If we consider the effect of damping force in a system, then it is called damped oscillation. The forces
acting on this system are

i) Restoring force,𝐹𝑟 = −𝑘𝑥 and

ii) Damping force, 𝐹𝑑 = −𝑏𝑣

Therefore net force acting on this system is

𝐹 = 𝐹𝑟 +𝐹𝑑

Or, 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏𝑣

Or, 𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏𝑣

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Or, 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏 𝑑𝑡

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Or, 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑏 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 𝑘
Or, 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑚 𝑥 = 0

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑏 𝑑𝑥
Or, + + 𝜔02 𝑥 = 0………………(i)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑑𝑡

𝑘
where, 𝜔0 = √𝑚

Here equation (i) represents the differential equation of damped oscillation. The solution of this
equation can be written as

14
 −𝑏𝑡
𝑥 = 𝑅𝑒 2𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜙)……………………………(ii)

−𝑏𝑡
𝑏2
Where, 𝑅𝑒 2𝑚 = 𝐴(𝑡) is amplitude and 𝜔 = √𝜔02 − is angular frequency of damped oscillation.
4𝑚 2

Here, R is amplitude at t=0 called initial amplitude.

Note:
𝑏
1) If 𝜔0 > 2𝑚 then the system is oscillating called under damped case.
𝑏
2) If 𝜔0 < 2𝑚 then the system is non oscillating called over damped case.
𝑏
3) If 𝜔0 = 2𝑚 then the system is non oscillating called critical damped case.

15
 Here, A represents the plot for undamped oscillation
B represents the plot for underdamped oscillation
C represents the plot for critical damped oscillation
And D represents the plot for overdamped oscillation

Energy Loss Per Cycle in Damped Oscillation

We have the energy of damped oscillator at any instant of time is
−𝑏𝑡
1
𝐸(𝑡) = 2 𝑚𝜔02 {𝐴(𝑡)}2 where, 𝐴(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒 2𝑚 is amplitude of damped oscillator.

−𝑏𝑡
1
Or, 𝐸(𝑡) = 2 𝑚𝜔02 𝑅2 𝑒 𝑚

−𝑏𝑡
1
or, 𝐸(𝑡) = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑚 where, 𝐸0 = 2 𝑚𝜔02 𝑅2 is the initial energy.

Now energy of the oscillator after one cycle becomes

−𝑏(𝑡+𝑇)
𝐸(𝑡 + 𝑇) = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑚 where T is time period.

Therefore, energy loss per cycle is

∆𝐸 = 𝐸(𝑡) − 𝐸(𝑡 + 𝑇)
−𝑏𝑡 −𝑏(𝑡+𝑇) −𝑏𝑡 −𝑏𝑇 −𝑏𝑇
Or, ∆𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑚 − 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑚 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑚 (1 − 𝑒 𝑚 ) = 𝐸(𝑡) (1 − 𝑒 𝑚 )

16
 −𝑏𝑇
𝑏𝑇 1 𝑏𝑇 𝑏𝑇
We have, 𝑒 𝑚 = 1− 𝑚
+ 2! ( 𝑚 )2 − ⋯ ≈ 1 − 𝑚
( Since, b is very small so 𝑏2 and higher powers can
be neglected)
−𝑏𝑇
𝑏𝑇
Therefore, 1 − 𝑒 𝑚 =
𝑚

𝐸𝑏𝑇
Now, ∆𝐸 =
𝑚

This gives the energy loss per cycle.

Quality Factor: It is defined as 2𝜋 times the ratio between energy stored to the energy loss per
cycle. It is denoted by Q . Higher the quality factor, higher will be the efficiency and vice versa.
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑
Mathematically, Q=2𝜋 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒

𝐸 2𝜋 𝑚 𝑚
Or, Q=2𝜋 𝑚= = 𝜔
𝐸𝑏𝑇 𝑇 𝑏 𝑏

𝑏2
In case of low damping, 𝜔 = √𝜔02 − 4𝑚2 ≈ 𝜔0

𝑚
Therefore, Q= 𝜔0
𝑏

1
This shows that Q ∝ 𝑏

𝑚
Also, Q=𝜔0 𝜏 where 𝜏 = is relaxation time.
𝑏

Relaxation time: The time in which energy of the damped oscillator becomes 1/e times the initial
energy is called relaxation time. It is denoted by 𝜏.

We have energy of oscillator at any instant of time is

−𝑏𝑡
𝐸(𝑡) = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑚

At 𝑡 = 𝜏, the energy becomes

−𝑏𝜏
𝐸(𝜏) = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑚

−𝑏𝜏
1
Or, 𝑒 𝐸0 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑚

−𝑏𝜏
Or, 𝑒 −1 = 𝑒 𝑚

17
 𝑏𝜏
Or, =1
𝑚

𝑚
Or, 𝜏 = 𝑏

Note:
−𝑏𝑡 −𝑡
𝑥 = 𝑅𝑒 2𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜙) = 𝑅𝑒 2𝜏 cos(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜙)
−𝑏𝑡 −𝑡
𝐴(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒 2𝑚 = 𝑅𝑒 2𝜏
−𝑏𝑡 −𝑡
And 𝐸(𝑡) = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑚 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝜏

Forced Oscillation (Driven Oscillation)

If the oscillation of a system is due to the continuous application of external force, then the system is
called forced oscillation. In this system, the frequency of oscillation is the frequency of applied force.
The forces acting on this system are,

i) Restoring force,𝐹𝑟 = −𝑘𝑥

ii) Damping force, 𝐹𝑑 = −𝑏𝑣 and
iii) External force, 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝐹𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑡

Where, 𝐹𝑚 is the amplitude and 𝛼 is the angular frequency of applied force.

Therefore net force acting on this system is

𝐹 = 𝐹𝑟 +𝐹𝑑 + 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡

Or, 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏𝑣 +𝐹𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑡

Or, 𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏𝑣 +𝐹𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑡

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Or, 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐹𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑡

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Or, 𝑚 +𝑏 + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 𝑘 𝐹𝑚
Or, 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑚 𝑥 = 𝑚
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑡

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 𝐹𝑚
Or, 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 + 𝜔02 𝑥 = 𝑚
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑡………………(i)

18
 𝑘
where, 𝜔0 = √𝑚 is natural frequency of the system.

Here equation (i) represents the differential equation of forced oscillation. The solution of this
equation can be written as

𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼𝑡 + 𝜑)

Where, A is the amplitude of forced oscillation whose value is

𝐹𝑚
𝐴= and
2
√𝑚 2(𝛼 2 −𝜔02 ) +𝑏 2 𝛼 2

𝑚(𝛼 2−𝜔02 )
𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 { 𝑏𝛼
} is phase constant.

Resonance: when 𝛼 = 𝜔0 then the amplitude of forced oscillation becomes the maximum. This
condition is called resonance and the maximum amplitude is given by

𝐹𝑚 𝐹𝑚 𝑚
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = √
𝑏𝜔0 𝑏 𝑘

1
∴ 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∝
𝑏

19
The amplitude decrease from this maximum value on either side of resonant frequency. This rate of fall
in amplitude is called sharpness of resonance.

Numerical

Moment of inertia of some regular bodies about C.G.

2
a) Solid sphere, 𝐼𝐶.𝐺. = 𝑚𝑅2
5
2
b) Hollow Sphere, 𝐼𝐶.𝐺. = 3 𝑚𝑅2
1
c) Circular disc, 𝐼𝐶.𝐺. = 2 𝑚𝑅2
d) Circular ring, 𝐼𝐶.𝐺. = 𝑚𝑅2
2
𝑚𝑙 ′
e) Thin rod or bar of length 𝑙 ′ , 𝐼𝐶.𝐺. =
12
2
𝑚(𝑙 ′ +𝑏 2)
Also, 𝐼𝐶.𝐺. = 12
if breadth is given

1. An oscillatory motion of a body is represented by y=ae iwt, where y is displacement in time t and w
is angular velocity. Show that the motion is simple harmonic.
→ Here the displacement equation is 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑦
Now, 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑖𝜔𝑎𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝑑2 𝑦
∴ 2 = (𝑖𝜔)2 𝑎𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 = −𝜔2 𝑦
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑜𝑟, 2 + 𝜔2 𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑡
This is the differential equation of SHM. So the motion is simple Harmonic.
2. Show that the velocity of simple harmonic oscillator at any instant leads the displacement by a
phase angle of 𝝅/𝟐. Hence find the general expression for the velocity of a simple harmonic
oscillator

→ Refer theory
3. At t=0, the displacement x(0) of the block in linear oscillator is -8.50cm. The block’s velocity v(0)
then is -0.920m/s and its acceleration a(0) is 47m/s2. Find (a) angular frequency (b) Phase
constant.
→ Here, 𝑥 (0) = −8.50𝑐𝑚 = −0.085𝑚, 𝑣 (0) = −0.920𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎(0) = 47𝑚𝑠 −2
𝑎) 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑎(0) = −𝜔0 2 𝑥(0)
𝑎(0)
∴ 𝜔0 = √− 𝑥(0) =?
𝑏) 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜙) ∴ 𝑥(0) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 … … … . . (𝑖)
𝑣 = −𝐴𝜔0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜙) ∴ 𝑣(0) = −𝐴𝜔0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖)
Now, dividing equation (ii) by (i) we get
𝑣(0)
𝜙 = tan−1 ( − )=?
𝜔0 𝑥(0)

20
4. A 0.12kg body undergoes simple harmonic motion of amplitude 8.5cm and period 0.20sec. a) What
is the magnitude of the maximum force acting on it? b) If the oscillations are produced by a spring,
what is the spring constant?
→ Here, 𝑚 = 0.12𝑘𝑔, 𝐴 = 8.5𝑐𝑚 = 0.085𝑚, 𝑇 = 0.20𝑠
2𝜋
𝑎) 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝜔0 2 𝐴 = 𝑚 × ( )2 × 𝐴 =?
𝑇
𝑏) 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝐹 = 𝑘𝐴
𝐹
∴ 𝑘 = =?
𝐴
5. A block on a horizontal surface that is moving back and forth horizontally with SHM of frequency
2Hz. The coefficient of static friction between block and surface is 0.5. How great can the amplitude
of SHM be if the block is not to slip along the surface?
→ Here, for the block not to slip along the surface,
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 < 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚𝜔0 2 𝑥 < 𝑚𝑔
𝑔 𝑔
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 < 2 < 2 2 =?
𝜔0 4𝜋 𝑓
6. An oscillator consists of a block attached to a spring of spring constant 400N/m. At some
time t, the position (measured from the system’s equilibrium location), velocity and
acceleration of the block are x=0.1m, v=-13.6m/s and a=-123m/s2. Calculate (a) the
frequency of oscillation, (b) the mass of the block and (c) the amplitude of motion.
→(a) We have, a= - 𝜔0 2 𝑥
−𝑎
∴ 𝜔0 = √ =?
𝑥
𝜔0
𝑜𝑟, 𝑓0 = =?
2𝜋
𝑘
(𝑏) Again, 𝜔0 = √𝑚
𝑘
∴𝑚= =?
𝜔0 2
1 1 1
(c) We have, 2 𝑘𝐴2 = 2 mv2 + 2 k𝑥 2
∴ 𝐴 =?
7. The motion of the particle in simple harmonic motion is given by x=Asint. If it has a speed u
when the displacement is x1 and speed v when the displacement is x2. Show that the amplitude A
of the motion is

𝒗𝟐𝒙𝟐𝟏 −𝒖𝟐 𝒙𝟐𝟐

A=√ 𝒗𝟐−𝒖𝟐

→ Here,𝑢 = 𝜔0 √𝐴2 − 𝑥12 … … … . . (𝑖 )

And 𝑣 = 𝜔0 √𝐴2 − 𝑥22 … … … (𝑖𝑖)

21
∴ 𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 = 𝜔0 2 (𝑥12 − 𝑥22 )

𝑣 2 − 𝑢2
𝑜𝑟, 𝜔0 = √ 2
𝑥1 − 𝑥22

Now from equation (i)

𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 2
𝑢2 = 𝜔0 2 (𝐴2 − 𝑥12 ) = (𝐴 − 𝑥12 )
𝑥12 − 𝑥22

Now solve for A.

8. When the displacement is half the amplitude, what fraction of the total energy is K.E. and what
fraction is P.E. in SHM? At what displacement is the energy half K.E. and half P.E.
→ if 𝑥 be the displacement and A be the amplitude then by question, 𝑥 = 𝐴/2
1 1 𝐴2 1 3 3
𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝐾. 𝐸. = 2 m𝜔0 2 (𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 ) = 2 m𝜔0 2 (𝐴2 − 4
) = m𝜔0 2
2 4
𝐴2 = 4 𝐸
𝐾. 𝐸. 3
∴ =
𝐸 4
𝑃. 𝐸. 3
𝑁𝑜𝑤, = 1 − = 1/4
𝐸 4
For second part,
𝐾. 𝐸. = 𝑃. 𝐸.
1 1
𝑜𝑟, m𝜔0 2 (𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 ) = m𝜔0 2 𝑥 2
2 2
2 2 2
𝑜𝑟, 𝐴 − 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 = 𝐴/√2
9. A meter stick swings about a pivot point at one of its end. What is the time period of oscillation?
What is the distance of the pivot point from the centre of oscillation of the stick?

→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑙 ′ = 1𝑚, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙 = 0.5𝑚

22
 𝑙 2+𝐾 2 𝑙+𝑘 2/𝑙
We have, 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √ = 2𝜋 √
𝑔𝑙 𝑔

2
𝑚𝑙 ′
Since, 𝐼𝐶.𝐺. = 𝑚𝑘 2 =
12

2
𝑙′2
∴𝑘 = =?
12

𝑙+𝑘 2 /𝑙
∴ 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √ =?
𝑔

𝑘2
Again, the distance of pivot point from center of oscillation is L= 𝑙 + 𝑙
=?

10. A uniform circular disc of diameter 20cm vibrates about a horizontal axis perpendicular plane and
at a distance of 5cm from the centre. Calculate, the time period of oscillation and the equivalent
length of the simple pendulum.
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑅 = 10𝑐𝑚 = 0.1𝑚

𝑙 2+𝑘 2 𝑙+𝑘 2 /𝑙
We have, 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √ 𝑔𝑙
= 2𝜋 √ 𝑔

𝑚𝑅 2
Since, 𝐼𝐶.𝐺. = 𝑚𝑘 2 = 2

𝑅2
∴ 𝑘2 = =?
2

𝑙+𝑘 2 /𝑙
∴ 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √ 𝑔
=?

𝑘2
Again, the equivalent length of simple pendulum is L= 𝑙 + 𝑙
=?

23
11. A thin, straight, uniform rod of length l=1m and mass 160gm hangs from a pivot at one end.
What is the period for small oscillations? What is the length of simple pendulum that will have
the same time period.
→ 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑄. 𝑁. 8.
12. A stick of length 1.85m oscillates as a physical pendulum. a) What is the length of pendulum that
gives the least time period? b) What is the minimum time period?
→Here, 𝑙 ′ = 1.85𝑚
𝑎) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑, 𝑙 = 𝑘
𝑚𝑙′2
We have, 𝐼𝐶.𝐺. = 𝑚𝑘 2 = 12
𝑙′
∴𝑘= =?
√12
∴ 𝑙 = 𝑘 =?
𝑘2
𝑙+
𝑏) 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √ 𝑙
𝑔

2𝑘
∴ 𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛. = 2𝜋 √ 𝑔 =?
13. A heavy circular ring of radius R oscillates in a vertical plane about a horizontal axis at a distance x
from the centre, Show that the time period is minimum when x=R.
→Here, length of pendulum 𝑙 = 𝑥
𝑘2 𝑘2
𝑙+ 𝑥+ 𝐿 𝑘 2
𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √ 𝑔 𝑙 = 2𝜋 √ 𝑔 𝑥 = 2𝜋 √𝑔 , where 𝐿 = 𝑥 + 𝑥

For minimum time period, 𝐿 must be minimum.

𝑑𝐿
For minimum 𝐿, 𝑑𝑥 = 0

𝑑 𝑘2
or, (𝑥 + )=0
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

𝑘2
or, 1 − 𝑥 2 = 0

or, 𝑘 2 = 𝑥 2

or, 𝑥 = 𝑘

we have, for ring

𝐼𝐶.𝐺. = 𝑚𝑘 2 = 𝑚𝑅2

∴𝑘=𝑅

Hence T is minimum when 𝑥 = 𝑅

24
14. A uniform thin rod of length 120cm and width 6cm is swinging in a vertical plane on pendulum
about a point A at some distance from one end. If the time of swing is minimum, find the distance A
from the end of the rod.
→let x be the distance of A from the end of the rod.

𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑚, 𝑙 = (60 − 𝑥)

Since, time period is minimum so 𝑙 = 𝑘

𝑜𝑟, 60 − 𝑥 = 𝑘 … … … … (𝑖 )

We have,
2
2
𝑚(𝑙 ′ + 𝑏2 )
𝐼𝐶.𝐺. = 𝑚𝑘 =
12

𝑙′ 2 + 𝑏2
∴𝑘=√ =?
12

Now from equation (i), 𝑥 = 60 − 𝑘 =?

15. A simple pendulum of length l and mass m is suspended in a car that is travelling with a constant
speed v around a circle of radius R. If the pendulum undergoes small oscillations about its
𝟏 𝒈𝒙
equilibrium position x, prove that the frequency of oscillation is f=𝟐𝝅 √ 𝒍𝑹 .

25
→ Here, the necessary centripetal force for the pendulum to move in circular path is provided by the
restoring force.

i.e. centripetal force=restoring force

𝑜𝑟, 𝑚𝜔2 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 𝜔2 𝑅 = 𝑔
𝑙

𝑔𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 𝜔 = √
𝑙𝑅

𝜔 1 𝑔𝑥
∴ 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝑓 = = √
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑙𝑅

16. A simple pendulum of length 20cm and mass 5gm is suspended in a car travelling with constant
speed 70m/s around a circle of radius 50m. If the pendulum undergoes small oscillations in a
radial direction about its equilibrium position, what is the frequency of oscillation?

→Here, effective value of acceleration due to gravity is

𝑣2
𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓. = √𝑔2 + ( )2 =?
𝑅

𝑙
∴ 𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓.

1 1 𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓.
𝑜𝑟, 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝑓 = = √ =?
𝑇 2𝜋 𝑙

17. A simple pendulum of 1m length is suspended in an elevator. If the elevator is ascending at an

acceleration of 3 m/s2, what is the period of oscillation of the pendulum?

→Here, effective value of acceleration due to gravity is

𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓. = 𝑔 + 𝑎

𝑙 𝑙
∴ 𝑇 = 2𝜋√ = 2𝜋√ =?
𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓. 𝑔+𝑎

18. A metallic disc of mass 0.5kg and radius 0.1m is suspended by a wire of length 40 cm and radius
1mm. The torsion oscillations of the disc are found to have a period of 2.5sec. Find the modulus of
rigidity of the wire.
→We have, Time period of Torsion Pendulum is

26
 𝑚𝑅2
𝐼 2 𝑚𝑅 2 2𝑙
𝑇=2𝜋 √𝐶 = 2𝜋 √ 𝜋𝜂𝑟4
= 2𝜋 √ 2
× 𝜋𝜂𝑟4
2𝑙

∴ 𝜂 =?
19. A wire has a torsional constant of 2Nm/rad. A disc of radius 5cm and mass 100gm is suspended at its
centre. What is the frequency of torsional oscillations?
→ We have, Time period of Torsion Pendulum is

𝐼 𝑚𝑅 2
𝑇=2𝜋 √𝐶 = 2𝜋 √ 2𝐶

1 1 2𝐶
∴𝑓= = √ =?
𝑇 2𝜋 𝑚𝑅2

20. A solid sphere of mass 2kg and diameter 0.30m is suspended on a wire. Find the period of angular
oscillation for small displacements if the torque constant of the wire is 6x10 -3Nm/rad.
→ We have, Time period of Torsion Pendulum is

𝐼 2𝑚𝑅 2
𝑇=2𝜋 √𝐶 = 2𝜋 √ 5𝐶
=?

21. Two identical springs are attached to a block of mass m horizontally. Show that the frequency of
𝟏 𝟐𝒌
oscillation on the frictionless surface is given by f= √
𝟐𝝅 𝒎
→If x be the extension in first spring, then restoring force 𝐹1 = −𝑘𝑥
The compression in second spring is also x so restoring force 𝐹2 = −𝑘𝑥

∴ net force, 𝐹 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 = −2𝑘𝑥

𝑜𝑟, 𝑚𝑎 = −2𝑘𝑥

𝑑2 𝑥
𝒐𝒓, 𝑚 = −2𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡 2

27
 𝑑2 𝑥 2𝑘
or, 𝑑𝑡 2
+ 𝑚
𝑥=0

𝑑2 𝑥 2𝑘
or, + 𝜔0 2 𝑥 = 0…………………….. (i) where, 𝜔0 = √
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚

Here, equation (i) shows that the motion of mass spring system is simple harmonic in nature whose
2𝑘
angular frequency is given by 𝜔0 = √ 𝑚

𝜔 1 2𝑘
∴ Frequency, 𝑓 = 2𝜋0 = 2𝜋 √ 𝑚

22. A 2kg mass hangs from a spring. A 300gm body hung below the mass stretches the spring 2cm
further. If the 300gm body is removed and the mass is set in oscillation, find the period of motion.
→ Here, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑘𝑥
𝑚𝑔 0.3×10
∴𝑘= = =?
𝑥 0.02
𝑀 2
Now time period, 𝑇=2𝜋 √ 𝑘 = 2𝜋 √𝑘 =?
23. A mass of 1 kg is suspended from a spring of spring constant 25N/m. If the undamped frequency is
2/√𝟑 times the damped frequency, what will be the damping factor?
2 ′
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑓0 = 𝑓
√3
1 𝑘 2 1 𝑘 𝑏2
𝑜𝑟, √ = × ×√ −
2𝜋 𝑚 √3 2𝜋 𝑚 4𝑚 2

𝑘 4 𝑘 𝑏2
𝒐𝒓, = ×( − )
𝑚 3 𝑚 4𝑚 2
∴ 𝑏 =?
24. A 0.5kg block is attached to a spring of spring constant 12.5N/m. The damped frequency is
0.2% lower than the natural frequency.(a) Calculate the damping constant (b) How does
the amplitude vary in time? (c) What is critical damping constant?
𝑘
→(a)we have, undamped angular frequency is 𝜔0 = √𝑚 =?
Now damped angular frequency 𝜔 = 𝜔0 − 0.998𝜔0 =?
𝑏2
We have, 𝜔 = √𝜔02 −
4𝑚 2
∴ 𝑏 =?
−𝑏𝑡
(b) The amplitude variation with time is 𝐴(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒 2𝑚
(c)The critical damping constant is given by 𝑏 = 2𝑚𝜔0 =?

28
25. A mass of 0.2 kg is suspended from a spring of spring constant 80N/m. The body is
subjected to a resistive force. Calculate the value of undamped frequency and the value of
relaxation time if the damped frequency is √𝟑/2 times the undamped frequency.
𝑘
→(a)we have, undamped angular frequency is 𝜔0 = √𝑚 =?
𝜔
∴ 𝒇𝟎 = 2𝜋0 =?
√3
Again, damped frequency, 𝑓 = × 𝒇𝟎
2

1 𝑘 𝑏2 √3 1 𝑘
𝑜𝑟, ×√ − 2
= × √
2𝜋 𝑚 4𝑚 2 2𝜋 𝑚

𝑜𝑟, 𝑏 =?
𝑚
∴ relaxation time 𝜏 = =?
𝑏

26. A 750gm block oscillates one end of a spring whose force constant is 56N/m. The mass moves in a
fluid which offers a resistive force F=-bv, where b=0.162Ns/m. What the period of motion.
𝑏2 𝑘 𝑏2
→ we have, 𝜔 = √𝜔02 − =√ − =?
4𝑚 2 𝑚 4𝑚 2
2𝜋
∴𝑇= =?
𝜔
27. Consider the solution of differential equation in free vibration is represented by 𝑥 =
𝑎𝑒 −𝑚𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡. The equation for displacement of a point on a damped oscillator is given by
𝜋 𝑇
𝑥 = 5𝑒 −0.25𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑡 meter. Find the velocity of the oscillating point at = 4 , where T is time
period of oscillator.
𝜋
→ Comparing given equation with 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑒 −𝑚𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 we get, 𝑎 = 5𝑚, 𝜔 = rad/s and 𝑚 =
2
0.25 /s
2𝜋
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇 = = 4 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜔
𝑑𝑥 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Now velocity is 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡
= 5 [−0.25 × 𝑒−0.25𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑡 + 2 × 𝑒−0.25𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡]
𝑇
For 𝑡 = 4 = 1𝑠𝑒𝑐, 𝑣 =?
28. The energy of guitar string of frequency 256 Hz reduces to half its initial value in 2 seconds. What is
the Q value of the string?
→Here, 𝑓 ′ = 256𝐻𝑧,
−𝑏𝑡 −𝑡
We have, 𝐸(𝑡) = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑚 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝜏
1 −2
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸0 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝜏
2

29
 1 −2
𝑜𝑟, ln ( ) =
2 𝜏
−2
𝑜𝑟, 𝜏 = =?
1
ln ( )
2
∴ Quality factor, 𝑄 = 𝜔𝜏 = 2𝜋𝑓 ′ × 𝜏 =?
29. The quality factor of a piano wire of frequency 500 Hz is 5000. In what time will its energy reduce to
1/e of its value because of damping?
→Here, 𝑓 ′ = 500𝐻𝑧, 𝑄 = 5000
𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, Quality factor, 𝑄 = 𝜔𝜏 = 2𝜋𝑓 ′ × 𝜏
𝑄
∴ 𝜏 = 2𝜋𝑓′ =?
−𝑏𝑡 −𝑡
Again, we have, 𝐸(𝑡) = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑚 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝜏
1 −𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸0 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝜏
𝑒
−𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝑒 −1 = 𝑒 𝜏
−𝑡
𝑜𝑟, −1= 𝜏
∴ 𝑡 = 𝜏 =?
30. A simple pendulum has a period of 1 sec and amplitude 10º. After 10 complete oscillations its
amplitude is reduced to 5º. What is the relaxation time of the pendulum and the quality factor.
→ Here, 𝑇 = 1𝑠, 𝜃0 = 100 , 𝑡 = 10𝑠, 𝜃(𝑡) = 50
−𝑏𝑡 −𝑡
𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐴(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒 2𝑚 = 𝑅𝑒 2𝜏
−𝑡
∴ 𝜃(𝑡) = 𝜃0 𝑒 2𝜏
−10
𝑜𝑟, 50 =100 𝑒 2𝜏
1 −10
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑒 2𝜏
2
1 −10
𝑜𝑟, ln ( ) =
2 2𝜏
∴ 𝜏 =?
2𝜋
Again, quality factor, 𝑄 = 𝜔𝜏 = × 𝜏 =?
𝑇
𝟏𝟐.𝟓
31. Show that damping reduces the frequency of oscillator by 𝑸𝟐
%.
→ We have the angular frequency of damped oscillation is
𝑏2 𝑏2 1 1
𝜔 = √𝜔02 − 4𝑚2 = 𝜔0 √1 − 4𝜔2𝑚2 = 𝜔0 √1 − 4𝜔2𝜏2 = 𝜔0 √1 − 4𝑄2
0 0

(∵ 𝑄 = 𝜔𝜏 ≈ 𝜔0 𝜏 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔)

1
𝜔 1 2 1 1
𝑜𝑟, = (1 − 2 ) ≈ 1 − × 2
𝜔0 4𝑄 2 4𝑄
2𝜋𝑓′ 1
𝑜𝑟, =1− 2
2𝜋 𝑓0 8𝑄

30
 𝑓′ 1
𝑜𝑟, =1−
𝑓0 8𝑄2
𝑓′ 1
𝑜𝑟, 1 − =
𝑓0 8𝑄2
𝑓0 −𝑓′ 1
𝑜𝑟, = This gives the fractional reduced in frequency due to the presence of damping.
𝑓0 8𝑄2
𝑓0 − 𝑓′ 1 12.5
∴ × 100% = × 100% = 2 %
𝑓0 8𝑄2 𝑄
32. The quality factor of a tuning fork is 50000. Calculate the number of vibrations after which its energy
becomes 1/10th of the initial value.
2𝜋
→ We have, 𝑄 = 𝜔𝜏 = 𝑇 × 𝜏
2𝜋𝜏 2𝜋𝜏
∴𝑇= =
𝑄 50000
−𝑡
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝐸(𝑡) = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝜏
1 −𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸0 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝜏
10
1 −𝑡
𝑜𝑟, ln ( ) =
10 𝜏
1
∴ 𝑡 = −𝜏 × ln ( )
10
1
𝑡 −𝜏 × ln (10)
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑛 = = × 50000 =?
𝑇 2𝜋𝜏
33. If the ratio of mass to damping coefficient of the damped harmonic oscillator is 50sec, find the
time period for which a)the amplitude falls to 1/e times the initial value b) energy falls to 1/e4
times the initial value c) the energy falls to 1/e times the initial value.
𝑚
→ Here, 𝑏
= 𝜏 = 50 𝑠

(a)We have
−𝑏𝑡 −𝑡
𝐴(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒 2𝑚 = 𝑅𝑒 2𝜏

1 −𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑒 2𝜏
𝑒
−𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝑒 −1 = 𝑒 2𝜏
−𝑡
𝑜𝑟, −1 =
2𝜏

∴ 𝑡 =?
−𝑏𝑡 −𝑡
b) We have, 𝐸 (𝑡) = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑚 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝜏

1 −𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 4
𝐸0 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝜏
𝑒

31
 −𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝑒 −4 = 𝑒 𝜏

−𝑡
𝑜𝑟, −4 =
𝜏

∴ 𝑡 =?

c) Same as (b)

34. For damped oscillator, m=250gm, k=85N/m, and b=70g/sec. a)what is the period of motion? b) how
long does it take for the amplitude of the damped oscillations to drop to half its initial value? C) How
long does it take for the mechanical energy to drop to one half its initial value?
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
→ a) 𝑇 = 𝜔 = 2
= 2
=?
√𝜔02− 𝑏 2 √𝑘− 𝑏 2
4𝑚 𝑚 4𝑚

−𝑏𝑡
b) 𝐴(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒 2𝑚
−𝑏𝑡
1
or , 2
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑒 2𝑚
∴ 𝑡 =?
−𝑏𝑡
c) 𝐸(𝑡) = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑚
−𝑏𝑡
1
or, , 𝐸0 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑚
2
∴ 𝑡 =?
35. The amplitude of a lightly damped oscillator decreases by 3% during each cycle. What percent of
the mechanical energy of the oscillator is lost in each cycle?
1
→ If R be the initial amplitude, the initial energy is 𝐸0 = 2 𝑚𝜔02 𝑅2
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 0.97𝑅. 𝑆𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠
1
𝐸 = 𝑚𝜔02 (0.97𝑅)2 = (0.97)2 × 𝐸0
2
𝐸
𝑜𝑟, = (0.97)2
𝐸0
𝐸0 − 𝐸 𝐸
𝑁𝑜𝑤, % 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = × 100% = (1 − ) × 100%
𝐸0 𝐸0
2
= [1 − (0.97) ] × 100% ≈ 6%
36. If Q of an oscillator be 40, calculate the ratio of the amplitude of forced vibration and the amplitude
at resonance when the frequency of the applied force is 99% of the natural frequency in the
absence of damping.

→ Here, Q=40, 𝛼 = 0.99𝜔0

𝐹𝑚
We have, amplitude of forced oscillation is 𝐴 =
2
√𝑚 2 (𝛼 2−𝜔02) +𝑏 2𝛼 2

𝐹𝑚
∴ 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥. =
𝑏𝜔0

32
 𝐴 𝑏𝜔0 1 1
𝑁𝑜𝑤, = = =
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥. √𝑚 2 (𝛼 2 − 𝜔02 )2 + 𝑏2 𝛼 2 2
𝑚2 𝛼2 𝑚 2 𝜔4 𝛼 2 𝛼2
√ 2 2 (𝛼 2 − 𝜔02 )2 + 2 √ 2 20 ( 2 − 1) + 2
𝑏 𝜔0 𝜔0 𝑏 𝜔0 𝜔0 𝜔0

𝐴 1
𝑜𝑟, = =?
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥. 2
𝛼2 𝛼2
√𝑄2 ( − 1) +
𝜔02 𝜔02

37. An object of mass 0.1kg hung from a spring whose spring constant is 100N/m. A resistive
force –bv acts on the object and b=1Ns/m. The object is subjected to a harmonic driving
force of the form 𝑭𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕 where 𝑭𝟎 = 𝟐𝑵 and 𝝎 = 𝟓𝟎𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔. In the steady state,
what is the amplitude of oscillation and phase relative to applied force.
→ Here, m=0.1kg, k=100N/m, b=1Ns/m, 𝐹𝑚 = 𝐹0 = 2𝑁 and 𝛼 = 𝜔 = 50𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠.

𝑘
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝜔0 = √𝑚 =?

𝐹𝑚
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒, 𝐴 = =?
√𝑚2 (𝛼2−𝜔20)2 +𝑏2𝛼2

−1
𝑚(𝛼2 − 𝜔20 )
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 { } =?
𝑏𝛼
38. A mass 1 kg is attached to a spring of spring constant 300N/m, the damping constant
1.5kg/s. It is driven by a sinusoidal force of maximum value 8N and angular frequency 9
rad/sec. Find the resonant frequency and amplitude of vibration at resonance.
𝜔0 1 𝑘
→ We have, resonant frequency 𝑓0 = = √ =?
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑚
𝐹𝑚
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥. = =?
𝑏𝜔0

33
Chapter: Acoustics
Threshold of hearing:
The minimum amount of sound energy which is just received by human’s ear is called threshold of
hearing and corresponding intensity of sound wave is threshold intensity.

Loudness:
The amount of sound energy which is greater than threshold of hearing is called loudness. The loudness
of sound wave is measured in terms of intensity level. The intensity level of sound wave having intensity
𝐼 is given by
𝐼
𝐿 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( ) , where 𝐼0 is threshold intensity. The unit of intensity level is dB(decibel)
𝐼0

Reverberation
The phenomenon of intermixing between original and reflected sound wave in a medium due to which
the sound wave received by the observer is somewhat extended is called reverberation.

Reverberation Time
The time in which the intensity of sound wave becomes one millionth of the initial intensity is
reverberation time.

Absorption Coefficient
The ratio of perfectly sound absorbing area to the total available area is called absorption coefficient.
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
i.e. absorption coefficient, 𝛼 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

If 𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , … … . . 𝛼𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 coefficient for surfaces having areas

𝑆1 , 𝑆2 , … … 𝑆𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 average absorption coefficient is given by

𝛼1 𝑆1 + 𝛼2 𝑆2 + ⋯ … . +𝛼𝑛 𝑆𝑛
𝛼=
𝑆1 + 𝑆2 + ⋯ … . +𝑆𝑛

Properties of good acoustics of a building

1. The sound must sufficiently be loud everywhere.

2. Successive syllables must be clear and distinct.

34
 3. There should be no echoes or distortion of the original sound.
4. There should neither be any focusing of sound nor any zone of silence in any part of the
hall.
5. The quality of sound must not change.

Sabine’s Relation
Assumptions:

(a) there is uniform distribution of sound energy inside the room.

(b) the energy is not lost in the auditorium.

Let us consider a hall having volume V and total surface area S. Let 𝛼 be the average absorption
coefficient of the hall and 𝐼 be the instantaneous intensity of sound wave. If ∆𝐼 be the change in
intensity in time ∆𝑡, then according to Sabine’s assumption,

∆𝐼 = −𝐼𝛼𝑛∆𝑡

Where 𝑛 is number of reflection per second and –ve sign indicates that intensity goes on decreasing
with increase in time.

∆𝐼
∴ = −𝐼𝛼𝑛
∆𝑡

Taking limit ∆𝑡 → 0 on both sides, we have

𝑑𝐼
= −𝐼𝛼𝑛
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼
𝑜𝑟, = −𝛼𝑛𝑑𝑡
𝐼

Integrating both sides from time 0 to t

𝐼 𝑑𝐼 𝑡
∫𝐼0 𝐼
= −𝛼𝑛 ∫0 𝑑𝑡 Here, 𝐼0 is initial intensity.

𝐼
𝑜𝑟, ln ( ) = − 𝛼𝑛𝑡
𝐼0

I
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑒 − 𝛼𝑛𝑡
𝐼0

𝑜𝑟, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒 − 𝛼𝑛𝑡 … … … … … … . (𝑖)

35
 4𝑉
We have the mean free path is 𝜎 =
𝑆

If 𝑣 be the velocity of sound in air then time taken by the sound wave for two successive reflections is

𝜎 4𝑉
𝑇′ = =
𝑣 𝑆𝑣
1 𝑆𝑣
∴ 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑, 𝑛 = ′
=
𝑇 4𝑉

Now from equation (i)

𝑆𝑣
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒 − 𝛼𝑛𝑡 = 𝐼0 𝑒 − 𝛼4𝑉 𝑡

When 𝐼 = 10−6 𝐼0 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 𝑇; 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝑆𝑣
∴ 10−6 𝐼0 = 𝐼0 𝑒 − 𝛼 4𝑉 𝑇
𝑆𝑣
𝑜𝑟, 10−6 = 𝑒 − 𝛼4𝑉 𝑇
𝑆𝑣
𝑜𝑟, 106 = 𝑒 𝛼 4𝑉 𝑇

𝑆𝑣
𝑜𝑟, 𝛼 𝑇 = ln(106 )
4𝑉
𝑆𝑣
𝑜𝑟, 𝛼 𝑇 = 13.8
4𝑉
4 × 13.8𝑉
𝑜𝑟, 𝑇 =
𝛼𝑆 × 𝑣

36
We have the velocity of sound in air is 𝑣 ≈ 340𝑚/𝑠

4 × 13.8𝑉
∴𝑇=
𝛼𝑆 × 340
0.16𝑉
𝑜𝑟, 𝑇 = 𝛼𝑆
This is Sabine’s relation in SI

In FPS system, this becomes

0.05𝑉
𝑇=
𝛼𝑆

Ultrasound
If the frequency of sound wave is greater than 20 kHz, then it is called ultrasound.

Production of Ultrasound (Piezoelectric Generator)

If mechanical stress is applied on certain crystal such as quartz, tourmaline etc., an electric field is
developed surrounding the crystal. Conversely, if an electric field is applied on the crystal, mechanical
stress is developed on it. This effect is called piezoelectric effect and is used to produce the ultrasound.

An ac field produced by an oscillator circuit is applied between two metallic plates A and B with the help
of a transformer as shown in figure.

When a crystal is placed between two metallic plates as a dielectric, the crystal starts to vibrate. When
the frequency of applied ac field is equal to natural frequency of the crystal, the crystal stars to vibrate
with maximum amplitude. During that period, the frequency of wave surrounding the crystal is greater
than 20 kHz which is ultrasound.

Uses of ultrasound

1. Medical uses
a) It is used to identify the presence of tumors.

37
 b) It is used to identify the fracture of bones.
c) It is used in bloodless surgery.
d) It is used to investigate internal organs.
e) It is used to cure the muscular pain.
2. Directional signaling: Due to very high frequency (low wavelength), its angular spread is too
small. So it can be used as directional signaling.
3. It is used in cutting, welding and drilling purposes.
4. It is used to identify the depth of sea.

Numerical

𝑩
Velocity of longitudinal wave in a fluid 𝒗 = √ , Where B is Bulk modulus and 𝝆 is density.
𝝆

Pressure amplitude 𝑃𝑚 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝜌𝑣

1. A hall of floor is 15x30m2 along with height of 6m, in which 500 people occupy upholstered seat and
remainder seat on wooden chairs. Optimum reverberation time for orchestral music is 1.36 sec and
absorption coefficient per person is 0.44. (a) calculate the coefficient of absorption to be provided
by the walls, floor and ceiling when the hall is fully occupied. (b) Calculate the reverberation time if
only the half upholstered seats are occupied. (The absorption coefficient for each wooden chair is
0.02)
0.16𝑉
→ (a) We have, from Sabine’s relation, 𝑇 = 𝛼𝑆
0.16𝑉
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠, 𝛼𝑆 = = 313.68 𝑆𝐼 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑇
Now, absorption coefficients due to audience= 500*0.44=220 SI units
∴ coefficient of absorption to be provided by walls, floor and ceiling is = 313.68-220=93.68Si units
(𝑏) When the hall is only half filled, the absorption will also be provided by vaccent wooden seats in
addition to absorption due to audience.
∴ total absorption coefficient is = 93.68+250*0.44+250*0.02=208.68 SI units
0.16𝑉
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑇 = =?
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡

2. A reverberation time of 2.3 seconds is observed in a hall of volume 5500 m 3. The sound absorbing
surface of the hall has an area of 750m2. Calculate the average absorption coefficient.
0.16𝑉
→ We have, 𝑇 = 𝛼𝑆

38
 0.16𝑉
∴𝛼= =?
𝑇𝑆
3. Calculate the reverberation time for a hall of volume 1400m 3, which has seating capacity of 110
persons with full capacity of audience and when audience are occupying only cushioned seats.
Relevant data can be taken from the following table
Surface area(m 2 ) coefficient of absorption
Plastered wall 98 0.03
Plastered ceiling 144 0.04
Wooden door 15 0.06
Cushioned chairs 88 1.00
Audience 150 (Person) 0.47(Per person)

→ Here, total absorption coefficient is

𝛼𝑆 = 𝛼1 𝑆1 + 𝛼2 𝑆2 + 𝛼3 𝑆3 + 𝛼4 𝑆4 + 𝛼5 𝑆5

= 0.03 × 98 + 0.04 × 144 + 0.06 × 15 + 1 × 88 + 0.47 × 110 =?

0.16𝑉 0.16×1400
Now, reverberation time, 𝑇 = 𝛼𝑆
= 𝛼𝑆
=?
4. The volume of a room is 980m3. The wall area of the room is 150m2, ceiling area 95m2 and floor
area is 90 m2. The average sound absorption coefficient a) for wall is 0.03, b) for ceiling is 0.80 and
c) for the floor is 0.06, calculate the average sound absorption coefficient and reverberation time.
𝛼 𝑆 +𝛼 𝑆2+𝛼3𝑆3
→ We have average absorption coefficient, 𝛼 = 1 1𝑆 +𝑆2 +𝑆 =?
1 2 3

0.16𝑉
And reverberation time, 𝑇 = 𝛼𝑆
=? Here, 𝑆 = 𝑆1 + 𝑆2 + 𝑆3

5. How much acoustic power enters the window of area 1.58 m 2, via the sound wave (standard
intensity level = 10-16W/cm2). The window opens on a street where the street noise results in an
intensity level at the window of 60dB.

→ Here, Power, P=? , area, A=1.58m2, standard intensity level, 𝐼0 =10-16W/cm2=10-12W/m2

Intensity level, 𝐿 = 60𝑑𝐵

𝐼
We have, 𝐿 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝐼 )
0

𝐼
𝑜𝑟, 60 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝐼0

𝐼
𝑜𝑟, 6 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝐼0

𝐼
𝑜𝑟, = 106
𝐼0

𝑜𝑟, 𝐼 = 106 𝐼0 = 106 ×10-12=10−6 W/m2

Now power, 𝑃 = 𝐼 × 𝐴 =?

39
6. A room has dimensions of 6x4x5 m. Find a) the mean free path of the sound wave in the room. b)
no. of reflections made per second wave with the walls of the room. Given velocity of sound in
air=350ms-1
4𝑉 𝑙×𝑏×ℎ
→ Here, (a) mean free path, 𝜎 = 𝑆 = 2(𝑙𝑏+𝑏ℎ+𝑙ℎ) =?

𝑆𝑣
(b) no. of reflections per sec., 𝑛 = 4𝑉 =?

7. The time of reverberation of an empty hall without and with 500 audiences is 1.5sec and 1.4sec
respectively. Find the reverberation time with 800 audiences in the hall.
→ Here, reverberation time of empty hall, 𝑇0 = 1.5𝑠

𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 500 𝑎𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑇500 = 1.4 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 800 𝑎𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑇800 =?

Here, decrease in reverberation time due to 500 audiences=1.5-1.4=0.1s

0.1
∴ decrease in reverberation time due to 800 audiences = × 800 = 0.16s
500

ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 800 𝑎𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑇800 = 1.5 − 0.16 = 1.34𝑠𝑒𝑐

8. The time of reverberation of an empty hall is 1.5sec. With 500 audience present in the hall, the
reverberation time falls down to 1.4 sec. Find the no of persons present in the hall if the
reverberation time falls down to 1.312sec.

→ Here, reverberation time of empty hall, 𝑇0 = 1.5𝑠

𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 500 𝑎𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑇500 = 1.4 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑛 𝑎𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑇𝑛 = 1.312𝑠

Here, decrease in reverberation time due to 500 audiences=1.5-1.4=0.1s

0.1
∴ decrease in reverberation time due to n audiences = 500 × n

0.1
ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑛 𝑎𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠, 𝑇𝑛 = 1.5 − 500 × n

0.1
or, 1.312=1.5 − 500 × n

0.1
𝑜𝑟, × n = 1.5 − 1.312 = 0.188
500

40
 0.188×500
𝑜𝑟, 𝑛 = =940
0.1

9. A lecture hall of volume 12x104m3 has a total absorption of 13200m2 of open window unit. Entry of
students in the hall rises the coefficient by another 13200m 2 of open window unit. Find the change
in reverberation time.
0.16𝑉 0.16×12×104
→ here, reverberation time for empty hall, 𝑇0 = 𝛼𝑆
= 13200
=?

0.16×12×104
Reverberation time with students, 𝑇𝑠 = 13200+13200 =?

∴ 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑠 =?

10. Entry of people in an auditorium hall of volume 1.6x105ft3 and total absorption of 1000 ft2 of open
window raises the absorption by 600 ft2. Find the change in reverberation time.
0.05𝑉 0.05×1.6×105
→here, reverberation time for empty hall, 𝑇0 = 𝛼𝑆
= 1000
=?

0.05×1.6×105
Reverberation tie with People, 𝑇𝑃 = =?
1000+600

∴ 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑇0 − 𝑇𝑃 =?

11. A baby’s mouth is 30 cm from his father’s ear and 1.5m from his mother’s ear. What is the
difference between sound intensity levels heard by the father and mother when the baby is crying?
→ let 𝑟1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟2 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 distance of baby’s mouth from his father and mother respectively.

ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑟1 = 30𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟2 = 1.5𝑚 = 150𝑐𝑚

𝐼 𝑟2
we have ratio of intensity, 𝐼1 = 𝑟22 =?
2 1

𝐼
Now difference in intensity level, ∆𝐿 = 𝐿1 − 𝐿2 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝐼1 ) =?
2

12. An engineer set a record for the loudest speech program in a hall, the sound level 46m in front of
the speaker system was 120dB. What is the ratio of the intensity at that spot to the intensity of
traffic sound level of 92 dB?

→ Here, 𝐿1 = 120𝑑𝐵, 𝐿2 = 92𝑑𝐵

𝐼1
𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐿1 − 𝐿2 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝐼2

𝐼1
𝑜𝑟, 120 − 92 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝐼2

41
 𝐼1
𝑜𝑟, 2.8 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝐼2

𝐼1
𝑜𝑟, = 102.8 =?
𝐼2

13. A loudspeaker produces sound level of 8dB above reference level at a point 40m from it. Find the
intensity level at a point 30m from the source.

→ Here, 𝐿1 = 8𝑑𝐵 𝑟1 = 40𝑚 𝐿2 =? 𝑟2 = 30𝑚

𝐼1 𝑟22
∴ = =?
𝐼2 𝑟12

𝐼
We have, 𝐿1 − 𝐿2 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝐼1 )
2

∴ 𝐿2 =?

14. A source of sound emits energy in all direction at a rate of 0.638J/s. Find the intensity level at a
distance11.5m from the source. ( take I0=1.2x10-12 W/m2)
→here,P=0.638J/s, r=11.5m, I0=1.2x10-12W/m2 L=?

𝑃 𝑃
𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐼 = = =?
𝐴 4𝜋𝑟 2

𝐼
𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙, 𝐿 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( ) =?
𝐼0

42
 Chapter 3: Heat and Thermodynamics
Calorific values of fuels and food
The calorific value of food and fuel is defined as the quantity of heat released when a unit quantity of
the fuel or food is completely burnt. It is expressed in calories per gm(C/gm).

The calorific value of different fuels can be determined with the help of a bomb calorimeter.

Bomb Calorimeter
It consists of a vessel D made of steel. A platinum bowl B is suspended inside D. The fuel E in the form of
powder or liquid is taken in B. A heating wire is immerged in the fuel and its end are connected to the
terminals 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 . R is a regulating valve for the supply of oxygen inside D. The vessel D is closed with
air tied lid. The whole arrangement is in a calorimeter C containing water. The fuel is ignited by passing
current through the heater wire. The heat produced due to the combustion of fuel is taken by the
surrounding water in the calorimeter.

Suppose the mass of fuel or food = 𝑀

Initial temperature of water = 𝜃1 (before fuel is burnt)

Final temperature of water = 𝜃2 (after fuel is burnt)

Mass of water = 𝑚

Water equivalent of calorimeter C and the vessel D = 𝑤

Now heat produced = heat gained by water + heat gained by calorimeter and vessel

= 𝑚𝑤 𝑆𝑤 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) + 𝑤(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑤 = 𝑚𝑐 𝑆𝑐 + 𝑚𝐷 𝑆𝐷 )

= 𝑚 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) + 𝑤 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) (Since, 𝑆𝑤 = 1cal/gm℃ )

43
 = (𝑚 + 𝑤)(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 (𝑚+𝑤)(𝜃2 −𝜃1 )

∴ Calorific value = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
= 𝑀

Specific heat of solid

The specific heat of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
one gram mole of the substance through 1℃.

If 𝑑𝑄 be the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram mole of a substance through
𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝑇 ℃ then specific heat capacity is 𝐶 = 𝑑𝑇

The specific heat of a gas may be at constant pressure and at constant volume. But in the case of solid,
the volume expansion is very small at low temperature so the term specific heat of solid means specific
heat at constant volume.

∴ Specific heat of solid is

𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑈
𝐶𝑉 = ( ) = ( ) (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑈, 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒)
𝑑𝑇 𝑉 𝑑𝑇 𝑉

In solids, the increase in internal energy takes place in two ways.

(i) due to vibration of atoms of the solid about their equilibrium position there is lattice specific heat and
(ii) due to thermal excitation of electrons to higher energy states, there is electronic specific heat.

∴ for solids,

𝐶𝑉 = 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒 + 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐

In the assumption that no free electrons present in the crystals at room temperature, the specific heat
of solids is

𝐶𝑉 = 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒

Classical theory of specific heat capacity of solid

(Dulong and Petit’s Law)

Assumptions

44
a) Each atoms in the crystal vibrates freely constitutes a 3-D harmonic oscillator and vibrate
independent to each other.

b) Each vibrational degree can be regarded as a 1-D harmonic oscillator.

c) Each harmonic oscillator vibrates with its natural frequency 𝜔.

The total energy of a 1-D harmonic oscillator of mass m is the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy

𝑃2 1
i.e. 𝐸 = + 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 2 ………………………….(i)
2𝑚 2

The average energy of oscillator according to classical statistics is

𝐸
−
∫ 𝐸𝑒 𝐾𝐵𝑇 𝑑𝐸
𝐸̅ = 𝐸 ………………………………….(ii)
−
∫ 𝑒 𝐾𝐵𝑇 𝑑𝐸

On solving (i) and (ii), we get

𝐸̅ = 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

Now, total vibrational energy in 3N one dimensional oscillator is

𝑈 = 3𝑁𝐾𝐵 𝑇

So the specific heat capacity is

𝑑𝑈
𝐶𝑉 = ( ) = 3𝑁𝐾𝐵 = 3𝑅 = 3 × 8.31 = 24.93𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙−1 𝐾 −1
𝑑𝑇 𝑉

This shows that the specific heat capacity is independent of temperature. This law holds good for higher
temperature but at low temperature, the specific heat of all substances vary with temperature as shown
in figure.

45
Einstein’s Quantum Theory of Specific Heat
Einstein’s model of specific heat capacity of solid assumes atoms in lattice as 3-D quantum harmonic
oscillator. Each of these atoms are vibrating independently to each other but they have the same
frequency called Einstein’s frequency. The energy of 1-D harmonic oscillator is 𝐸 = 𝑛ℏω. Einstein
assumed that each of the atoms are distinguishable and Maxwell Boltzmann statistics is applicable.

The average energy of one oscillator is

ℏω 2ℏω
𝐸 𝑛ℏω − −
− − ℏω [0 + 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 + 2𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 + ⋯……]
∑∞
𝑛=0 𝐸𝑒
𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑛ℏω𝑒
𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝐸̅ = 𝐸 = 𝑛ℏω
= ℏω 2ℏω
− − − −
∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑒
𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑒
𝐾𝐵 𝑇 1+𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 +𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 + ⋯……

ℏω
Put − = 𝑥 then
𝐾𝐵 𝑇

ℏω[0 + 𝑒 𝑥 + 2𝑒 2𝑥 + ⋯ … … ] 𝑑 𝑑 1
𝐸̅ = 𝑥 2𝑥
= ℏω 𝑙𝑛[1 + 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 2𝑥 + ⋯ … … ] = ℏω 𝑙𝑛 [ ]
1+ 𝑒 + 𝑒 + ⋯…… 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝑒𝑥
𝑑 𝑒𝑥 ℏω ℏω
= −ℏω ln(1 − 𝑒 𝑥 ) = ℏω 𝑥
= −𝑥 = ℏω
𝑑𝑥 1−𝑒 𝑒 −1
𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 − 1

∴ total energy of N oscillator is

3Nℏω
𝑈 = 3𝑁𝐸̅ = ℏω
𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 − 1

Now the specific heat capacity of solids is

−2 ℏω
ℏω ℏω 2
𝑑𝑈 ℏω ℏω 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝐶𝑉 = ( 𝑑𝑇 ) = 3Nℏω(−1) (𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 − 1) (−
𝐾𝐵 𝑇2
)𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 3𝑁𝐾𝐵 (𝐾 𝑇 ) ℏω 2
𝑉 𝐵
(𝑒 𝐾 𝐵 𝑇 −1)

Let us introduce the Einstein’s temperature 𝜃𝐸 as

ℏω
𝜃𝐸 = we get,
𝐾𝐵

𝜃𝐸
𝜃𝐸 2 𝑒𝑇
𝐶𝑉 = 3𝑁𝐾𝐵 ( ) 2
𝑇 𝜃𝐸
(𝑒 𝑇 − 1)

46
 𝜃𝐸
𝜃𝐸 𝜃𝐸
Case I: At high temperature, 𝑇
≪ 1 so 𝑒 𝑇 = 1 + 𝑇
+ ⋯ … ….

𝜃𝐸
𝜃𝐸 2 (1 +
𝑇
+ ⋯…….) 𝜃𝐸
∴ 𝐶𝑉 = 3𝑁𝐾𝐵 ( ) 2 = 3𝑁𝐾𝐵 (1 + + ⋯ … … . ) = 3𝑁𝐾𝐵 = 3𝑅
𝑇 𝜃𝐸 𝑇
(1 +
𝑇 + ⋯ … … . −1)

Which is same as given by Dulong & Petit’s law.

𝜃𝐸
Case II: At low temperature, ≫ 1 𝑠𝑜
𝑇

𝜃𝐸
𝜃𝐸 2 𝑒 𝑇 𝜃𝐸 2 − 𝜃𝐸 𝜃𝐸 2 − 𝜃𝐸
𝐶𝑉 = 3𝑁𝐾𝐵 ( ) = 3𝑁𝐾𝐵 ( ) 𝑒 𝑇 = 3𝑅 ( ) 𝑒 𝑇
𝑇 𝜃𝐸 2 𝑇 𝑇
(𝑒 𝑇 )

Prediction of Einstein’s Model

(i)It explain the behavior of heat capacity at room temperature and above. At high temperature limit, it
gives the classical value i.e. 3R

(ii) It shows that the heat capacity approaches zero at T→ 0𝐾, a fact that agrees with experiment.

Limitations
ℏ𝛚
−
The Einstein’s model showed that the heat capacity at low temperature decreases as 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 but the
experimental result shows that the heat capacity obeys 𝑇 3 law.

Degree of freedom
The total number of independent variables required to describe completely the state of motion of body
is called degree of freedom.

An ant moving along a wire has only one degree of freedom(x). If it moves in a plane, it has two degree
of freedom(x,y). A flying insect in air has three degree of freedom (x,y,z). A rigid body however, not only
moves but also rotates about any axis passing through itself. Hence it has three degree of freedom due
to the rotational motion. Thus it has in all six degree of freedom.

A monoatomic molecule like neon (Ne), helium (He) etc has three degree of freedom (all are
translational).

47
A diatomic molecule having a dumb-bell shape e.g. HCl, Cl2, O2, CO etc has 5 degree of freedom (3
translational +2 rotational).

A triatomic molecule, if it is non-linear (H2S,SO2 etc) has 6 degree of freedom (3 translational + 3

rotational)

If the triatomic molecule is linear (CO2, CH2 etc), it has 5 degrees of freedom similar to diatomic
molecule.

Maxwell’s Law of Equipartition of Energy

It states that for any dynamical system in thermal equilibrium, the total energy is divided equally among
all the degree of freedom.

According to kinetic energy of gases, the kinetic energy of a molecule of gas at temperature T is

48
1 3 1
2
𝑚𝑣 2 = 2 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 2 𝑚(𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 + 𝑣𝑧2 )

For a gas in thermal equilibrium at temperature T, the mean value of velocity along the three axes are
equal i. e. 𝑣𝑥2 = 𝑣𝑦2 = 𝑣𝑧2

1 1 1
∴ 𝑚𝑣𝑥2 = 𝑚𝑣𝑦2 = 𝑚𝑣𝑧2
2 2 2
1 3 1
Hence, 2 𝑚𝑣 2 = 2 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 3 × 2 𝑚𝑣𝑥2

1 1
or, 2 𝑚𝑣𝑥2 = 2 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

1 1 1
Similarly, 𝑚𝑣𝑦2 = 𝑚𝑣𝑧2 = 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
2 2 2

Hence the total kinetic energy of a gas in thermal equilibrium is equally distributed among all degree of
1
freedom and kinetic energy associated with each degree of freedom is 2 𝐾𝐵 𝑇.

Atomicity of Gases
The relation between molar specific heat capacity and degrees of freedom is atomicity of gas.

For an ideal gas, there are no force of attraction between the molecules, so the internal energy U of the
gas is wholly kinetic. If 𝑓 be the no of degrees of freedom then according to law of equipartition of
energy,
1
average energy per molecule = 2 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 × 𝑓

1 1
∴ total energy per mole, 𝑈 = 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 × 𝑓 × 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑓𝑅𝑇
2 2

Hence the molar specific heat of gas at constant volume is

𝑑𝑈 1 𝑓
𝐶𝑉 = = 𝑓𝑅 = 𝑅 ( )
𝑑𝑇 2 2

Now, the molar specific heat of gas at constant pressure is

𝑓 𝑓
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶𝑉 + 𝑅 = 𝑅 ( ) + 𝑅 = 𝑅(1 + )
2 2

∴ ratio of two specific heats is

𝑓
𝐶𝑃 𝑅(1 + 2) 2
𝛾= = = +1
𝐶𝑉 𝑓 𝑓
𝑅 ( 2)

49
(a) For monoatomic gas, 𝑓 = 3

𝑓 3
∴ 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅 ( 2) = 2 𝑅

𝑓 5
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅 (1 + ) = 𝑅
2 2
2 5
& 𝛾 = 𝑓 + 1 = 3 = 1.67

(b) For diatomic gas, 𝑓 = 5

𝑓 5
∴ 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅 ( 2) = 2 𝑅

𝑓 7
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅 (1 + ) = 𝑅
2 2
2 7
& 𝛾 = 𝑓 + 1 = 5 = 1.4

(c) For linear triatomic gas, 𝑓 = 5

𝑓 5
∴ 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅 ( ) = 𝑅
2 2

𝑓 7
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅 (1 + ) = 𝑅
2 2
2 7
& 𝛾 = 𝑓 + 1 = 5 = 1.4

(d) For non-linear triatomic gas, 𝑓 = 6

𝑓
∴ 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅 ( 2) = 3𝑅

𝑓
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅 (1 + ) = 4𝑅
2
2 4
& 𝛾 = 𝑓 + 1 = 3 = 1.33

Vander Waal’s Equation of Real Gas

The perfect gas equation 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇 is not obeyed by real gases, particularly at high pressure and low
temperature. In the derivation of perfect gas equation, we assumed (i) the size of molecule of gas is
negligible as compared to the volume of gas and (ii) the forces of intermolecular attraction are absent.
But in actual practice, at high pressure, the size of the molecule of gas become significant and cannot be

50
neglected in comparison with the volume of gas. Also at high pressure, the molecules come closer and
forces of molecular attraction are appreciable. Hence a perfect gas equation needs modification.

In 1879, Vander Waal modified the perfect gas equation 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇 by applying corrections for

(a) Intermolecular force of attraction and (b) Finite size of molecules

Correction for Pressure

Consider a molecule of gas, well inside the vessel at position A. It is attracted by other molecules in all
directions with the same force so that net force acting on it is zero. But when the molecule is in the
position B, it is pulled back by the other molecules so its velocity and hence the momentum with which
it will strike the walls be less than the momentum with which it will strike in the absence of force of
attraction. This reduction in momentum results in decrease of pressure. In other words, the observed
pressure of the gas is less than the actual pressure. The correction for pressure depends on

(i) no. of molecules striking a unit area per unit time of the walls of the container and

(ii) resultant inward pull on each of the striking molecules.

Each of these factors is proportional to the density of the gas,

1
∴ Correction for pressure, 𝑝 ∝ 𝜌2 ∝ 𝑉 2

𝑎
𝑜𝑟, 𝑝 =
𝑉2

Where 𝑎 is constant & V is volume of gas.

𝑎
∴ Corrected or real pressure = 𝑃 + 𝑝 = 𝑃 + where 𝑃 is observed pressure.
𝑉2

Correction for Volume

Due to finite size of gas molecules, the actual space available for the movement of the molecules is less
than the volume of vessel. The molecules have sphere of influence around them of radius 2𝑟, within
which no other molecules can penetrate.

51
Here r is the radius of each gas molecules.
4
Now, volume of a molecule of gas = 𝑥 = 3 𝜋𝑟 3

4
The volume of sphere of influence of each molecule, 𝑆 = 3 𝜋(2𝑟)3 = 8𝑥

Let us fill the whole space of the volume V with n molecules one by one.

The volume available for first molecule= 𝑉

The volume available for second molecule= 𝑉 − 𝑆

The volume available for third molecule= 𝑉 − 2𝑆

The volume available for nth molecule = 𝑉 − (𝑛 − 1)𝑆

𝑉+(𝑉−𝑆)+(𝑉−2𝑆)+(𝑉−3𝑆)+⋯………+[𝑉−(𝑛−1)𝑆]
∴ Average space available for each molecule = 𝑛

𝑛𝑉 𝑆
= 𝑛
− 𝑛 (1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ … … … … . +𝑛 − 1)

𝑆 𝑛(𝑛−1)
=𝑉−
𝑛 2

𝑛𝑆 𝑆
=𝑉− +
2 2
𝑆
As n is very large, so 2 can be neglected.

𝑛𝑆 𝑛(8𝑥)
∴ Average space available for each molecule= 𝑉 − =𝑉− = 𝑉 − 4(𝑛𝑥) = 𝑉 − 𝑏
2 2

Where, 𝑏 = 4(𝑛𝑥) = 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠.

Hence the Vander Waal’s equation of state for a mole of gas is

𝑎
(𝑃 + ) (𝑉 − 𝑏) = 𝑅𝑇
𝑉2

Where a and b are Vander Waal’s constants.

52
For n moles, this becomes

𝑎𝑛2
(𝑃 + 2 ) (𝑉 − 𝑛𝑏) = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑉

Estimation of critical constants

Consider the critical isothermal ACB. At critical point C, the curve is horizontal.

We have,
𝑎
(𝑃 + ) (𝑉 − 𝑏) = 𝑅𝑇
𝑉2

𝑅𝑇 𝑎
𝑜𝑟, 𝑃 = − ……………………………………….(i)
(𝑉−𝑏) 𝑉2

𝑑𝑃 𝑅𝑇 2𝑎
or, 𝑑𝑉
= − (𝑉−𝑏)2 + 𝑉 3 …………………………………….(ii)

𝑑2𝑃 2𝑅𝑇 6𝑎
and 𝑑𝑉 2 = (𝑉−𝑏)3
− 𝑉 4………………………………………..(iii)

𝑑𝑃 𝑑2 𝑃
At critical point, P=Pc , T=Tc , V=Vc , 𝑑𝑉
= 0 and 𝑑𝑉 2 = 0

Therefore, equation (i),(ii) and (iii) becomes,

𝑅𝑇𝑐 𝑎
𝑃𝑐 = (𝑉𝑐−𝑏)
− 𝑉 2 ……………(iv)
𝑐

𝑅𝑇
𝑐 2𝑎
− (𝑉 −𝑏) 2 +𝑉 3 = 0
𝑐 𝑐

𝑐𝑅𝑇 2𝑎
𝑜𝑟 , (𝑉 −𝑏) 2 = 𝑉 3 …………(v)
𝑐 𝑐

2𝑅𝑇𝑐 6𝑎
3
− 4=0
(𝑉𝑐 − 𝑏) 𝑉𝑐

53
 2𝑅𝑇𝑐 6𝑎
(𝑉𝑐−𝑏)3
= 𝑉 4 ………………… (vi)
𝑐

dividing (v) by (vi), we get

𝑉𝑐 − 𝑏 𝑉𝑐
=
2 3

𝑜𝑟, 3𝑉𝑐 − 3𝑏 = 2𝑉𝑐

𝑜𝑟, 𝑉𝑐 = 3𝑏

Now, from equation (v),

𝑅𝑇𝑐 2𝑎
=
(3𝑏 − 𝑏)2 (3𝑏)3
8𝑎
or, 𝑇𝑐 = 27𝑏𝑅

Now from (iv)

𝑅𝑇𝑐 𝑎
𝑃𝑐 = −
(3𝑏 − 𝑏) (3𝑏)2
𝑎
or 𝑃𝑐 = 27𝑏2

Constants of Vander walls equations

We have,

8𝑎
𝑇𝑐 =
27𝑏𝑅
𝑎 27𝑅𝑇𝑐
𝑜𝑟, = ………………….(i)
𝑏 8

again,
𝑎
𝑃𝑐 =
27𝑏2
𝑎
𝑏2
= 27𝑃𝑐 ………………(ii)

dividing (i) by (ii)

𝑅𝑇𝑐
𝑏=
8𝑃𝑐

54
Now from equation (i)

27𝑅2 𝑇𝑐 2
𝑎=
64𝑃𝑐

Critical coefficients
𝑅𝑇
The term 𝑃 𝑉𝑐 is called critical coefficient and is given by
𝑐 𝑐

8𝑎
𝑅𝑇𝑐 𝑅 × 27𝑏𝑅 8
𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 = = 𝑎 = = 2.667 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑃𝑐 𝑉𝑐 × 3𝑏 3
27𝑏2

Limitations of Vander Waals equation

1. Vander Waals theory assumes the values of a and b to be constants but in actual practice, they are
not constants.

2. According to this theory Vc=3b but experimentally it is found that Vc nearly equal to 2b.

Entropy
In order to describe the condition of a working substance completely, Clausius felt the need of another
variable of state, in addition to volume, pressure, temperature and internal energy. This new variable is
entropy. The quantity entropy is found to remain constant in adiabatic process just as temperature
remains constant in an isothermal process. Hence entropy can be defined as the thermal property of a
working substance which remains constant during an adiabatic process.

In other words, entropy is the measure of disorderness of the system. When a gas absorbs heat, it
expands and the gas molecules are more disordered.

The entropy is always measured in change and is given by

𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝑆 = 𝑇
, where 𝑑𝑄 is quantity of hat absorbed at constant temperature T.

The change in entropy for a finite reversible change is given by

𝑇2
𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝑆 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = ∫
𝑇1 𝑇

It’s unit is J/K or cal/K.

Physical significance of Entropy

55
Although it is very difficult to conceive the idea of entropy as there is no physical method to
demonstrate it i.e. it cannot be felt like temperature, pressure, volume and does not produce any effect
which can be demonstrated, it has a great significance in thermodynamics. Entropy is a real physical
quantity defined by the relation
𝑇2
𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝑆 = 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = ∫
𝑇1 𝑇

Properties of Entropy
1) Just like the temperature remain constant in isothermal process, the entropy remains constant in an
adiabatic process.

2) It is definite single valued function of thermodynamic variables describing the state of a working
substance.

3) In every natural process (irreversible process like conduction, radiation etc), there is always an
increase in entropy.

4) The second law of thermodynamics can be stated in terms of entropy of a system.

5) Due to increase in entropy, unavailable energy increases.

6) The entropy is a measure of disorderedness. The disorderedness can be evaluated by using the
relation

𝑆 = 𝐾𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑊

Where K is Boltzmann’s constant and W is disorder parameter.

Laws of Thermodynamics

Zeroth law
If a system A is in thermal equilibrium with system B and system B is in thermal equilibrium
with system C then system A must be in thermal with system C. This is called Zeroth law.

First Law
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 … … … … … (𝑖)

56
Second Law
According to second law of thermodynamics, it is impossible to convert a given amount of heat energy
fully into work i.e. the efficiency of engine can never be 100%.

In terms of entropy, which is the measure of disorderedness, the second law can be written as

𝑑𝑄 = 𝑇𝑑𝑆 … … … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖)

Where 𝑑𝑆 is change of entropy.

From (𝑖 ) & (𝑖𝑖)

𝑇𝑑𝑆 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉

Third Law of Thermodynamics

It states that the entropy of a substance at absolute zero temperature is zero and the atoms of the
substance are in perfect order (well arranged). This law explains the unavailability of absolute zero
temperature.

Negative Temperature
If the entropy of a thermodynamic system is not monoclinically increasing function of its internal energy,
it possesses a negative temperature. The corresponding energy of negative temperature is called
negative energy.

Clausius – Clapeyron Equation

(First Latent Heat Equation)

The equation which deals with change in boiling point or the freezing point of a substance with increase
in pressure is called Clausius – Clayperon equation.

57
Figure shows the PV diagram of a unit mass of a substance. ABCD and EFGH are the isothermals at
temperature 𝑇 + 𝑑𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 respectively. At points B and F, the substance is completely in liquid state.
At points C and G, the substance is completely in gaseous state. From B to C or F to G, the substance is in
transition form (mixed form). Here, BCGFB represents the complete Carnot’s cycle.

If 𝑄1 be the amount of heat absorbed in the state BC at temperature 𝑇 + 𝑑𝑇 then

𝑄1 = 𝐿 + 𝑑𝐿, where 𝐿 is latent heat.

Similarly, If 𝑄2 be the amount of heat rejected in the state FG at temperature 𝑇 then

𝑄2 = 𝐿

Now for the complete reversible cycle BCGFB, we have from Carnot’s cycle,

𝑄1 𝑄2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2

𝑄1 𝑇1
𝑜𝑟, =
𝑄2 𝑇2

𝑄1 𝑇1
𝑜𝑟, −1= −1
𝑄2 𝑇2

𝑄1− 𝑄2 𝑇1− 𝑇2
𝑜𝑟, =
𝑄2 𝑇2

𝐿 + 𝑑𝐿 − 𝐿 𝑇 + 𝑑𝑇 − 𝑇
𝑜𝑟, =
𝐿 𝑇
𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝑇
𝑜𝑟, =
𝐿 𝑇

Now the area of cycle BCGFG= 𝑄1− 𝑄2 = 𝑑𝐿 = 𝑑𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )

Here 𝑉1 is the volume of unit mass of substance at one state and 𝑉2 is the volume at another state.

𝑑𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) 𝑑𝑇
∴ =
𝐿 𝑇
𝑑𝑃 𝐿
𝑜𝑟, =
𝑑𝑇 𝑇(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )

This is Clausius - Clayperon equation.

Uses of Clausius - Clayperon equation

a) Effect of change of pressure on boiling point of liquid

58
 𝑑𝑃
When a liquid is converted into vapour, 𝑉2 > 𝑉1 so, 𝑑𝑇
> 0. This means that with the increase in
pressure, boiling point of liquid increases and vice-versa.

b) Effect of change of pressure on melting point of solid

𝑑𝑃
For solid like ice, 𝑉2 < 𝑉1 (water has less volume than ice) so, 𝑑𝑇
< 0. This means that with the increase
in pressure, melting point of such solid decreases and vice-versa.
𝑑𝑃
For solid like wax, 𝑉2 > 𝑉1 so, > 0. This means that with the increase in pressure, melting point of
𝑑𝑇
such solid increases and vice-versa.

Thermodynamic Potentials
1) Internal energy (𝑈)

It is the intrinsic energy of a system. According to first and second law of thermodynamics,

𝑇𝑑𝑆 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉

𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝑈 = 𝑇𝑑𝑆 − 𝑃𝑑𝑉

This equation gives the change in internal energy of the system in terms of four thermo dynamical
variables P, V, T & S.

2) Enthalpy (H)

It is the measurement of energy in a thermodynamic system. It is the sum of system’s internal energy
and the product of volume and pressure.

i.e. 𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉

∴ Change in enthalpy is

𝑑𝐻 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑑𝑃 = 𝑇𝑑𝑆 − 𝑃𝑑𝑉 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑑𝑃 = 𝑇𝑑𝑆 + 𝑉𝑑𝑃

3) Helmholtz’s free energy (𝐹)

It is the maximum amount of useful work that can be extracted from a thermodynamically closed
system at constant volume and temperature. It is given by

𝐹 = 𝑈 − 𝑇𝑆

∴ Change in Helmholtz free energy is

𝑑𝐹 = 𝑇𝑑𝑆 − 𝑃𝑑𝑉 − 𝑇𝑑𝑆 − 𝑆𝑑𝑇 = −𝑃𝑑𝑉 − 𝑆𝑑𝑇

4) Gibb’s free energy (𝐺)

59
It is the energy available to non-PV work in a thermodynamically closed system at constant pressure and
temperature. It is mainly related to enthalpy and is given by

𝐺 = 𝐻 − 𝑇𝑆 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉 − 𝑇𝑆

∴ Change in Gibb’s free energy is

𝑑𝐺 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑑𝑃 − 𝑇𝑑𝑆 − 𝑆𝑑𝑇 = 𝑇𝑑𝑆 − 𝑃𝑑𝑉 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑑𝑃 − 𝑇𝑑𝑆 − 𝑆𝑑𝑇 = 𝑉𝑑𝑃 − 𝑆𝑑𝑇

Since the four functions U, F, H and G play in thermodynamics the same role as played by potential
energy in mechanics, they are called thermodynamic potentials.

Maxwell’s Thermodynamic Relations

a) We have from first law and second law of thermodynamics,

𝑑𝑈 = 𝑇𝑑𝑆 − 𝑃𝑑𝑉

𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
∴( ) = 𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ( ) = −𝑃
𝜕𝑆 𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝑆

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑑𝑈 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙, 𝑠𝑜

𝜕 𝜕𝑈 𝜕 𝜕𝑈
[ ( ) ] =[ ( ) ]
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑆 𝑉 𝑆 𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑉 𝑆 𝑉

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑃
𝑜𝑟, ( ) = −( )
𝜕𝑉 𝑆 𝜕𝑆 𝑉

This is Maxwell’s first thermodynamic relation.

b) We have the Helmholtz’s free energy is

𝐹 = 𝑈 − 𝑇𝑆

∴ 𝑑𝐹 = 𝑇𝑑𝑆 − 𝑃𝑑𝑉 − 𝑇𝑑𝑆 − 𝑆𝑑𝑇 = −𝑃𝑑𝑉 − 𝑆𝑑𝑇

Now,
𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹
( ) = −𝑆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ( ) = −𝑃
𝜕𝑇 𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝑇

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑑𝐹 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙, 𝑠𝑜

𝜕 𝜕𝐹 𝜕 𝜕𝐹
[ ( ) ] =[ ( ) ]
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑇 𝑉 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑉 𝑇 𝑉

𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑃
𝑜𝑟, ( ) =( )
𝜕𝑉 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑉

60
This is Maxwell’s second thermodynamic relation.

c) We have enthalpy is

𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉

∴ 𝑑𝐻 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑑𝑃 = 𝑇𝑑𝑆 − 𝑃𝑑𝑉 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑑𝑃 = 𝑇𝑑𝑆 + 𝑉𝑑𝑃

Now,
𝜕𝐻 𝜕𝐻
( ) = 𝑇 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ( ) = 𝑉
𝜕𝑆 𝑃 𝜕𝑃 𝑆

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑑𝐻 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙, 𝑠𝑜

𝜕 𝜕𝐻 𝜕 𝜕𝐻
[ ( ) ] =[ ( ) ]
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑆 𝑃 𝑆 𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑃 𝑆 𝑃

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑉
𝑜𝑟, ( ) =( )
𝜕𝑃 𝑆 𝜕𝑆 𝑃

This is Maxwell’s third thermodynamic relation.

d) We have the Gibb’s free energy is

𝐺 = 𝐻 − 𝑇𝑆 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉 − 𝑇𝑆

∴ 𝑑𝐺 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑑𝑃 − 𝑇𝑑𝑆 − 𝑆𝑑𝑇 = 𝑇𝑑𝑆 − 𝑃𝑑𝑉 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑑𝑃 − 𝑇𝑑𝑆 − 𝑆𝑑𝑇 = 𝑉𝑑𝑃 − 𝑆𝑑𝑇

Now,
𝜕𝐺 𝜕𝐺
( ) = 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ( ) = −𝑆
𝜕𝑃 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑃

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑑𝐺 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙, 𝑠𝑜

𝜕 𝜕𝐺 𝜕 𝜕𝐺
[ ( ) ] =[ ( ) ]
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑃 𝑇 𝑃 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑇 𝑃 𝑇

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑆
𝑜𝑟, ( ) = −( )
𝜕𝑇 𝑃 𝜕𝑃 𝑇

𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑉
𝑜𝑟, ( ) = −( )
𝜕𝑃 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑃

This is Maxwell’s fourth thermodynamic relation.

61
How to remember the relations
Remember the word SPorTiVe. In this S, P, T and V represent entropy, pressure, temperature and
volume. In deriving the first two relations, 𝜕𝑆 is written in numerator on L.H.S. and rest of the quantities
𝜕𝑃, 𝜕𝑇 & 𝜕𝑉 are written (i) clockwise order and (ii) anticlockwise order. In clockwise direction, the R.H.S.
expression is with +ve and for anticlockwise direction, it is –ve.

𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑃
( ) =( )
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑇
(2nd relation)
𝑇 𝑉

𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑉
𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝜕𝑃 ) = − (𝜕𝑇 ) (4th relation)
𝑇 𝑃

Similarly, to write the other two equations, 𝜕𝑆 is written in denominator on R.H.S. and rest of the
quantities 𝜕𝑃, 𝜕𝑇 & 𝜕𝑉 are written (i) anticlockwise order and (ii) clockwise order. In clockwise
direction, the R.H.S. expression is with +ve and for anticlockwise direction, it is –ve.

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑃
𝑜𝑟, (𝜕𝑉 ) = − ( 𝜕𝑆 ) (1st relation)
𝑆 𝑉

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑉
𝑎𝑛𝑑 ( ) = ( ) (3rd relation)
𝜕𝑃 𝑆 𝜕𝑆 𝑃

Clapeyron’s Latent Heat Equation from Maxwell’s thermodynamic

relation
We have the Maxwell’s second thermodynamic relation is

𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑃
( ) =( )
𝜕𝑉 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑉

Multiplying both sides by T we get

𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑃
𝑇( ) = 𝑇( )
𝜕𝑉 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑉

𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑃
𝑜𝑟, ( ) = 𝑇 ( ) … … … … … … … (𝑖)
𝜕𝑉 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑉
𝜕𝑄
Here, ( 𝜕𝑉 ) represents the quantity of heat absorbed per unit increase in volume at constant
𝑇
temperature. This quantity of heat at constant temperature is latent heat (L).

Thus, 𝜕𝑄 = 𝐿 and 𝜕𝑉 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 for unit mass of a substance.

∴ from (i)

𝐿 𝑑𝑃
( ) =𝑇
𝑉2 − 𝑉1 𝑇 𝑑𝑇

62
 𝑑𝑃 𝐿
𝑜𝑟, =
𝑑𝑇 𝑇(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )

𝜕𝑈
Show that for a perfect gas, ( ) = 0
𝜕𝑉 𝑇

We have the Maxwell’s second thermodynamic relation is

𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑃
( ) =( )
𝜕𝑉 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑉

Multiplying both sides by T we get

𝜕𝑆 𝜕𝑃
𝑇( ) = 𝑇( )
𝜕𝑉 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑉

𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑃
𝑜𝑟, ( ) = 𝑇( )
𝜕𝑉 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑉

We have 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉

𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑃
∴ ( ) +𝑃 = 𝑇( )
𝜕𝑉 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑉

𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑃
𝑜𝑟, ( ) = 𝑇( ) −𝑃
𝜕𝑉 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑉

For ideal gas, 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇

𝜕𝑃 𝑅
∴ ( ) =
𝜕𝑇 𝑉 𝑉
𝜕𝑈 𝑅
Hence, ( 𝜕𝑉 ) = 𝑇 × 𝑉 − 𝑃 = 𝑃 − 𝑃 = 0
𝑇

Phase transition
The process in which one thermodynamic phase changes into other thermodynamic phase is called
phase transition. For example, melting of solid, boiling of liquid, conversion from normal state to
superconducting state of metal etc.

First order phase transition

In this transition, Gibb’s free energy is continuous but first order derivative of Gibb’s free energy with
respect to temperature and pressure have finite discontinuity at transition point.

We have, the Gibb’s free energy is

63
𝐺 = 𝐻 − 𝑇𝑆 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉 − 𝑇𝑆

∴ 𝑑𝐺 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑑𝑃 − 𝑇𝑑𝑆 − 𝑆𝑑𝑇 = 𝑇𝑑𝑆 − 𝑃𝑑𝑉 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑑𝑃 − 𝑇𝑑𝑆 − 𝑆𝑑𝑇 = 𝑉𝑑𝑃 − 𝑆𝑑𝑇

Now,
𝜕𝐺 𝜕𝐺
( ) = 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ( ) = −𝑆
𝜕𝑃 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑃

The Clausius - Clapeyron’s latent heat equation holds good in first order phase transition. In this process,
there is transference of heat and hence there is change in entropy and volume. Conversion of water and
into vapour, conversion of ice into water etc. are the examples of first order phase transition.

Second order phase transition

During this transition, there is no transference of heat and no change in entropy and volume. In this
𝜕𝐺 𝜕𝐺
case, there is no discontinuity of (𝜕𝑃 ) and ( 𝜕𝑇 ) . However the variation of second order derivative is
𝑇 𝑃
discontinuous. It is also noted that Clausius – Clayperon equation is not applicable in second order phase
transition i.e. latent heat does not play any role in second order phase transition. For example,
transition of normal conductor to superconductor, transition of liquid He-I to liquid He-II etc.

𝒅𝑳 𝑳
Show that 𝑪𝟐 − 𝑪𝟏 = 𝒅𝑻 − 𝑻 where 𝑪𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑪𝟐 are specific heats of liquid and its saturated vapour, L
is latent heat of vaporization.

We have for the change of state from liquid to vapour,

64
 dQ L
S2 − S1 = =
T T
dS2 dS1 L 1 dL
or, − =− 2+
dT dT T T dT
dS2 dS1 L dL
or, T −T =− +
dT dT T dT
dL L
or, C2 − C1 = −
dT T

Heat and Mass Transfer

Conduction and Fourier’s Law of Thermal Conductivity

The process of transmission of heat from one point to another in material medium due to without actual
movement of particles or due to vibration of particles when temperature difference occurs is called
conduction.

dQ
The rate of heat flow dt
is directly proportional to the cross-sectional area A of the rod and the
temperature difference T2 − T1 and inversely proportional to length of rod 𝑙.
dQ 𝐴(T2 −T1 )
i.e. ∝
dt 𝑙

dQ 𝐾𝐴(T2 −T1 ) T2 −T1

𝑜𝑟, = , where K is thermal conductivity of the material and is temperature gradient.
dt 𝑙 𝑙

𝐾𝐴(T2 − T1 )
𝑜𝑟, P =
𝑙
dT
If the temperature vary in a non-uniform way along the length then the temperature gradient is dx
.

dQ 𝑑𝑇
∴𝑃= dt
= −𝐾𝐴 𝑑𝑥 , where negative sign indicates temperature decreases with increase in x.

Now the rate of heat flow per unit area is heat flux and is given by

65
 𝑃 𝑑𝑇
𝑞= = −𝐾
𝐴 𝑑𝑥

Hence the heat flux through a material is proportional to negative gradient of temperature. This is called
Fourier’s law.

The ratio of temperature difference to the heat flux is thermal resistance and is given by
∆𝑇 𝑙
Thermal resistance, 𝑅 = 𝑞
=𝐾

Again thermal diffusivity is given by

𝐾
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑆 , where 𝐾 is thermal conductivity, 𝜌 is density of material and S is specific heat.

Radiation
Radiation is the process of transfer of heat from one place to another without heating the intervening
medium. For this process, no material medium is required for transmission of heat.

Stefan’s Law of Black Body Radiation

The amount of energy radiated per unit area per second of a perfect black body is directly proportional
to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of the surface of body.

If q be the amount of radiation energy per unit area per second of a black body at absolute temperature
T then

𝑞 ∝ 𝑇4

𝑜𝑟, 𝑞 = 𝜎𝑇 4 , where 𝜎 = 5.67 × 10−8 W/m2K4 is Stefan’s constant.

𝑃
𝑜𝑟, = 𝜎𝑇 4
𝐴

If a black body of is enclosed by an enclosure of surface temperature T0K then

𝑃 = 𝜎𝑒𝐴(𝑇 4 − 𝑇04 ), where 𝑒 is emissivity of the black body.

Thermodynamic proof of Stefan’s Law

Let u be the energy density of radiation inside a uniform temperature enclosure at temperature T. Let P
be the pressure and V be the volume. We have from first law,

𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉

From second thermodynamic relation,

66
 𝑑𝑆 𝑑𝑃
( ) =( )
𝑑𝑉 𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑉

Multiplying both sides by T we get

𝑑𝑆 𝑑𝑃
𝑇( ) = 𝑇( )
𝑑𝑉 𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑉

𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑃
𝑜𝑟, ( ) = 𝑇( )
𝑑𝑉 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑉

We have 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉

𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑃
∴ ( ) +𝑃 = 𝑇( )
𝑑𝑉 𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑉

𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑃
𝑜𝑟, ( ) = 𝑇 ( ) − 𝑃 … … … … … (𝑖)
𝑑𝑉 𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑉
𝑢
We have, internal energy, 𝑈 = 𝑢𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃 = 3

(Note: P= u/3 is due to radiation is incident in all direction so pressure is distributed equally along the
three axes)
𝑑𝑈
∴ 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑢 , which is the function of temperature alone.

Now, from (i),

𝑇 𝑑𝑢 𝑢
𝑢= −
3 𝑑𝑇 3
4𝑢 𝑇 𝑑𝑢
𝑜𝑟, =
3 3 𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑇
𝑜𝑟, =4
𝑢 𝑇

Integrating both sides,

ln 𝑢 = 4 ln 𝑇 + ln 𝐶 , where ln 𝐶 is constant.

𝑜𝑟, ln 𝑢 = ln 𝑇 4 + ln 𝐶 = ln 𝐶𝑇 4

𝑜𝑟, 𝑢 = 𝐶𝑇 4

As the rate of emission per unit area of black body is proportional to the energy density,

So, 𝑞 ∝ 𝑢 ∝ 𝑇 4

67
𝑜𝑟, 𝑞 = 𝜎𝑇 4 , where 𝜎 is Stefan’s constant.

Derivation of Newton’s law of cooling from Stefan’s law

Stefan’s law is applicable at all temperature of a hot body but Newton’s law is applicable when the
temperature difference between the hot body and its surrounding is small. Consider a body at
temperature T placed in a uniform temperature enclosure 𝑇0 . From Stefan’s law,

𝑞 = 𝜎(𝑇 4 − 𝑇04 )

𝑜𝑟, 𝑞 = 𝜎(𝑇 2 − 𝑇02 )(𝑇 2 + 𝑇02 ) = 𝜎(𝑇 − 𝑇0 )(𝑇 + 𝑇0 )(𝑇 2 + 𝑇02 )

Here, (𝑇 − 𝑇0 ) is very small, so 𝑇 ≈ 𝑇0

Hence, 𝑞 = 4𝜎𝑇03 (𝑇 − 𝑇0 )

𝑃
𝑜𝑟, = 4𝜎𝑇03 (𝑇 − 𝑇0 )
𝐴
𝑑𝑄
𝑜𝑟, 𝑃 = 4𝜎𝐴𝑇03 (𝑇 − 𝑇0 ) =
𝑑𝑡

Taking 𝑘 = 4𝜎𝐴𝑇03 , a constant,

𝑑𝑄
∴ ∝ (𝑇 − 𝑇0 )
𝑑𝑡

This equation represents Newton’s law of cooling.

Pyrheliometer
It is an instrument used to measure the amount of incident radiation and the solar constant.
Among the various types of pyrheliometer, Angstrom’s pyrheliometer is the basic and structure
is simple.

68
Angstrom’s pyrheliometer consists of two identical strips A and B blackened by platinum foil.
The strip A is exposed to the sun and strip B is shielded by a cover C. A thermocouple having a
sensitive galvanometer with A as one junction and B as another junction is used. The strip B is
heated by an electrical arrangement with suitable current through the rheostat.

When both strips A and B are shielded from sun, their junctions are at the same temperature
and the galvanometer shows no deflection. When strip A is exposed to sun and B is kept
shielded, the strip A receives heat radiations from sun and its temperature rises and
galvanometer shows deflection. The strip B is gradually heated by passing current through it and
current is adjusted so that there is no deflection in the galvanometer. The adjusted current I and
corresponding potential difference are noted, then heat produced per second in the strip B will
be

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 … … … … … … … . . (𝒊)

If 𝜶 be the absorption coefficient of strip B then the amount of heat absorbed in one second by
the strip A is

𝑃 = 𝑞𝑎𝛼 … … … … … … … … … … (𝒊𝒊)

Where, q is heat flux and 𝒂 is area of strip A.

From equations (i) and (ii)

𝑞𝑎𝛼 = 𝑉𝐼

69
 𝑉𝐼
𝑜𝑟, 𝑞 =
𝑎𝛼

Using heat flux, solar constant can be determined.

Pyrometer
The measurement of high temperature is called pyrometry and the devices used to measure
high temperature are radiation pyrometer. These thermometers are based on the principle of
black body radiation. Such thermometers have no upper limits temperature, but they cannot
measure below 600℃.

In general, there are two types of radiation pyrometers, total radiation pyrometer and optical
pyrometer. In total radiation pyrometer, measuring total radiation, temperature is measured
using Stefan’s law but in optical pyrometers, measuring intensity ratio of the source with
standard temperature, temperature is measured using Plank’s law.

The optical pyrometer is also called brightness pyrometer or radiation thermometer. It consists a
telescope, the cross-wire of which is replaced by an electric lamp. The filament is heated with
the help of a battery and current passing through it can be adjusted with the help of rheostat. O
and E are objective and eyepiece respectively. The filament is viewed through the eye piece by
placing red glass filter G.

Radiations from source whose temperature is to be determined are made to fall on the objective
O and position is so adjusted that these are focused on the lamp F. In order to have good
comparison of brightness intensity, light of only one wavelength i.e. red one compared by filter
G. If the current measured by ammeter is more, F will appear brighter than the image of the
heat source and darker if current is less. Hence, current is so adjusted that filament disappears
and is noted. When the matching is achieved, the temperature of source is also obtained.

70
Numerical on Heat and Thermodynamics
1. An engine consumes 25 litres of petrol per hour. The calorific value of petrol is 6 × 106 calories per
litre. The output of the engine is 35kilowatts. Calculate the efficiency of the engine.
→ Here, Output= 35 𝑘𝑊 = 35000𝑊
Total heat produced by petrol in one hour= 25 × 6 × 106 cals
25×6×106 25×6×106 ×4.2
Heat produced per second= cal/s= W which is input power.
3600 3600
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Now, efficiency= 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
× 100% = 20%
2. If the Einstein’s temperature of a solid is 100℃, calculate Einstein’s frequency.
→ Here, Einsteins temperature, 𝜃𝐸 = 100℃ = 373𝐾
Einstein’s frequency, 𝑓 =?
ℏω hf
We have, Einstein’s temperature, 𝜃𝐸 = =
𝐾𝐵 𝐾𝐵
𝜃𝐸 𝐾𝐵 373 × 1.38 × 10−23
∴𝑓= = = 7.77 × 1012 𝐻𝑧
ℎ 6.62 × 10−34
3. For copper, Einstein’s frequency is 2.49 × 1012 𝐻𝑧. Calculate the characteristic temperature 𝜃𝐸 .
ℏω hf 6.62×10−34× 2.49×1012
→ We have, Einstein’s temperature, 𝜃𝐸 = 𝐾 = 𝐾 = 1.38×10−23
= 119.1𝐾
𝐵 𝐵
4. A solid has Einstein’s temperature 473K, calculate its specific heat at 373K.

→ Here, Einstein’s temperature, 𝜃𝐸 = 473𝐾

Temperature, 𝑇 = 373𝐾

We have,
𝜃𝐸 473
𝜃𝐸 2 𝑒𝑇 473 2 𝑒 373
𝐶𝑉 = 3𝑅 ( ) 2 = 3 × 8.31 × ( ) 473 2 = 21.8J/mole K
𝑇 𝜃𝐸 373
(𝑒 𝑇 −1) (𝑒 373−1)

Which is nearly equal to high temperature value of heat capacity.

5. Calculate the kinetic energy of one mole of (i) oxygen and (ii) argon at 127℃.
→ Here, temperature, T= 127℃=400K

(i)As the oxygen is diatomic molecule, it has 5 degree of freedom. Its K.E. will be
𝑓 5
𝐸 = 𝑅𝑇 = × 8.31 × 400 = 8310𝐽
2 2
(ii) As the argon is monoatomic, it has 3 degree of freedom. Its K.E. will be
𝑓 3
𝐸 = 𝑅𝑇 = × 8.31 × 400 = 4980𝐽
2 2
6. Calculate kinetic energy of translation of an oxygen molecule at 27℃ (b) the total kinetic energy
of an oxygen molecule at 27℃ and (c) the total kinetic energy of a gram molecule of oxygen at
27℃.
→ Here, temperature, T= 27℃=300K
3
(𝑎) Kinetic energy of translation of an oxygen molecule, 𝐸 = 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 6.2 × 10−21 𝐽
2

71
 5
(𝑏) The total kinetic energy of an oxygen molecule, 𝐸 = 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 10.35 × 10−21 𝐽
2
(∴ 𝐴 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑠 5 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑜𝑚)

5 5
(c) The total kinetic energy of a gram molecule of oxygen 𝐸 = 2 𝑅𝑇 = 2 × 8.31 × 300 = 6232.5𝐽
7. Calculate the values of molar heat capacities 𝐶𝑃 & 𝐶𝑉 of a gas, if the ratio of heat capacities is
1.33. What is the atomicity of the gas? Given, R=8.31J/mol-K.
𝐶
→ We have, 𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 = 𝛾
𝐶𝑉
∴ 𝛾𝐶𝑉 − 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅
𝑅 8.31
𝑜𝑟, 𝐶𝑉 = 𝛾−1 = 1.33−1 = 25.18 J/mol-K
𝐶𝑃 = 𝛾𝐶𝑉 = 1.33 × 25.18 = 33.49 J/mol-K
Now, we have
2
𝛾 = 𝑓+1

2
∴ 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑓 = 𝛾−1 = 6

The gas is polyatomic.

8. Calculate the Vander Waal’s constants for dry air, given that 𝑇𝑐 = 132𝐾, 𝑃𝑐 = 37.2 atmospheres.
→ Here, 𝑇𝑐 = 132𝐾, 𝑃𝑐 = 37.2 atmospheres= 37.2 × 1.01 × 105 N/m2

We have,
27𝑅2 𝑇𝑐 2 𝑁
𝑎= = 13.51 × 10−2 2 𝑚 6
64𝑃𝑐 𝑚

And
𝑅𝑇𝑐
𝑏= = 3.65 × 10−5 𝑚 3
8𝑃𝑐

9. Calculate critical temperature for CO2, given that a=0.00874 atmosphere cm6, and b=0.0023 cm3.
→ To evaluate the value of gram molecular gas constant R at a pressure of 1 atmosphere for a gram
molecular volume at 273K, we have from Vander Waal’s equation,
𝑎
(𝑃 + ) (𝑉 − 𝑏) = 𝑅𝑇
𝑉2

0.00874
𝑜𝑟, (1 + ) (1 − 0.0023) = 𝑅 × 273
1

𝑜𝑟, 𝑅 = 0.00368

Now, critical temperature is

8𝑎
𝑇𝑐 = = 305.7𝐾 = 32.7℃
27𝑏𝑅

72
10. The Vander Waal’s constants a and b for 1 gram molecule of hydrogen are a=0.245 atms-litre2-mol-2
and b=2.67×10-2litre-mole-1. Calculate the critical temperature.
→ Here, a=0.245 atms-litre2-mol-2=0.245× 76 × 13.6 × 980 × 106 dynes-cm4-mole-2
b=2.67×10-2litre-mole-1=2.67× 10−2 × 103 cm3mole-1
R=8.31 J/mole-K=8.31× 107 ergs/mole-K

Now, critical temperature is

8𝑎
𝑇𝑐 = = 33.14𝐾 = −239.86℃
27𝑏𝑅

11. Calculate the values of Vander Waal’s constants a and b when 𝑃𝑐 = 0.23 × 106 𝑁/𝑚 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑐 =
58 × 10−8 𝑚 3 /𝑚𝑜𝑙.

→ We have, critical volume,

𝑉𝑐 = 3𝑏

𝑉𝑐
∴𝑏= = 19.33 × 10−8 𝑚 3 /𝑚𝑜𝑙
3
𝑎
= 27𝑃𝑐
𝑏2

∴ 𝑎 = 27𝑃𝑐 𝑏2 = 2.32 × 10−7 𝐽𝑚 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −2

12. Calculate the critical constants of a gas if Vander Waal’s coefficients are a=13.31×
105 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑚 6 and b=36.42cm3 and R=82.07 cm3 atmosphere/K.
→ We have,
𝑉𝑐 = 3𝑏 = 109.23cm3
𝑎
𝑃𝑐 = = 37.2 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
27𝑏2
8𝑎
𝑇𝑐 = = 132𝐾
27𝑏𝑅

13. Calculate the change in entropy when 5kg of water at 100℃ is converted into steam at the same
temperature. Given, latent heat of steam = 540cal/gm.
𝑑𝑄 𝑚𝐿 5000×540
→ We have, Change in entropy 𝑑𝑆 = = = = 7238.6 cal/K
𝑇 𝑇 373
14. 1 kg of water at 273K is brought in contact with a heat reservoir at 373K. Calculate the change in
entropy of water when its temperature reaches to 373K.

→ We have, Change in entropy,

𝑇 𝑑𝑄 𝑇 𝑚𝑆𝑑𝑇 𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑇 373
𝑑𝑆 = ∫𝑇 2 𝑇
= ∫𝑇 2 𝑇
= 𝑚𝑆 ∫𝑇 2 𝑇
= 𝑚𝑆𝑙𝑛 (𝑇2 ) = 1 × 4200 × ln (273) = 1310.8J/K
1 1 1 1

15. Calculate the change in entropy when 10gm of ice at 0℃ is converted into steam at 100℃.
→ (i) increase in entropy when 10 gm of ice at 0℃ is converted into water at 0℃ is

73
 𝑑𝑄 𝑚𝐿 10×80
𝑑𝑆 = 𝑇
= 𝑇
= 273
= 2.93 cal/K
(ii) Increase in entropy when the temperature of 10gm of water is raised from 0℃ to 100℃ is
𝑇 𝑑𝑄 𝑇 𝑚𝑆𝑑𝑇 𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑇 373
𝑑𝑆 = ∫𝑇 2 = ∫𝑇 2 = 𝑚𝑆 ∫𝑇 2 = 𝑚𝑆𝑙𝑛 ( 2 ) = 10 × 1 × ln ( ) = 3.12cal/K
1 𝑇 1 𝑇 1 𝑇 𝑇1 273
(iii) increase in entropy when 10 gm of water at 100℃ is converted into steam at 100℃ is

𝑑𝑄 𝑚𝐿 10×540
𝑑𝑆 = = = = 14.47 cal/K
𝑇 𝑇 373
Now, total increase in entropy = 2.93+3.12+14.47 = 20.52 cal/K
16. Calculate the change in entropy when 10gm of water at 60℃ is mixed with 30 gm of water at 20℃.
→ Here, m1=10gm, m2=30gm, T1=333K and T2=293K
Let the final temperature be T K then

m1S(T1-T) = m2S(T-T2)

or, 10× 1 × (333 − 𝑇) = 30 × 1 × (𝑇 − 293)

or, T=303K

(i) Now, change in entropy when the temperature of 10gm of water changes from T1=333K to
T= 303K is
𝑇 𝑑𝑄 𝑇 𝑚𝑆𝑑𝑇 𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑇 303
dS1 = ∫𝑇 = ∫𝑇 = 𝑚𝑆 ∫𝑇 = 𝑚𝑆𝑙𝑛 ( ) = 10 × 1 × ln ( ) = −0.9443 cal/K
1 𝑇 1 𝑇 1 𝑇 𝑇1 333
(Negative sign indicates decrease in entropy)
(ii) Change in entropy when the temperature of 30gm of water change from T2=293K to
T=303K is

𝑇 𝑑𝑄 𝑇 𝑚𝑆𝑑𝑇 𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑇 303
dS2 = ∫𝑇 = ∫𝑇 = 𝑚𝑆 ∫𝑇 = 𝑚𝑆𝑙𝑛 ( ) = 30 × 1 × ln ( ) = 1.002 cal/K
2 𝑇 1 𝑇 1 𝑇 𝑇2 293
Hence total change in entropy of the system = 1.002-0.9443=0.0577cal/K

17. Calculate under what pressure ice freezes at 272K if the change in specific volume when 1 kg of
water freezes is 91× 10−6 𝑚 3 . Given, latent heat of ice is 3.36 × 105 J/kg.

→ Here, latent heat of ice 𝐿 = 3.36 × 105 J/kg

Freezing point of ice under normal pressure T = 273K

Change in freezing point is 𝑑𝑇 = 273𝐾 − 272𝐾 = 1𝐾

Change in specific volume, 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 =91× 10−6 𝑚 3 /𝑘𝑔

𝑑𝑃 𝐿
We have, 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑇(𝑉 −𝑉 )
2 1

𝑑𝑇×𝐿 1.352×107
∴ 𝑑𝑃 = 𝑇(𝑉 −𝑉 ) = 1.352 × 107 𝑁𝑚 −2 = 1×105
𝐴𝑡𝑚. = 135.2 𝐴𝑡𝑚.
2 1

∴ The pressure under which ice would freeze at 272K = P+dP=1+135.2=136.2 Atmosphere

74
18. Calculate the change in boiling point of water when the pressure is increased by 1 atmosphere.
Boiling point of water is 373K. Specific volume of steam is 1.671 m 3 and latent heat of steam is 2.268 ×
106 J/kg.

→ Here, latent heat of steam 𝐿 = 2.268 × 106 J/kg.

Boiling point of water under normal pressure T = 373K

𝑚3
Specific volume of steam, 𝑉2 = 1.671 kg

Specific volume of water, 𝑉1 = 1 × 10−3 𝑚 3 /kg

Change in specific volume, 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = (1.671 − 1 × 10−3 )𝑚 3 /𝑘𝑔 = 1.670𝑚 3 /𝑘𝑔

Increase in pressure 𝑑𝑃 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 105 𝑁/m2

𝑑𝑃 𝐿
We have, =
𝑑𝑇 𝑇(𝑉2−𝑉1)

𝑑𝑃×𝑇×(𝑉2−𝑉1 )
∴ 𝑑𝑇 = 𝐿
= 27.47𝐾

Note: The boiling point of water when pressure increased by 1 atm. is 373+27.47=400.47K

19. Calculate the increase in boiling point of water at 100℃ when the pressure is increased by 1 atm.
Latent heat of vaporization is 540 cal/gm and 1 gm of steam occupies a volume of 1677cm 3.

→ Here, latent heat of steam 𝐿 = 540cal/gm = 540x4.2x1000J/kg.

Boiling point of water under normal pressure T = 373K

Specific volume of steam, 𝑉2 = 1677c𝑚 3 /gm = 1.677𝑚 3 /𝑘𝑔

Specific volume of water, 𝑉1 = 1c𝑚 3 /𝑔𝑚 = 1 × 10−3 𝑚 3 /kg

Change in specific volume, 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = (1.677 − 1 × 10−3 )𝑚 3 /kg

Increase in pressure 𝑑𝑃 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 105 𝑁/m2

𝑑𝑃 𝐿
We have, 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑇(𝑉 −𝑉 )
2 1

𝑑𝑃×𝑇×(𝑉2−𝑉1 )
∴ 𝑑𝑇 = = 27.56𝐾
𝐿

20. Calculate the pressure required to lower the melting point of ice at 1℃ if L=3.36*105J/kg, specific
volume of water at 0℃ = 10−3 𝑚 3 𝑘𝑔−1 , specific volume of ice at 0℃ = 1.091 × 10−3 𝑚 3 𝑘𝑔−1 .

→ Here, latent heat of ice 𝐿 = 3.36x105J/kg.

Melting point of ice under normal pressure T = 273K

75
Change in specific volume, 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = (1.091 × 10−3 − 1 × 10−3 )𝑚 3 /kg

Decrease in temperature 𝑑𝑇 = 1 ℃ = 1𝐾
𝑑𝑃 𝐿
We have, 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑇(𝑉 −𝑉 )
2 1

𝑑𝑇 × 𝐿
∴ 𝑑𝑃 = = 135.2 × 105 𝑁𝑚 −2
𝑇 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
(

21. Calculate the change in melting point of ice when it is subjected to a pressure of 100 atmosphere.
Density of ice = 0.917gm/cm3 latent heat of ice=336J/gm.

→ Here, latent heat of ice 𝐿 = 336J/gm=336x107ergs/gm.

Melting point of ice under normal pressure T = 273K

1
Change in specific volume, 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = (1 − 0.917) = −0.091𝑐𝑚 3 /gm

Increase in pressure 𝑑𝑃 = (100 − 1) 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 99 × 76 × 13.6 × 9802 dynes/cm2

𝑑𝑃 𝐿
We have, =
𝑑𝑇 𝑇(𝑉2−𝑉1)

𝑑𝑃 × 𝑇 × (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
∴ 𝑑𝑇 = = −0.7326𝐾 = −0.7326℃
𝐿

22. Calculate the specific heat of saturated steam given that specific heat of water at 100℃ is 1.01 and
the latent of vaporization decreases with rise in temperature at the rate of 0.64 cal/Kgm. The latent heat
of vaporization of steam = 540cal/gm.
𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝐿
→ Here, 𝑇 = 373𝐾, 𝐿 = 540 , 𝐶1 = 1.01, 𝐶2 =? , = −0.64 cal/Kgm
𝑔𝑚 𝑑𝑇

dL L
We have, C2 − C1 = dT − T

dL L 540
𝑜𝑟, C2 = C1 + − = 1.01 − 0.64 − = −1.077 𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑔𝑚
dT T 373

23. A slab of compressed cork 5cm thick and 2 m2 area be as a heating coil at one face. A current of 1.18
A at 20 V passes through the coil in lees disc experiment of thermal conductivity. If two faces of the coil
attain steady state temperature of 0℃ and 12.5℃. Calculate the thermal conductivity of the cork.

→ According to Lee’s Disc experiment of thermal conductivity of insulated material we have,

𝐾𝐴(T2 − T1 )
𝑉𝐼 =
𝑙
𝑉𝐼𝑙 20×1.18×5×10−2
∴𝐾= )
= = 0.047 W/m-K
𝐴(T2 −T1 2×(12.5−0)

76
24. If the thermal conductivity of Pyrex glass at 0℃ is 2.9 × 10−3 𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑠 −cm℃, rhen calculate the R
value for a ¼ inch sheet of such glass.

→ We have, thermal conductivity K=2.9 × 10−3 𝑐𝑎𝑙/𝑠 −cm℃ = 2.9 × 10−3 × 4.2 × 100𝑊/m-K =
1.2W/m-K

1
𝑙 = 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ = 0.25 × 2.54 × 10−2 𝑚
4

Now, R value is the thermal resistance given by

𝑙 0.00635
𝑅=𝐾= 1.2
= 5.3 𝐾𝑚 2 /W

25. If two rods of equal lengths and diameters having thermal conductivities 2 and 3 units respectively
are joined in series, what will be the thermal conductivity of the combination?

→ At equilibrium condition, the rate of transfer of heat from each other is equal such that,

𝐾1 𝐴(T1 − T) 𝐾2 𝐴(T − T2 ) 𝐾𝐴(T1 − T2 )

= =
𝑙 𝑙 2𝑙
𝐾
𝑜𝑟, 𝐾1 (T1 − T) = 𝐾2 (T − T2 ) = (T − T2 ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝛼
2 1
𝛼 𝛼 2𝛼
∴ T1 − T = , T − T2 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 T1 − T2 =
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾
1 1
Now T1 − T2 = (T1 − T) +( T − T2 )= 𝛼(𝐾 + 𝐾 )
1 2

2𝛼 1 1
∴ = 𝛼( + )
𝐾 𝐾1 𝐾2

2𝐾1 𝐾2 2 × 2 × 3 12
𝑜𝑟, 𝐾 = = = = 2.4 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝐾1 +𝐾2 2+3 5

26. If two rods of equal length and diameter having thermal conductivities 2 and 3 units respectively are
joined in parallel, what will be the thermal conductivity of the combination?

→ At equilibrium condition, we have

77
𝐾1 𝐴(T1 − T2 ) 𝐾2 𝐴(T1 − T2 ) 𝐾2𝐴(T1 − T2 )
+ =
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
𝐾1 + 𝐾2 2 + 3
𝑜𝑟, 𝐾 = = = 2.5 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
2 2

27. If the surface area of a human body is 1.20 m2 and surface temperature is 27℃, (i) find the total rate
of radiation of energy from the body. If the temperature of surrounding is at 20℃ (ii) what is the net
rate of loss of heat from the body by radiation?

→ (i) We have, 𝑃 = 𝜎𝐴𝑇 4 = 5.67 × 10−8 × 1.2 × 3004 = 551.1𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡

(ii)Again 𝑃 = 𝜎𝐴(𝑇 4 − 𝑇04 ) = 5.67 × 10−8 × 1.2 × (3004 − 2934 ) = 49.67𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡

28. An iron furnace radiates 1.53× 105 cal/hr through an opening of cross-section 10−4 𝑚 2 . If the
relative emittance of the furnace is 0.8, calculate the temperature of furnace.

1.53×105 ×4.2
→ Here, P = 1.53× 105 cal/hr= = 178.5𝑊
60×60

We have, 𝑃 = 𝜎𝑒𝐴𝑇 4
1/4
𝑃 1/4 178.5
∴𝑇={ } ={ } = 2500𝐾
𝜎𝑒𝐴 5.67 × 10−8 × 0.8 × 10−4

29. Calculate the temperature of sun assuming the sun as a perfect black body having radius 6.88 ×
105 𝑘𝑚, the distance between sun and earth is 1.50 × 108 𝑘𝑚 and the solar constant 𝜌 = 1.33𝑘𝑊𝑚 −2 .

→ The total amount of heat energy emitted by the sun per second = 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑞 where, r is the radius of sun
and q is heat flux.

If R be the distance between sun and the earth, total amount of energy of radiation = 4𝜋𝑅2 𝜌

At equilibrium, we have

4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑞 = 4𝜋𝑅2 𝜌

𝑅2
∴ 𝑞 = 2 𝜌 = 𝜎𝑇 4
𝑟

78
 1/4
𝑅 2𝜌
𝑜𝑟, 𝑇 = {( ) } = 5760𝐾
𝑟 𝜎

79
Chapter 5: Optics
Interference
Coherent sources: Two sources are said to be coherent if they emit light waves having same wavelength
(or frequency), nearly the same amplitude which are either in phase with each other or have constant
phase difference.

Interference: The phenomenon of non-uniform distribution of light energy in a medium due to the
superposition of light waves coming from two coherent sources is called interference.

Types of interference

Constructive Interference Destructive interference

If the superposition of two light waves is such If the superposition of two light waves is such that
that crest/trough of one wave falls over the crest/trough of one wave falls over the trough/crest
crest/trough of another wave, as a result of of another wave, as a result of this, the resultant
this, the resultant amplitude increases and amplitude decreases and hence the intensity
hence the intensity distribution becomes distribution becomes minimum. This type of
maximum. This type of interference is called interference is called destructive interference.
constructive interference.

Path difference between two waves must be Path difference between two waves must be equal to
equal to intiger multiple of wavelength of light odd intiger multiple of half of wavelength of light
i.e. 𝑥 = 𝑛 i.e. 𝑥 = (2𝑛 − 1)/2
or phase difference 𝜑 = 𝑛(2𝜋) or phase difference 𝜑 = (2𝑛 − 1)𝜋
𝑛 = 0,1,2,3 … … …. 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … … ….

80
Interference due to thin film
Consider a thin film of thickness t having refractive index 𝜇.

(a) Interference due to reflected system

Interference pattern can be observed due to the superposition of two reflected rays AB and EF.
Let EM perpendicular to AB and CL perpendicular to AE.
The optical path difference between two reflected rays AB and EF is
𝑥 = 𝜇 (𝐴𝐶 + 𝐶𝐸 ) − 𝐴𝑀 … … … … … … … . . (𝑖)
𝐶𝐿 𝑡
Now from ∆𝐴𝐶𝐿, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶
𝑡
∴ 𝐴𝐶 = = 𝐶𝐸
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟
𝐴𝐿 𝐴𝐿
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑟 = =
𝐶𝐿 𝑡
∴ 𝐴𝐿 = 𝑡 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑟 = 𝐸𝐿
𝐴𝑀 𝐴𝑀 𝐴𝑀
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ∆𝐴𝑀𝐸, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 = = =
𝐴𝐸 2𝐴𝐿 2𝑡 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑟

∴ 𝐴𝑀 = 2𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑟
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖)
𝑡 𝑡 2𝜇𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑟
𝑥 = 𝜇( + ) − 2𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑟 = −2 𝑡
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟
2𝜇𝑡 2𝜇𝑡 2𝜇𝑡 2𝜇𝑡
= − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑟 = (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑟) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑟
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟
∴ 𝑥 = 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟
This represents the apparent path difference.
Since the ray AB is reflected from optically denser medium, so it suffers additional 𝜋 phase

difference ( 2 path difference).
∴ actual path difference between two reflected rays AB and EF is

𝑥 ′ = 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 −
2

81
 Case i: Constructive interference
For this, path difference= 𝑛

∴ 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 − = 𝑛
2

𝑜𝑟, 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = (2𝑛 + 1)
2

𝑜𝑟, 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟 ×
2
Case ii: Destructive Interference

For this, path difference= (2𝑛 − 1) 2
 
∴ 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 − = (2𝑛 − 1)
2 2
𝑜𝑟, 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑛
(b) Interference due to transmitted system
Interference pattern can be observed due to the superposition of two transmitted rays CD and
GH.
Let GN perpendicular to CD and EK perpendicular to CG.
The optical path difference between two transmitted rays CD and GH is
𝑥 = 𝜇 (𝐶𝐸 + 𝐸𝐺 ) − 𝐶𝑁
𝑡 𝑡 2𝜇𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑟
𝑥 = 𝜇( + ) − 2𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑟 = −2 𝑡
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟
2𝜇𝑡 2𝜇𝑡 2𝜇𝑡 2𝜇𝑡
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑟) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑟
∴ 𝑥 = 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟
Case i: Constructive Interference
For this, path difference= 𝑛
∴ 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑛
Case ii: Destructive Interference

For this, path difference= (2𝑛 − 1) 2

∴ 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = (2𝑛 − 1)
2

𝑜𝑟, 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟 × 2

From above results we see that formation of interference patterns in the case of reflected and
transmitted system is opposite to each other.

82
Interference due to Wedge Shaped thin film

Consider two thin glass plates OA and OB inclined at an angle 𝜃 so that a thin film of air is enclosed
between two surfaces in wedge shaped. When a ray of light from a monochromatic source is incident on
the upper glass plate, then interference patterns can be observed due to reflected rays as shown in
figure.

Consider nth order bright fringe occurs at Pn. The thickness of air film at Pn is t=PnQn. Applying the
condition for bright fringe in reflected system,


2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = (2𝑛 − 1)
2

For normal incidence, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 1 and for air, 𝜇 = 1


∴ 2𝑃𝑛 𝑄𝑛 = (2𝑛 − 1)
2


𝑜𝑟, 𝑃𝑛 𝑄𝑛 = (2𝑛 − 1)
4

Similarly, for (n+1)th bright fringe

 
𝑃𝑛+1 𝑄𝑛+1 = [2(𝑛 + 1) − 1] = (2𝑛 + 1)
4 4

Now, increase in thickness of air film for two Consecutive bright fringes is


𝑃𝑛+1 𝑄𝑛+1 − 𝑃𝑛 𝑄𝑛 =
2

∴ Increase in thickness of air film for two consecutive bright fringes is equal to half of the wavelength of
light.

Again, we can write

83
 𝑚
𝑃𝑛+𝑚 𝑄𝑛+𝑚 − 𝑃𝑛 𝑄𝑛 = … … … … … … . . (𝑖)
2

Let 𝑂𝑄𝑛 = 𝑥1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑂𝑄𝑛+𝑚 = 𝑥2

Then 𝑄𝑛 𝑄𝑛+𝑚 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = 𝑥(𝑠𝑎𝑦)

𝑃𝑛 𝑄𝑛 𝑃𝑛+𝑚𝑄𝑛+𝑚
We have, 𝜃 = 𝑥1
= 𝑥2

𝑃𝑛 𝑄𝑛 𝑃𝑛+𝑚 𝑄𝑛+𝑚
∴ 𝑥1 = and 𝑥2 =
𝜃 𝜃

𝑃𝑛+𝑚𝑄𝑛+𝑚 −𝑃𝑛 𝑄𝑛 𝑚
Now, 𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = 𝜃
= 2𝜃
(Since, using equation (i))

𝑥 
∴ fringe width, 𝛽 = 𝑚 = 2𝜃 for air

For a liquid having refractive index 𝜇


𝛽=
2𝜇𝜃

Newton’s Ring
When a planoconvex lens of large radius of curvature is placed over the plane glass plate, then a thin
film of air is enclosed between two surfaces in circular shape. When a parallel beam of monochromatic
light is incident over the planoconvex lens, then interference patterns can be observed. The patterns are
the concentric circles known as Newton’s ring.

84
Consider a parallel beam of monochromatic light is incident normally over a planoconvex lens L2 of
radius of curvature R with the help of a glass plate G1 inclined at an angle 450 with the horizon.

a) Newton’s rings by reflected system

Newton’s rings can be observed due to the superposition of two reflected rays, one from lower
surface of lens L2 and the other from upper surface of glass plate G2.
We have in reflected system,

2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = (2𝑛 − 1) 2 for bright
𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑛 for dark
But for normal incidence, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 1 and for air, 𝜇 = 1

∴ 2𝑡 = (2𝑛 − 1) 2 … … … … (𝑖 ) for bright ring
𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝑡 = 𝑛 … … … … … … … (𝑖𝑖) for dark ring

Here, O’L=OO’=R, OM=KL=t and ML=rn

We have from ∆𝑂′ 𝑀𝐿, 𝑂′𝐿2 = 𝑂′𝑀2 + 𝑀𝐿2

𝑜𝑟, 𝑅2 = (𝑅 − 𝑡)2 + 𝑟𝑛2

𝑜𝑟, 𝑅2 = 𝑅2 − 2𝑅𝑡 + 𝑡 2 + 𝑟𝑛2

𝑜𝑟, 𝑟𝑛2 = 2𝑅𝑡 − 𝑡 2 ≈ 2𝑅𝑡 (Since, R ≫ 𝑡)

𝑟𝑛2
∴ 2𝑡 = … … … … … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑅

Now from equations (𝑖 )𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑖𝑖𝑖)

𝑟𝑛2 
= (2𝑛 − 1)
𝑅 2

85
 (2𝑛−1)𝑅
𝑜𝑟, 𝑟𝑛 = √ 2
,n=1,2,3…………..

This gives the radius of nth bright ring.

 𝑟𝑛 𝛼 √2𝑛 − 1

Again, from equations (𝑖𝑖 )𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑖𝑖𝑖)

𝑟𝑛2
= 𝑛
𝑅

𝑜𝑟, 𝑟𝑛 = √𝑛𝑅 ,n=0,1,2,3…………..

This gives the radius of nth dark ring.

 𝑟𝑛 𝛼 √𝑛

From above results, we see that central ring is dark in the case of reflected system.

Also, it is seen that the rings become thinner and thinner as one goes from center to outside.

b) Newton’s rings by transmitted system

Newton’s rings can be observed due to the superposition of two transmitted rays, one from
lower surface of lens L2 and the other from upper surface of glass plate G2.
We have in transmitted system,
2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑛 for bright

𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = (2𝑛 − 1) 2 for dark
But for normal incidence, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 1 and for air, 𝜇 = 1
∴ 2𝑡 = 𝑛 … … … … … … … (𝑖) for bright ring

𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝑡 = (2𝑛 − 1) 2 … … … … (𝑖𝑖 ) for dark ring

86
Here, O’L=OO’=R, OM=KL=t and ML=rn

We have from ∆𝑂′ 𝑀𝐿, 𝑂′𝐿2 = 𝑂′𝑀2 + 𝑀𝐿2

𝑜𝑟, 𝑅2 = (𝑅 − 𝑡)2 + 𝑟𝑛2

𝑜𝑟, 𝑅2 = 𝑅2 − 2𝑅𝑡 + 𝑡 2 + 𝑟𝑛2

𝑜𝑟, 𝑟𝑛2 = 2𝑅𝑡 − 𝑡 2 ≈ 2𝑅𝑡 (Since, R ≫ 𝑡)

𝑟𝑛2
∴ 2𝑡 = … … … … … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑅

Now from equations (𝑖 )𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑖𝑖𝑖)

𝑟𝑛2
= 𝑛
𝑅

𝑜𝑟, 𝑟𝑛 = √𝑛𝑅 ,n=0,1,2,3…………..

This gives the radius of nth bright ring.

 𝑟𝑛 𝛼 √𝑛

Again, from equations (𝑖𝑖 )𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑖𝑖𝑖)

𝑟𝑛2 
= (2𝑛 − 1)
𝑅 2

(2𝑛−1)𝑅
𝑜𝑟, 𝑟𝑛 = √ 2
,n=1,2,3…………..

This gives the radius of nth dark ring.

 𝑟𝑛 𝛼 √2𝑛 − 1

87
From above results, we see that central ring is bright in the case of transmitted system.

Also, it is seen that the rings become thinner and thinner as one goes from center to outside.

c) Determination of wavelength of monochromatic light using Newton’s ring method

We have the radius of nth dark ring in reflected system is
𝑟𝑛 = √𝑛𝑅
∴ diameter of nth dark ring is 𝐷𝑛 = 2𝑟𝑛 = 2√𝑛𝑅 = √4𝑛𝑅
∴ 𝐷𝑛2 = 4𝑛𝑅

Similarly, for mth dark ring, 2

𝐷𝑚 = 4𝑚𝑅

Now, 𝐷𝑛2 − 𝐷𝑚
2
= 4(𝑛 − 𝑚 )𝑅

𝐷𝑛2−𝐷𝑚
2
𝑜𝑟,  =
4(𝑛−𝑚)𝑅

This gives the wavelength of monochromatic light.

d) Determination of refractive index of liquid using Newton’s ring

When air is enclosed between planoconvex lens and glass plate we have
𝐷𝑛2 − 𝐷𝑚
2
= 4(𝑛 − 𝑚 )𝑅 … … … … … … … … … . (𝑎)

When a liquid having refractive index 𝜇 is inserted between planoconvex lens and glass plate,
4𝑛𝑅 4𝑚𝑅
then for nth ring, 𝐷′2𝑛 = 𝜇
and for mth dark ring, 𝐷′2𝑚 = 𝜇
4(𝑛 − 𝑚 )𝑅
∴ 𝐷′2𝑛 − 𝐷′2𝑚 = … … … … … … … . (𝑏)
𝜇
Now dividing equation (a) by (b) we get
𝐷𝑛2 − 𝐷𝑚
2
𝜇= 2
𝐷′𝑛 − 𝐷′2𝑚

This gives the refractive index of liquid.

𝐷𝑛2
Also we can write, 𝜇 = 2
𝐷′𝑛

88
 Note 1: Newton’s rings with white light
When white light is used, the diameter of the rings of different colors will be different and
colored rings are observed.
Note 2: Newton’s rings with bright center due to reflected light
When a transparent liquid of refractive index 𝜇 𝑖𝑠 enclosed between lens of refractive index 𝜇 1
and glass plate with refractive index 𝜇 2 such that 𝜇 1 > 𝜇 > 𝜇 2 (or 𝜇 1 < 𝜇 < 𝜇 2 ), then the
𝑛𝑅
central ring will be bright. In this case the radius of nth bright ring is 𝑟𝑛 = √ 𝜇

Numerical

Visible Range:4000𝐀𝟎 − 𝟕𝟎𝟎𝟎𝐀𝟎 = 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝐦 − 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝐦

= 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝐜𝐦 − 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝐜𝐦 = 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝐦𝐦 − 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝐦𝐦

1. Light of wavelength 624nm is incident perpendicularly on a soap film (µ=1.33) suspended in air.
What are the a)least and b) second least thickness of the film for which the reflections from the
film undergo fully constructive interference?
 Here, λ=624nm=624 × 10−9 𝑚, 𝑟 = 00 , µ = 1.33,

We have, 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = (2𝑛 − 1) 2
(2𝑛 − 1)
∴𝑡=
4𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟
a) For least thickness, n=1
(2 × 1 − 1)
∴𝑡= =?
4𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟
b) For second least thickness, n=2
(2 × 2 − 1)
∴𝑡= =?
4𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟
2. White light falls normally on a film of soapy water whose thickness is 5x10-5 cm and µ=1.33. Which
wavelength in the visible region will be reflected most strongly?
 Here, 𝑟 = 00 , t = 5x10-5 cm , µ = 1.33,

We have, 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = (2𝑛 − 1) 2
4𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟
𝑜𝑟,  =
2𝑛 − 1
4 × 1.33 × 5 × 10−5 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠00
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1, 1 = = 26.6 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 (𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 )
2×1−1
4 × 1.33 × 5 × 10−5 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠00
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 2, 2 = = 8.86 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 (𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 )
2×2−1
4 × 1.33 × 5 × 10−5 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠00
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 3, 3 = = 5.32 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 (𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 )
2×3−1
4 × 1.33 × 5 × 10−5 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠00
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 4, 4 = = 3.8 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 (𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 )
2×4−1
Hence, light of wavelength 5.32 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 will be reflected most strongly.
3. A soap film 5x10-5cm is viewed at an angle of 35º to the normal. Find the wavelengths of light in
the visible spectrum which will be absent from the reflected light if µ of soap film is 1.33.

89
  Here, t = 5x10-5 cm , i = 350 µ = 1.33,
sini
We have, µ = sinr
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖
∴ 𝑟 = sin−1 ( µ
) = 25.550
Again, we have 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑛
2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟
𝑜𝑟,  =
𝑛
2 × 1.33 × 5 × 10−5 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠25.550
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1, 1 = = 12 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 (𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 )
1
2 × 1.33 × 5 × 10−5 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠25.550
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 2, 2 = = 6 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 (𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒)
2
2 × 1.33 × 5 × 10−5 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠25.550
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 3, 3 = = 4 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 (𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒)
3
2 × 1.33 × 5 × 10−5 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠25.550
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 4, 4 = = 3 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 (𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒)
4
Hence the required wavelengths are 6 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚
4. A thin film suspended in air is 0.41µm thick and is illuminated with white light incident
perpendicularly on its surface. The r,i. of the film is 1.5. At what wavelength will visible light that is
reflected from the two surfaces of the film undergo fully constructive interference?
 Same as question number 15.

5. A 600nm thick film (µ=1.4)in air is illuminated with white light in a direction perpendicular to the
film. For how many different wavelengths in the 300 to 700nm range is there a)fully constructive
interference and b)fully destructive interference in the reflected light?
 Same as question number 15,16,17.
6. A beam of parallel rays is incident at an angle of 30º with the normal on a plane parallel film of
thickness 4x10-5cm and r.i. 1.50. Show that the reflected light whose wavelength is 7.539x10 -5cm,
will be strengthened by reinforcement.

Here, i = 300 , t = 4x10-5 cm , µ = 1.50, =7.539x10-5cm

𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐢
We have, µ =
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐫

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖
∴ 𝑟 = sin−1 ( µ
) =?
We have for constructive interference in reflected system,

2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = (2𝑛 − 1)
2

𝑜𝑟, 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑛′
2

Here you need to show that n’ is odd.

90
7. White light is incident on a soap film at an angle sin-1(4/5) and the reflected light on
examination by a spectrometer shows a dark bands. The consecutive dark bands corresponds to
wavelength 6.1x10-5cm and 6x10-5cm overlap. If µ=1.333 for the film, calculate its thickness.
Here, i = sin−1(4/5) , 1 = 6.1 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚, 2 = 6 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 µ = 1.333, t=?
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐢
We have, µ = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐫

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 4
∴ 𝑟 = sin−1 ( µ
) = sin−1 (
𝟓×𝟏.𝟑𝟑𝟑
) =?
Again, by question
2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑛1 = (𝑛 + 1)2
∴ 𝑛 =?
𝑛
1
Now, 𝑡 = 2𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 =?

8. A wedge shaped film of air is produced by placing a fine wire of diameter D between the ends of
two flat glass plates of length L=20cm. When the film is illuminated with light of wavelength
550nm, there are 12 dark fringes per cm. Find D.
1
Here, L=20cm, =550nm=550× 10−7 𝑐𝑚, 𝛽 = 12 𝑐𝑚, 𝐷 =?

 𝐿
We have, 𝛽 = =
2𝜃 2𝐷
∴ 𝐷 =?

9. Two glass plate enclosing a wedge shaped air film touching at one edge are separated by a wire of
0.03mm diameter at a distance of 15cm from the edge. Monochromatic light of λ=600nm from a
broad source falls normally on the film. Calculate the fringe width.
 Same as 21.
10. Interference fringes are produced with monochromatic light falling normally on a wedge
shaped film of cellophase with r. i. 1.4. The angle of the wedge is 40seconds of an arc and the
distance between the successive fringes is 0.125cm. Calculate the wavelength of light.
40 𝜋
Here, 𝜇 = 1.4, 𝜃 = 40" = 60×60 × 180 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛, 𝛽 = 0.125𝑐𝑚,  =?


We have, 𝛽 = 2𝜇𝜃

91
 ∴  =?

11. Light of wavelength 6000Aº falls normally on a thin wedge shaped film of refractive index 1.4
forming fringes that are 2mm apart. Find the angle of wedge.

We have, 𝛽 = 2𝜇𝜃
∴ 𝜃 =?
12. A glass wedge of angle 0.01 radian is illuminated by monochromatic light of 600nm falling
normally on it. At what distance from the edge of the wedge will the tenth fringe be observed by
reflected light?

We have, 𝛽 = =?
2𝜇𝜃
∴ x10 = 10 × β =?

13. In Newton’s ring exp., the radius of curvature R of the lens is 5m and the lens diameter is
20mm. a) How many bright rings are produced? Assume that λ=589nm. B) How many bright
fringes would be produced if the arrangement were immersed in water(n=1.33)

Here, R=5m, 𝑟𝑛 = 10𝑚𝑚 = 10 × 10−3 𝑚, λ = 589nm = 589 × 10−9 𝑚, 𝜇 = 1.33

a) We have the radius of bright ring in reflected system is

(2𝑛 − 1)𝑅
𝑟𝑛 = √
2
∴ 𝑛 =?
b) When immersed in water,
(2𝑛′−1)𝑅
𝑟𝑛′ = √ 2𝜇
(here, 𝑟𝑛′ = 𝑟𝑛 )
∴ 𝑛′ =?

14. A plano-convex lens of radius 300cm is placed on an optically flat glass plate and is illuminated
by monochromatic light. The diameter of 8th dark ring in the transmitted system is 0.72cm.
Calculate the wavelength of light used.

 We have diameter of nth dark ring in transmitted system is

(2𝑛 − 1)𝑅
𝐷𝑛 = 2𝑟𝑛 = 2√
2

(2 × 8 − 1)𝑅
∴ 𝐷8 = 2√
2
𝑜𝑟,  =?

15. Newton’ rings formed by sodium light viewed normally. What is the order of the dark ring which
will have double the diameter of 40th ring.

 Let the diameter of nth dark ring is double the diameter of 40th ring.

92
i.e. 𝐷𝑛 = 2𝐷40

𝑜𝑟, √4𝑛𝑅 = 2 × √4 × 40 × 𝑅

𝑜𝑟, 𝑛 =?

16. In Newton’s ring experiment the diameter of 5th dark ring is reduced to half of its value after
introducing a liquid below the convex surface. Calculate the refractive index of the liquid.
𝑥
 Here, 𝐷5 = 𝑥 𝐷′ 5 = 2

𝐷𝑛2 𝐷52
∴𝜇= = =?
𝐷′2𝑛 𝐷′25

17. When oil is introduced into the space between the lens and the plate in Newton’s arrangement,
the radius of the 8th dark ring decreases from 1.80cm to 1.64cm. What is the refractive index of
the oil?

 Here, 𝑟8 = 1.8𝑐𝑚 𝑟 ′ 8 = 1.64𝑐𝑚

𝐷𝑛2 𝑟𝑛2 𝑟82

∴ 𝜇 = 2 = 2 = 2 =?
𝐷′𝑛 𝑟′𝑛 𝑟′8

18. A Newton’s rings apparatus is to be used to determine the radius of curvature of a lens. The radii of
nth and (n+20)th bright rings are measured and found to be 0.162 and 0.368 cm respectively, in light of
λ=546nm. Calculate the radius of curvature of the lower surface of the lens.

 Here, 𝐷𝑛 = 2 × 0.162𝑐𝑚, 𝐷𝑛+20 = 2 × 0.368𝑐𝑚, λ=546nm=546× 10−7 𝑐𝑚, R=?

𝐷 2−𝐷 2 𝐷2 −𝐷 2
We have,  = 4(𝑛−𝑚)𝑅
𝑛 𝑚 𝑛+20 𝑛
= 4(𝑛+20−𝑛)𝑅

∴ R=?

19. Show that the diameters of the Newton's rings when two surfaces of radii R 1 and R2 are placed in
contact are related by the relation (1/R1)-(1/R2) = (4m𝛌/d2m), where n is the integer number of the
& fringes.
 We have 2𝜇𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 𝑚
But for air, 𝜇 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑟 = 1
∴ 2t = m … … … … . . (i)

93
 𝑟2 𝑟2 2
𝑟𝑚 1 1 2
𝑑𝑚 1 1
Here, the thickness of air film is 𝑡 = 𝑃𝑇 − 𝑄𝑇 = 2𝑅𝑚 − 2𝑅𝑚 = 2
(
𝑅1
−𝑅 ) = 8
(
𝑅1
−𝑅 )
1 2 2 2

Now from (i)

2
𝑑𝑚 1 1
2× ( − ) = m
8 𝑅1 𝑅2

1 1 4𝑚
𝑜𝑟, − = 2
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑑𝑚

20. In Newton’s ring arrangement a source emitting two wavelengths 𝝀𝟏 and 𝝀𝟐 is used. It is found
that nth dark ring due to one wavelength coincides with (n+1)th dark ring due to other. Find the
radius of the nth dark ring if radius of curvature of lens is R.
 We have the radius of nth dark ring due to wavelength 1is 𝑟𝑛 = √𝑛1 𝑅
And the radius of (n+1)th dark ring due to wavelength 2is 𝑟𝑛+1 = √(𝑛 + 1)2 𝑅
By question, 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑟𝑛+1
𝑜𝑟, √𝑛1 𝑅 = √(𝑛 + 1)2 𝑅
2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑛 =
1 − 2

Now the radius of nth dark ring is

  𝑅
𝑟𝑛 = √𝑛 1 𝑅 = √2−1
1 2

  𝑅
Also diameter of nth dark ring is 𝐷𝑛 = 2𝑟𝑛 = 2√2−1
1 2

21. In Newton’s ring arrangement a source emitting two wavelengths 6x10-7 m and 5.9x10-7 m is
used. It is found that nth dark ring due to one wavelength coincides with (n+1)th dark ring due to
other. Find the diameter of the nth dark ring if radius of curvature of lens is 0.9m
 Same as 33.

94
22. In a Newton’s ring experiment, the diameter of the 15 th ring was found to be 0.590cm and that
of the 5th ring was 0.336cm. if the radius of the plano-convex lens is 100cm, calculate the
wavelength of light used.
 Here, 𝐷15 = 0.590𝑐𝑚, 𝐷5 = 0.336𝑐𝑚, 𝑅 = 100𝑐𝑚,  =?
𝐷 2−𝐷 2 𝐷 2 −𝐷 2
We have,  = 4(𝑛−𝑚)𝑅
𝑛 𝑚 15 5
= 4(15−5)𝑅 =?

95
Diffraction
The phenomenon of bending of light round the corners of an obstacle (or small
openings) and spreading into the regions of geometrical shadow is called
diffraction. For the diffraction of light waves, size of the obstacle must be
comparable to wavelength of light.

Types of Diffraction
Fresnel’s Diffraction Fraunhoffer’s Diffraction
1. In this diffraction, source and screen are at 1. In this diffraction, source and screen are at
finite distance from the obstacle. infinite distance from the obstacle.
2. The incident wavefront is either spherical 2. The incident wavefront is plane.
or cylindrical. 3. Lens is to be used in order to study the
3. No lens is to be used in order to study the diffraction pattern.
diffraction pattern.

Fraunhoffer’s diffraction through a single slit

Consider a plane wavefront is incident on the slit AB of width d and each point on this
wavefront is a source of secondary disturbance. The secondary waves travelling in the direction
parallel to OP comes to focus at P which is the position of central maxima. Now consider the
secondary waves travelling in the direction inclined at an angle 𝜃 and reach at point P’ on the
screen which may be the position of maximum or minimum intensity depending upon the path
difference between the secondary waves originating from the corresponding points of the
wavefront.

96
The path between the secondary waves originating from extreme points A and B is BN=dsin𝜃

If we divide the slit AB into two equal zones of width d/2, then for minima, path difference for a zone
should be equal to /2(according to Fresnel)

𝑑 
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
2 2

𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =  (First order secondary minima)

Similarly, if the slit is divided into four equal zones of width d/4 then for a zone,

𝑑 
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
4 2

𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 2 (Second order secondary minima)

Now, to obtain nth minima, we divide the slit in to 2n number of equal zones of width d/2n then,

𝑑 
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
2𝑛 2

𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛 n=1,2,3,…………… (𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎)

In between these secondary minima, secondary maxima can be found for which path difference is odd

number multiple of 2.


𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2 , 𝑛 = 1,2,3, … … … . (≠ 0) (nth secondary maxima)

Let 𝑥 be the distance of point P’ from center P on the screen and D be the distance between slit and
screen.
𝑥
We have, tan 𝜃 = 𝐷

For small angle, tan 𝜃 ≈ sin 𝜃

𝑥
∴ sin 𝜃 =
𝐷
𝑥𝑑
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑 sin 𝜃 =
𝐷
𝑥𝑑
𝑜𝑟, 𝑛 =
𝐷
𝑛𝐷
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥𝑛 = , 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … …
𝑑

97
This gives the distance of nth minima from central maxima.
𝐷
If n=1 then 𝑥1 = 𝑑

This gives the half width of central maximum.

2𝐷
∴ The width of central maximum is 2𝑥1 = 𝑑

Also, the angular width of central maximum is 2𝜃.

Intensity distribution in diffraction pattern through a single slit

Here, 𝜃 is angle of diffraction and d is width of single slit.

The incident plane wavefront on the slit AB can be divided into large number of small circular strips. The
path difference between secondary wavefronts originating from extreme points A and B is 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 and
let the corresponding phase difference is 𝛽.

98
Here, the resultant amplitude is obtained by vector polygon method. Let the vibration polygon coincide
with a circular arc OM of radius r with center at K.
𝛽 𝑂𝐿
Now from ∆𝑂𝐾𝐿, sin 2 = 𝑟

𝛽
∴ 𝑂𝐿 = 𝑟 sin
2

𝛽
∴ 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑 𝑂𝑀 = 2 𝑂𝐿 = 2𝑟 sin … … … … … … (𝑖 )
2

Here, the length of arc OM is proportional to width of slit d.

i.e. 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑂𝑀 = 𝑚𝑑

Where, m is proportionality constant.

𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑂𝑀 𝑚𝑑
Now from figure, 𝛽 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
= 𝑟

𝑚𝑑
𝑜𝑟, 𝑟 =
𝛽

∴ From equation (i),

𝛽
𝛽 𝑚𝑑 𝛽 sin
𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑 𝑂𝑀 = 2𝑟 sin = 2 sin = 𝑚𝑑 2
2 𝛽 2 𝛽⁄
2
𝛽
sin
𝑜𝑟, 𝐴 = 𝐴0 2
𝛽⁄
2

Where, Chord OM=A is the resultant amplitude and 𝑚𝑑 = 𝐴0

Now, the resultant intensity at a point on the screen is given by

𝛽 2
sin 2
𝐼 = 𝐴2 = 𝐴20 { }
𝛽⁄
2

𝛽 2
sin
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 { 2}
𝛽⁄
2

Where, 𝐼0 = 𝐴20

𝛽 2
sin
∴ The resultant intensity at a point on the screen is proportional to { 𝛽 2}
⁄2

99
Now, the phase difference 𝛽 is given by

2𝜋
𝛽= × 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Case i: For central maxima

For central maxima, we have 𝜃 = 00 so that 𝛽 = 0

𝛽 2
𝛽 sin
∴ 𝐼 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 → 0 𝐼0 { 2 } = 𝐼0
2 𝛽⁄
2

Case ii: For secondary maxima,


For secondary maxima, we have 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = (2𝑛 + 1) 2 , 𝑛 = 1,2,3, …

(a) If 𝑛 = 1 (i.e. for first order secondary maxima)

3
Then, 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
2
2𝜋 3
∴𝛽= × = 3𝜋
 2
𝛽 2 3𝜋 2
sin 2 sin 2
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 { } = 𝐼0 { }
𝛽⁄ 3𝜋⁄
2 2
2 2 4 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼 = { } 𝐼0 = 2 𝐼0 = 4.5% 𝑜𝑓𝐼0 = 𝐼
3𝜋 9𝜋 22 0
(b) If 𝑛 = 2 (i.e. for second order secondary maxima)
5
𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
2
2𝜋 5
∴𝛽= × = 5𝜋
 2
𝛽 2 5𝜋 2
sin 2 sin 2
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 { } = 𝐼0 { }
𝛽⁄ 5𝜋⁄
2 2

2 2 4 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼 = { } 𝐼0 = 𝐼0 = 1.62% 𝑜𝑓𝐼0 = 𝐼
5𝜋 25𝜋 2 62 0

And so on.

Case iii: For secondary minima

For this we have 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛

2𝜋
∴𝛽= × 𝑛 = 2𝑛𝜋


100
 sin 𝑛𝜋 2
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 { } = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛
𝑛𝜋

Fig: Variation of intensity in diffraction through a single slit

Diffraction Grating
It is an optical device which is used to study the diffraction of light. It consists of thousands of
very fine equally spaced parallel slits made by drawing parallel lines in a plane glass plate by
using diamond tip. The coated portion is opaque for light. The width of each transparent portion
(a) is same and the width of each opaque portion (b) is also same. The sum of the width of
transparent portion and opaque portion (a+b) is called grating element or grating spacing or
grating constant.
The direction of nth order primary maxima is given by
(𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 𝑛
1
Where, 𝑎 + 𝑏 = ( 𝑁 is number of lines per unit width of grating)
𝑁
𝜃 is angle of diffraction
𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟
And  is wavelength of light used.

X-ray Diffraction and Material Testing (Bragg’s diffraction Law)

X-rays are the electromagnetic waves whose wavelengths are about 1 Aº. For such small wavelengths, a standard
optical diffraction grating cannot be used for x-ray diffraction.

A crystal solid which consists of regular array of atoms in 3-D forms a natural diffraction grating for x-rays.

101
For nth order maxima, the direction is 2𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆

Here, 𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝜃 is glancing angle, n is no of order and 𝜆 is wavelength of x-ray.

The value of d depends upon the size of unit cell a given by
𝑎
𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 = Where, a is lattice constant or lattice size and (hkl) are Miller indices.
√ℎ2 +𝑘2 +𝑙2

A cubic crystal of density 𝜌 and molar mass M having n ions of diffracting centers(n=2NA atoms for NaCl) is
considered. For this we have,

𝑀
𝜌𝑑3 =
𝑛

𝑀 1/3
∴𝑑=( )
2𝑁𝐴 𝜌

By studying the x-ray diffraction pattern on exposing different sets of planes, we can measure d’s ratios and
establish exactly what type of crystalline structure we are investigating.

Numerical
1. Light of wavelength 600nm is incident normally on a slit of width 0.1mm a) what is the angular position
of the first minimum? b) What is the position of the second order minimum on a screen 3m from the slit?

102
 → Here, wavelength λ=600nm=600 × 10−9 𝑚, width of slit d=0.1mm=0.1 × 10−3 𝑚, distance between slit
and screen D=3m

a) We have for minima, 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚, 𝑛 = 1
∴ 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝜆
𝜆
𝑜𝑟, 𝜃 = sin−1 ( ) =?
𝑑
𝑛𝐷
b) We have the distance of nth minima from central maxima is 𝑥𝑛 =
𝑑
2𝐷
∴ 𝑥2 = =?
𝑑
2. Light of wavelength 750nm passes through a slit of width 1× 10−3 𝑚𝑚. Find the angular and linear
width of central maximum on a screen at 20cm from the slit.
→ Here, wavelength λ=750nm=750 × 10−9 𝑚, width of slit d=1× 10−3 𝑚𝑚 =1 × 10−6 𝑚, distance
between slit and screen D=20cm=0.2m
We have, for minima, 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
For central maximum, n=1
∴ 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝜆
𝜆 750×10−9
𝑜𝑟, 𝜃 = sin−1 (𝑑 ) =sin−1 ( 1×10−6
) = 490
∴ Width of central maximum=2𝜃 = 980
𝐼𝑓 𝑥 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝑥
tan 𝜃 =
𝐷
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 = 𝐷𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =?
∴Linear width of central maxima= 2𝑥 =?

3. The distance between the first and fifth minima of a single slit diffraction pattern is 0.35mm with the
screen 40cm away from the slit, when light of wavelength 550nm is used. a) Find the slit width. b)
Calculate the angle of the first diffraction minimum.

→ Here, 𝑥5 − 𝑥1 = 0.35𝑚𝑚 = 0.35 × 10−3 𝑚, D=40cm=0.4cm, λ=550nm= 550 × 10−9 𝑚

𝑛 𝐷
a) We have the distance of nth minima from central maxima is 𝑥𝑛 =
𝑑

5𝐷 𝐷
∴ 𝑥5 − 𝑥1 = 𝑑
− 𝑑

−3 4𝐷
𝑜𝑟, 0.35 × 10 = 𝑑

𝑜𝑟, 𝑑 =?

b) We have for minima, 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚, 𝑛 = 1
∴ 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝜆
𝜆
𝑜𝑟, 𝜃 = sin−1 (𝑑 ) =?

103
4. A plane wave of wavelength 590nm is incident on a slit with a width of 0.4mm. A thin converging lens of
focal length70cm is placed between the slit and a viewing screen focuses the light on the screen. a)
How far is the screen from the lens? b) What is the distance on the screen from the center of the
diffraction pattern to the first minimum?
→ Here, λ=590nm=590× 10−9 𝑚, d=0.4mm=0.4× 10−3 𝑚, 𝑓 = 70𝑐𝑚 = 0.7𝑚
a) 𝐷 = 𝑓 = 0.7𝑚
𝐷
b) 𝑥1 = =?
𝑑
5. Diffraction pattern of a single slit of width 0.5cm is formed by a lens of focal length 40cm. Calculate the
distance between the first dark and the next bright fringe from the axis. Wavelength = 4890Aº

→ Here, d=0.5cm=0.005m, f=D=40cm=0.4m, λ=4890𝐴0 =4890× 10−10 𝑚

𝑛𝐷
We have the distance of nth minima from central maxima is 𝑥𝑛 =
𝑑

𝐷
∴ 𝑥1 = 𝑑

(2𝑛+1)𝐷
And the distance of nth maxima from central maxima is 𝑥′𝑛 =
2𝑑

3𝐷
∴ 𝑥′1 =
2𝑑

Now, 𝑥′1 − 𝑥1 =?

6. What must be ratio of the slit width to wavelength for a single slit to have 1st minimum at 45º.
→ We have for first minimum, 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝜆
𝑑 1
∴ = =?
 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
7. Light of wavelength 600nm is incident normally on a slit of width 0.1mm. What is the intensity at
𝜽=0.2º.
→ Here,  = 600𝑛𝑚 = 600 × 10−9 𝑚, 𝑑 = 0.1𝑚𝑚 = 0.1 × 10−3 𝑚, angle of diffraction, 𝜃=0.2º, I=?
𝛽 2
sin
We have, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 { 𝛽 2 }
⁄2

2𝜋
Where, 𝛽 = × 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =?


∴ 𝐼 =?

8. Hydrogen gas in a discharge tube emits a red line at 656.2nm. The light passes through a single slit of
width 0.08mm.a) at what angle is the 1st minimum? b) What is the intensity at half the angle formed in a?

→ 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑠 7.

9. Monochromatic light with wavelength 538nm is incident on a slit with width 0.025mm.the distance from
the slit to a screen is 3.5m. Consider a point on a screen 1.1cm from the central maximum. Calculate a) 𝜃
for that point b) α c) the ratio of the intensity at that point to the intensity at the central maximum.

→Here,  = 538𝑛𝑚 = 538 × 10−9 𝑚, 𝑑 = 0.025𝑚𝑚 = 0.025 × 10−3 𝑚, 𝐷 = 3.5𝑚, 𝑥 = 1.1𝑐𝑚 = 0.011𝑚

𝑥
a) We have tan 𝜃 = 𝐷
∴ 𝜃 =?

104
 𝛽
b) 𝛼 = 2
=?
𝛽 2
𝐼 sin sin 𝛼 2
c) = { 𝛽 2} ={ } =?
𝐼0 ⁄2 𝛼
10. Calculate the first and second order angles for light of wavelength 400nm and 700nm, if the grating
contains 10,000lines/cm.
→ Here, 𝜆1 = 400𝑛𝑚 = 400 × 10−7 𝑐𝑚, 𝜆2 = 700𝑛𝑚 = 700 × 10−7 𝑐𝑚
N=10000lines/cm
We have (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 𝑛
For wavelength 𝜆1 ,
𝜆1
𝜃1 = sin−1 { } = sin−1 (𝑁𝜆1 ) =?
𝑎+𝑏

2𝜆1
𝜃2 = sin−1 { } = sin−1 (2𝑁𝜆1 ) =?
𝑎+𝑏
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝜆2

𝜆2
𝜃′1 = sin−1 { } = sin−1 (𝑁𝜆2 ) =?
𝑎+𝑏
2𝜆2
𝜃′2 = sin−1 { } = sin−1 (2𝑁𝜆2 ) =? (Not Possible)
𝑎+𝑏

11. A diffraction grating 20mm wide has 6000rullings. Light of wavelength 589nm is incident
perpendicularly on a grating. What are the a) largest, b) second largest and c) third largest
values of 𝜃 at which maxima appear on a distance viewing screen?
6000
→ Here, 𝑁 = 2 = 3000 lines/cm, λ=589nm=589× 10−7 𝑐𝑚
We have (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 𝑛
(𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃
𝑜𝑟, 𝑛 = =
 𝑁
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑛, sin 𝜃 = 1
1
∴𝑛= = 5.66
𝑁
a) For largest value of 𝜃, 𝑛 = 5
∴ 𝜃5 = sin−1(5𝑁𝜆) =?
b) For second largest value of 𝜃, 𝑛 = 4
∴ 𝜃4 = sin−1(4𝑁𝜆) =?
c) For third largest value of 𝜃, 𝑛 = 3
∴ 𝜃3 = sin−1(3𝑁𝜆) =?

12. A grating places a spectral line of wavelength 460nm at 11º in 1st order. At what angle is a line
of λ=490nm observed in 2nd order.
→ Here, λ1 = 460𝑛𝑚, θ1 = 110 , 𝑛1 = 1, λ2 = 490𝑛𝑚, θ2 =? , 𝑛2 = 2
We have (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛1 1
And (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃2 = 𝑛2 2

105
 sin 𝜃2 𝑛2 2
∴ =
sin 𝜃1 𝑛1 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝜃2 =?
13. A diffraction grating 3cm wide produces the second order at 330 with light of wavelength
600nm.What is the total no of lines in the grating.
→ Here, Width w=3cm, λ=600nm=600× 10−7 𝑐𝑚 𝜃 = 𝟑𝟑𝟎 , 𝒏 = 𝟐
We have (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 𝑛
𝑛
∴𝑎+𝑏= =?
sin 𝜃
1
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑁 = =?
𝑎+𝑏
Total no of lines = N× w = ?

14. A diffraction grating used at normal incidence gives a line 6000Aº in a certain order
superimposed on another line 4500Aº of the next higher order. If the angle of diffraction is 30º, how
many lines are there in a cm in the grating?
→ Here, λ1 = 6000𝐴0 = 6000 × 10−8 𝑐𝑚, λ2 = 4500𝐴0 = 4500 × 10−8 𝑐𝑚, 𝜃 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 , 𝑁 =?
We have by question, (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 𝑛 1 = (𝑛 + 1)2
∴ 𝑛 =?
Again, (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 𝑛1
𝑛 1
𝒐𝒓, 𝑎 + 𝑏 =
sin 𝜃
1 sin 𝜃
𝒐𝒓, 𝑁 = = =?
𝑎+𝑏 𝑛1

15. Assume that the limits of the visible spectrum are arbitrarily chosen as 430 and 680nm. Calculate
the number of rulings per mm of a grating that will spread the first order spectrum trough an
angle of 20º.

→ Here, λ1 = 430𝑛𝑚 = 430 × 10−6 𝑚𝑚, λ2 = 680𝑛𝑚 = 680 × 10−6 𝑚𝑚, 𝑑𝜃 = 200 , 𝑛 = 1, 𝑁 =?

106
 We have (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆

For wavelength λ1

𝐷 sin 𝜃 = λ1 Where, 𝐷 = 𝑎 + 𝑏

And for wavelength λ2

𝐷 sin(𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃) = λ2

𝑜𝑟, 𝐷𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑑𝜃 + 𝐷𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑑𝜃 = λ2

𝑜𝑟, λ1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑑𝜃 + √𝐷2 − λ1 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑑𝜃 = λ2

λ2 −λ1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑑𝜃 2
𝐷 = √{ } + λ1 2 =?
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑑𝜃

1
∴ 𝑁 = 𝐷 =?

16. How many complete orders are formed for the visible range by a grating that has 6000 lines /cm.

→ Here, N=6000 lines /cm, n=?

(𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆

𝑎+𝑏
∴𝜆= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 sin 𝜃 = 1
𝑛
1
𝑜𝑟, 𝜆 =
𝑛𝑁
1 1
𝐹𝑜𝑟 n=1, λ1 = 𝑁 = 6000 = 16.66 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 (𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒)

1 1
For n=2, λ2 = 2𝑁 = 2×6000 = 8.33 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 (𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒)

1 1
For n=3, λ3 = 3𝑁 = 3×6000 = 5.55 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 (𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒)

1 1
For n=4, λ4 = 4𝑁 = 4×6000 = 4.16 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 (𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒)

1 1
For n=5, λ5 = 5𝑁 = 5×6000 = 3.33 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚 (𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒)

Hence the number of complete order is 2.

17. A diffraction grating has 8900 slits across 1.2cm. If light with a wavelength of 500nm is sent through it,
how many orders (maxima) lie on one side of central maxima?
8900
→ Here, N= lines /cm, λ=500nm=500× 10−7 𝑐𝑚 , n=?
1.2

107
We have, (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆

𝑎+𝑏
∴𝑛= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 sin 𝜃 = 1
𝜆
1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑛 = =?
𝑁𝜆
18. How many orders will be visible if the wavelength of incident light is 5x10 -7m and no. of lines /inch on
the grating is 2620?
2620
→ Here, N=2620 lines /inch= 2.54 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠/cm, λ=5× 10−7 m=5× 10−5 𝑐𝑚 , n=?

Same as 16.

19. Light is incident normally on a grating 0.5cm wide with 2500lines. Find the angles of diffraction for
the principal maxima of the two sodium lines in the first order spectrum. (λ1=5890Aº and λ2=5896Aº).
Also calculate the angular separation between the lines.
2500
→ Here, N= 0.5
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠/cm=5000lines/cm, n=1, 𝜆1 = 5890𝐴0 = 5890 × 10−8 𝑐𝑚 ,
𝜆2 = 5896𝐴 = 5890 × 10−8 𝑐𝑚
0

We have, (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆

For wavelength 𝜆1

(𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃1 = 𝜆1

𝜆1
∴ 𝜃1 = sin−1 { } = sin−1 {𝑁𝜆1 } =?
𝑎+𝑏

And for wavelength 𝜆2

(𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃2 = 𝜆2

𝜆2
∴ 𝜃2 = sin−1 { } = sin−1 {𝑁𝜆2 } =?
𝑎+𝑏

Now, angular separation=𝜃2 − 𝜃1 =?

20. Light which is a mixture of two wavelengths 5000A and 5200A is incident normally on a plane
transmission grating having 10000lines/cm. A lens of focal length 150cm is used to observe the
spectrum on a screen. Calculate the separation in cm of the two lines in the first order spectrum.

→ Here,𝜆1 = 5000𝐴0 = 5000 × 10−8 𝑐𝑚 , 𝜆2 = 5200𝐴0 = 5200 × 10−8 𝑐𝑚

N=10000𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠/cm, n=1

We have, (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆

108
 For wavelength 𝜆1

(𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃1 = 𝜆1

𝜆
∴ 𝜃1 = sin−1 {𝑎+𝑏
1
} = sin−1 {𝑁𝜆1 } =?

And for wavelength 𝜆2

(𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃2 = 𝜆2

𝜆
∴ 𝜃2 = sin−1 {𝑎+𝑏
2
} = sin−1 {𝑁𝜆2 } =?

𝑥1 𝑥2
Now, tan 𝜃1 = and tan 𝜃2 =
𝐷 𝐷

∴ 𝑥1 = 𝐷 tan 𝜃1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 = 𝐷 tan 𝜃2

Hence, 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 =?

21. For a NaCl crystal, molar mass is 58.5g, density 2.17g/cm 3, calculate the a) crystal
spacing b) angle of glancing for first order and c) Miller indices of the reflecting plane if
lattice parameter is 2.81 and incident wavelength of x-rays is 0.98Aº.
→ Here, M=58.5gm, 𝜌 =2.17g/cm3, a=2.81 Aº, 𝜆 = 0.98Aº
1 1
𝑀 3 58.5 3
(a) crystal spacing, d= {2𝑁 𝜌} = {2×6.02×1023 ×2.17} = 2.81 × 10−8 𝑐𝑚 = 2.81𝐴0
𝐴

(b) We have, 2𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆

𝑛𝜆 1×0.98
∴ 𝜃 = sin−1 { } = sin−1 { } = 11.80
2𝑑 2×2.81

𝑎
(c) 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
√ℎ 2+𝑘 2 +𝑙 2

𝑎 2.81
𝑜𝑟, √ℎ 2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2 = 𝑑 = 2.81 = 1
ℎ𝑘𝑙

109
 ∴ (ℎ𝑘𝑙 ) = (100)

22. In first order reflection occurs in a crystal at Bragg angle 3.4º, at what angle does 2 nd order reflection
occur from the same family of reflecting planes.

→ Here, 𝑛1 = 1, 𝜃1 = 3.40 , 𝑛2 = 2, 𝜃2 =?

We have, 2𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 𝑛
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1
= 𝑛2 (Since, for same family, d and 𝜆 are same)
1

𝑜𝑟, 𝜃2 =?

23. What is the smallest Bragg angle for x rays of wavelength 30pm to reflecting planes spaced 0.3nm apart
in a calcite crystal?

→ We have, 2𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆

For smallest Bragg angle, n=1

𝜆
∴ 𝜃 = sin−1 (2𝑑 ) =?

24. X-rays with wavelength 0.58Aº are used for calculating d200 in nickel. The angle of reflection is 9.5º.
What is the size of unit cell?
→ Here, 𝜆 = 0.58𝐴0 , (ℎ𝑘𝑙 ) = (200), 𝜃 = 9.50 , 𝑎 =?
We have, 2𝑑200 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
𝜆
∴ 𝑑200 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =? 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1
𝑎
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑑ℎ𝑘𝑙 =
√ℎ 2
+ 𝑘2 + 𝑙2
𝑎 𝑎
∴ 𝑑200 = =
2 2
√2 + 0 + 02 2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑎 = 2 × 𝑑200 =?

25. The spacing of atomic planes in a crystal is 3.1× 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎m. When the monochromatic beam
of X-ray is incident on them at incident angle 82030’ second order image is produced.
Calculate the glancing angle for the 4th order image.

→ Here, d=3.1× 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎m, angle of incidence i=82030’=82.50, glancing angle 𝜃2 = 90 − 𝑖 =

7.50, n=2
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 2𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 = 2𝜆 … … … … … … … … … (𝑖)
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 4, 2𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃4 = 4𝜆 … … … … … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖)
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖𝑖)/𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖) gives
𝜃4 =?

110
Polarization
The phenomenon due to which vibration of light wave is restricted in a particular plane is called
polarization and such a light is called plane polarized light.

Polarizing angle (𝒊𝒑 ): The angle of incidence for which the reflected ray is completely plane polarized is
called polarizing angle.

Here, 𝑖𝑝 + 𝑟 = 900

Brewster’s Law: 𝜇 = tan 𝑖𝑝

Double Refraction
The phenomenon due to which refracted ray splits into two components whose vibrations are
perpendicular to each other is called double refraction.

111
Consider an unpolarized light is incident on a calcite crystal then the refracted ray splits into o and e
components.
sin 𝑖
For o-ray, 𝜇𝑜 = sin 𝑟
1

sin 𝑖
And for e-ray, 𝜇𝑒 = sin 𝑟
2

As 𝑟1 < 𝑟2 so 𝜇𝑜 > 𝜇𝑒
𝑐
Since, 𝜇 = 𝑣 so 𝑣𝑜 < 𝑣𝑒

It is seen that the velocity of o-ray is less than that if e-ray. Such crystals in which velocity of o-ray is less
than the velocity of e-ray are called negative uniaxial crystal. For example, calcite, tourmaline, ruby etc.

Those crystals in which velocity of o-ray is greater than the velocity of e-ray are called positive uniaxial
crystal. For example, quartz.

Nicol Prism
It is an optical device which is used to produce and analyze the plane polarized light.

Construction: It is made by cutting a calcite crystal along a diagonal as shown in figure. The cutting
pieces are then joined back together by using a substance called Canada balsam. Canada balsam is a
transparent substance whose refractive index lies between 𝜇𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇𝑒 .

112
Working: When an unpolarized ray of light is incident on the first face of Nicol prism, the refracted ray
splits into o and e components. For o-ray, the Canada balsam satisfies the condition of total internal
reflection whereas e-ray passes on to emerge through the second face of Nicol prism. In this way, a
Nicol prism can transmit only a plane polarized light.

Use: Nicol Prism can be used as polarizer and analyzer of plane polarized light. For this two prisms
𝑁1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁2 are placed one after another as shown in figure (a).

The prism 𝑁1 is used to produce the plane polarized light so is called as polarizer and the prism 𝑁2 is
used to analyze the plane polarized light so is called as analyzer. When 𝑁1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁2 are parallel, the light
from the polarizer passes on through the analyzer (Fig a). If we rotate the analyzer, the intensity of light
goes on decreasing and no light can be found after the analyzer when it is completely turned by 900 . In
this way Nicol prism can be used as polarizer and analyzer of plane polarized light.

113
Linearly, Circularly and Elliptically Polarized light

Consider a plane polarized light is incident normally on a doubly refracting crystal whose faces are cut
parallel to the optic axis. The refracted ray splits into o and e components which move in same direction
but with different velocities. Let A be the amplitude if incident plane polarized light and 𝜃 be the angle
made by the plane of vibration with optic axis.

We have for o-ray, 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

And for e-ray, 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)

Where, 𝛿 is phase difference between o and e rays.

Put 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑎 and 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑏, then

𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

𝑦 𝑦2
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝑏 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 = √1 − 𝑏2

Now, 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 ) = 𝑎 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 )

𝑥
𝑜𝑟, = sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 )
𝑎
𝑥
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝑎

𝑥 𝑦 𝑦2
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 + √1 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝑎 𝑏 𝑏

114
 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦2
𝑜𝑟, − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 = √1 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
𝑎 𝑏 𝑏

On squaring,

𝑥2 𝑥𝑦 𝑦2 2
𝑦2
− 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿 = (1 − ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛿
𝑎2 𝑎𝑏 𝑏2 𝑏2

𝑥2 𝑥𝑦 𝑦2
𝑜𝑟, − 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 + = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛿 … … … … … (𝑖)
𝑎2 𝑎𝑏 𝑏2

This is the general equation of ellipse.

Case i: When 𝛿 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝜋 then equation (i) becomes

𝑥2 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦2
+2 + =0
𝑎2 𝑎 𝑏 𝑏2
𝑥 𝑦 2
𝑜𝑟, { + } = 0
𝑎 𝑏
𝑥 𝑦
𝑜𝑟, + =0
𝑎 𝑏
𝑥 𝑦
𝑜𝑟, =±
𝑎 𝑏
𝑏
𝑜𝑟, 𝑦 = ± 𝑥
𝑎

This is the equation of straight line passing through origin. Hence the emergent light will be linearly
polarized when phase difference between o and e rays is 0 𝑜𝑟 𝜋. (fig a)
𝜋
Case ii: When 𝛿 = 2 then equation (i) becomes

𝑥2 𝑦 2
+ =1
𝑎2 𝑏2

This is the equation of ellipse. Hence the emergent light will be elliptically polarized when phase
𝜋
difference between o and e rays is 2 . (fig b)

𝜋
Case iii: When 𝛿 = 2
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 = 𝑏 then equation (i) becomes

𝑥2 𝑦 2
+ =1
𝑎2 𝑎2

𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2

115
This is the equation of circle having center at origin. Hence the emergent light will be circularly polarized
𝜋
when phase difference between o and e rays is 2
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 = 𝑏 . (fig c)

Fig(a) Fig(b) Fig(c)

Retardation Plate
The plate which produces certain path difference between o-ray and e-ray is called retardation plate.

Types

1) Quarter-wave plate
𝜆 𝜋
The retardation plate which produces the path difference of 4 (or phase difference 2 ) between
o-ray and e-ray is called quarter-wave plate.
If 𝜇0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇𝑒 be the refractive indices of o-ray and e-ray on passing through a quarter-wave
plate of thickness t then
𝜆
(𝜇𝑒 − 𝜇𝑜 )𝑡 = (For positive uniaxial crystal)
4
𝜆
𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝜇𝑜 − 𝜇𝑒 )𝑡 = 4 (For negative uniaxial crystal)

2) Half-wave plate
𝜆
The retardation plate which produces the path difference of 2 (or phase difference 𝜋) between
o-ray and e-ray is called half-wave plate.
If 𝜇0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇𝑒 be the refractive indices of o-ray and e-ray on passing through a half-wave plate of
thickness t then
𝜆
(𝜇𝑒 − 𝜇𝑜 )𝑡 = (For positive uniaxial crystal)
2
𝜆
𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝜇𝑜 − 𝜇𝑒 )𝑡 = 2 (For negative uniaxial crystal)

Optical Activity
The phenomenon due to which rotation of the plane of vibration of plane polarized light takes
place is called optical activity.
Specific Rotation

116
 It is defined as the angle of rotation 𝜃 per unit concentration C (in gm/cc) per unit length of the
medium 𝑙 (in decimeter) at a given temperature and wavelength of light.
𝜃
i.e. specific rotation, 𝑆 = 𝐶𝑙 Where, 𝑙 is in decimeter.
10𝜃
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝑆 = 𝐶𝑙
Where, 𝑙 is in centimeter.

Production and Detection of plane, circularly and elliptically polarized light

Production

a) Plane polarized: The unpolarized light is incident on the Nicol prism so that the emergent ray
is plane polarized.
b) Elliptically polarized: When a plane polarized light is incident on a quarter-wave plate, than
the emergent ray is elliptically polarized. In this case, the plane of vibration should make an
angle other than 450 with the optic axis.
c) Circularly polarized: When a plane polarized light is incident on a quarter-wave plate in such a
way that the plane of vibration makes an angle 450 with the optic axis, than the emergent ray
is circularly polarized.
Detection
a) Plane polarized light: The given ray of light is incident on a Nicol prism. If the intensity of light
vanishes twice in a complete rotation of the Nicol prism then the given ray of light is plane
polarized, otherwise it is unpolarized.
b) Elliptically polarized light: The given ray of light is incident on a Nicol prism. If the intensity of
light through Nicol prism is non-uniform as it is rotated, then either it is elliptically polarized
or the mixture of unpolarized and plane polarized. To distinguish this, the given ray of light is
incident on the quarter-wave plate and on the Nicol prism. If the intensity of light vanishes
twice in a complete rotation of Nicol prism, then the given ray of light is elliptically polarized
otherwise the mixture of unpolarized and plane polarized.
c) Circularly polarized light: The given ray of light is incident on a Nicol prism. If the intensity of
light through Nicol prism remains same as it is rotated, then either it is circularly polarized or
unpolarized. To distinguish this, the given ray of light is incident on the quarter-wave plate
and on the Nicol prism. If the intensity of light vanishes twice in a complete rotation of Nicol
prism, then the given ray of light is circularly polarized otherwise unpolarized.
Numerical
1. If the polarizing angle of a piece of glass for green light is 60º, Find the angle of minimum deviation for
a 60º prism made of same material of glass.
→ Here, polarizing angle 𝑖𝑝 = 600 , angle of prism A=600 , minimum deviation 𝛿𝑚 =?
We have, 𝜇 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑝 =?
𝐴+𝛿𝑚
sin( )
2
Again, 𝜇 = 𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛
2
𝐴
𝑜𝑟, 𝛿𝑚 = 2 sin−1 (𝜇𝑠𝑖𝑛 ) − 𝐴 =?
2

117
2. At a certain temperature, the critical angle of water for total internal reflection is 48º for certain
wavelength. What is the polarizing angle and angle of refraction for light incident on water at
polarizing angle.

→ Here, critical angle C=480 , 𝑖𝑝 =?, angle of refraction r=?

1
We have, 𝜇 = =?
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶

∴ 𝑖𝑝 = tan−1 𝜇 =?

Also, 𝑖𝑝 + 𝑟 = 900

∴ 𝑟 =?

3. Unpolarized light passes through two Polaroid; the axis of one is vertical and that of the other is at 60º
to the vertical. What is the intensity of transmitted light?

→ Let 𝐼0 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐼1 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 be the intensity
after second Polaroid.

𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝐼1=𝐼0 /2

𝐼0 1 𝐼0
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 = 𝐼1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 600 = × =
2 4 8

4. A horizontal beam of vertically polarized light of intensity 43W/m2 is sent through two polarizing
sheets. The polarizing direction of first is at 70º to vertical and that of second is horizontal. What
is the intensity of light transmitted by the pair of sheets?

→ Let 𝐼0 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐼1 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 be the intensity after
second sheet.

118
 Here, 𝐼0 = 43W/ m2

𝐼1 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 700 =?

𝑎𝑛𝑑𝐼2 = 𝐼1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (900 − 700 ) =?

5. A beam of polarized light is sent into a system of two polarizing sheets. Relative to the
polarization direction of that incident light, the polarizing directions of the sheets are at angles 𝜽
for the first sheet and 900 for the second sheet. If 0.1 of the incident intensity is transmitted by the
two sheets, what is 𝜽.

→ Let 𝐼0 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐼1 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 be the intensity after
second sheet.

119
 We have, 𝐼1 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
And 𝐼2 = 𝐼1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (900 − 𝜃) = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝐼0
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼2 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2𝜃
4
𝐼0
𝑜𝑟, 0.1𝐼0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2𝜃
4
𝑜𝑟, 𝜃 =?

6. Two polarizing sheets are placed together with their transmission axes crossed. A
third Sheet is inserted between them with its transmission axis at an angle of 45 0
with respect to each of the other axes. Find the fraction of incident unpolarised
light intensity transmitted by the combination.
→ Let 𝐼0 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐼1 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑡, 𝐼2 be the intensity after third
sheet and 𝐼3 be the intensity after second sheet.

𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝐼1=𝐼0 /2

𝐼0 1 𝐼0
𝐼2 = 𝐼1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 450 = × =
2 2 4

And
𝐼0 1 𝐼0
𝐼3 = 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 450 = × =
4 2 8

120
 𝐼3 1
∴ =
𝐼0 8

7. If the plane of vibration makes an angle 450 with the optic axis, compare the ratio of the intensities
of o and e rays.

→ Here, 𝜃 =450

We have, the intensity of e-ray is 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

And the intensity of o-ray is 𝐼0 = 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃

𝐼
Now, 𝐼0 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2450=?
𝐸

8. If the r.i. for o-ray and e-ray is 1.65 and 1.55 when incident on retardation plate. Calculate the
thickness such that I) the emergent ray is plane polarized II) emergent ray is elliptically polarized.
(λ=6oooAº)
→ Here, 𝜇𝑜 = 1.65, 𝜇𝑒 = 1.55, 𝜆 = 6000𝐴0

i) Since the emergent ray is plane polarized, so the phase difference between o and e rays is 𝜋
𝜆
i.e. path difference is .
2
𝜆
∴ (𝜇𝑜 − 𝜇𝑒 )𝑡 =
2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑡 =?
ii) Since the emergent ray is elliptically polarized, so the phase difference between o and e rays
𝜋 𝜆
is 2 i.e. path difference is .
4

𝜆
∴ (𝜇𝑜 − 𝜇𝑒 )𝑡 =
4
𝑜𝑟, 𝑡 =?
9. The refractive index of Calcite crystal of thickness 0.01mm is 1.648 for ordinary ray and 1.486 for
extraordinary ray. For what wavelengths in the visible region will this plate behaves as a) quarter wave
plate b) a half wave plate?
𝜆
→ a) For quarter wave plate, (𝜇𝑜 − 𝜇𝑒 )𝑡 =
4
∴ 𝜆 =?
𝜆
b) For half wave plate, (𝜇𝑜 − 𝜇𝑒 )𝑡 =
2
∴ 𝜆 =?
10. A beam of plane polarized light is converted into circularly polarized light by passing it through a
crystal slice of thickness 3x10-5m. Calculate the difference in the r.i. of the two rays inside the crystal
assuming the above thickness to be the minimum value required to produce the effect. (λ=600nm)
𝜆
→ For circularly polarized light, path difference between o and e rays is .
4

𝜆
∴ (𝜇𝑜 − 𝜇𝑒 )𝑡 =
4
𝑜𝑟, 𝜇𝑜 − 𝜇𝑒 =?

121
11. Plane polarized light is incident on a piece of quartz cut parallel to the axis. Find the least thickness
for which the o-ray and e-ray combine to form a plane polarized light. Given µo=1.5442, µE=1.5533,
λ=5x10-5cm
𝜆
→ For plane polarized light, path difference between o and e rays is .
2
𝜆
∴ (𝜇𝑒 − 𝜇𝑜 )𝑡 =
2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑡 =?

12. Calculate the thickness of i) a quarter wave plate and ii) a half wave plate given that µo=1.544,
µE=1.553, λ=5x10-5cm
→ Same as 8.

13. A quarter-wave plate is meant for λ0=5.893x10-5cm. What phase retardation will show for
λ=4.358x10-5cm? (neglect changes of µo and µE with λ)
2𝜋
→ We have Phase retardation 𝜑 = 𝜆 × 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
2𝜋 λ0
𝑜𝑟, 𝜑 = × =?
𝜆 4

14. A sheet of cellophane is a half plate for light of wavelength 4000A0. If the refractive index do not
change with wavelength, explain how the sheet would behave with respect to light of wavelength
8000A0.
→ For wavelength 𝜆1 =4000A0, the sheet behaves as half wave plate.
𝜆1
∴ (𝜇𝑜 − 𝜇𝑒 )𝑡 =
2
For wavelength 𝜆2 =8000A0
𝜆
(𝜇𝑜 − 𝜇𝑒 )𝑡 = 2
𝑛
𝜆1 𝜆2
∴ =
2 𝑛
𝜆2 8000
𝑜𝑟, 𝑛 = 2 × = 2 × =4
𝜆1 4000
∴ The sheet behaves as quarter-wave plate for 8000A0.

15. Find the specific rotation of a given sample of sugar solution if plane of polarization is turned
through 26.4º. The length of the tube containing 20% sugar solution is 20cm.
→ Here, Specific rotation S=? , angle of rotation 𝜃 = 26.40 , Concentration C=20%=0.2gm/cc, length of
tube 𝑙 = 20𝑐𝑚
10𝜃
𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑆 = =?
𝐶𝑙

122
16. A 200mm long tube and containing 48cm3 of sugar solution produces and optical rotation of 11º
when placed on a sacchari meter. If the specific rotation of the sugar solution is 66º, calculate the
quantity of sugar contained in the tube in the form of solution.
10𝜃
→ 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑆 =
𝐶𝑙
10𝜃
𝑜𝑟, 𝐶 = 𝑆𝑙 = ⋯ … … ….gm/cc
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 = 𝐶 × 𝑉 = ⋯ … … … 𝑔𝑚
17. A 20cm long tube having a sugar solution rotates the plane of polarization by 10º. If the specific
rotation of sugar is 66º, calculate the strength of solution.

→ C=?

18. A sugar solution in a tube of length 20cm produces optical rotation of 13º. The solution is then
diluted to 1/3 of its previous concentration. Find the optical rotation produced by 30cm long tube
containing the diluted solution.

→ Here, 𝑙1 = 20𝑐𝑚, 𝜃1 = 130 , 𝐶1 = 𝐶, 𝑙2 = 30𝑐𝑚, 𝜃2 =?, 𝐶2 = 𝐶/3,

10𝜃1 10𝜃2
We have, 𝑆 = 𝐶1 𝑙1
= 𝐶2 𝑙2

∴ 𝜃2 =?

19. A length of 25cm of solution containing 50gm of solute/liter causes a rotation of plane of polarization
by 5º. Find the plane of polarization by a length of 75cm of similar solution containing 100gm
solute/liter.
𝑔𝑚 50 𝑔𝑚 𝑔𝑚 100 𝑔𝑚
→ Here, 𝑙1 = 25𝑐𝑚, 𝜃1 = 50 , 𝐶1 = 50 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1000 𝑐𝑐 , 𝑙2 = 75𝑐𝑚, 𝜃2 =? , 𝐶2 = 100 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1000 𝑐𝑐
10𝜃1 10𝜃2
We have, 𝑆 = 𝐶1 𝑙1
= 𝐶2 𝑙2
∴ 𝜃2 =?

20. A 200mm long glass tube is filled with a solution of sugar, containing 15gram of
sugar in 100ml of water. The plane of polarized light, passing through this solution,
is rotated through 20030’. Find the specific rotation of sugar.
→ Here, Specific rotation S=? , angle of rotation 𝜃 = 200 30′ = 20.50 , Concentration
C=15/100=0.15gm/cc, length of tube 𝑙 = 200𝑚𝑚 = 20𝑐𝑚 (Note: 1ml=1cm3)
10𝜃
𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑆 = =?
𝐶𝑙

123
Lens System
Sign Convention

i) All the distances are measured from optical center.

ii) Distances on the right of optical center can be taken as positive.
iii) Distances on the left of optical center can be taken as negative.
iv) Focal length of convex lens is always positive and focal length of concave lens is always
negative.

1 1 1
* =− +
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣

1 1 1
* 𝑓
= (𝜇 − 1)(− 𝑅 + 𝑅 )
1 2

ℎ
* Deviation angle produced by a lens, 𝛿 =
𝑓

Equivalent focal length of two thin lenses separated by a distance

Consider two thin lenses 𝐿1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿2 having focal lengths 𝑓1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓2 are placed co-axially separated by a
distance d. When a ray parallel to principal axis is incident on the lens 𝐿1 then its final image will be
formed at F.

124
 ℎ1 ℎ2
Here, the deviations produced by the lenses 𝐿1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿2 are 𝛿1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿2 = respectively.
𝑓1 𝑓2

If the final emergent ray BF is back produced then it meets original direction of incident ray at point E.
So the lens placed in the position 𝐸𝑃2 is called equivalent lens. If 𝑓 be the focal length of equivalent lens
ℎ1
then deviation produced by it is given by, 𝛿 = .
𝑓

We have net deviation 𝛿 = 𝛿1 + 𝛿2

ℎ1 ℎ1 ℎ2
𝑜𝑟, = + … … … … … … (𝑖)
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2

Since ∆𝐴𝐿1 𝐹1 and ∆𝐵𝐿2 𝐹1 are similar,

𝐴𝐿1 𝐿1 𝐹1
∴ =
𝐵𝐿2 𝐿2 𝐹1

ℎ1 𝑓1
𝑜𝑟, = … … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖 )
ℎ2 𝑓1 − 𝑑

𝑓1 − 𝑑
𝑜𝑟, ℎ2 = × ℎ1
𝑓1

Now from equation (i),

ℎ1 ℎ1 1 𝑓1 − 𝑑
= + × × ℎ1
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1

125
 1 1 𝑓1 − 𝑑
𝑜𝑟, = +
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓1 𝑓2

1 1 1 𝑑
𝑜𝑟, = + −
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓2

This gives the equivalent focal length of two thin lenses separated by a distance d.

In terms of power, 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 − 𝑑𝑃1 𝑃2

1 2 𝑓𝑓
Also we can write,𝑓 = 𝑓 +𝑓 −𝑑
1 2

𝑓1 𝑓2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑓 = −
∆

Where, ∆= 𝑑 − (𝑓1 + 𝑓2 ) is optical separation of lens system.

Let 𝛽 be the position of second principle point (𝑃2 ) from the lens 𝐿2 .

Since ∆𝐸𝑃2 𝐹 and ∆𝐵𝐿2 𝐹 are similar,

𝐸𝑃2 𝑃2 𝐹
∴ =
𝐵𝐿2 𝐿2 𝐹

ℎ1 𝑓 𝑓
𝑜𝑟, = = … … … … … … . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
ℎ2 𝑓 − (−𝛽) 𝑓 + 𝛽

Now from equations (ii) and (iii) we get,

𝑓1 𝑓
=
𝑓1 − 𝑑 𝑓 + 𝛽

𝑜𝑟, 𝑓1 𝑓 + 𝑓1 𝛽 = 𝑓1 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑑

𝑓𝑑
𝑜𝑟, 𝛽 = −
𝑓1

Similarly if 𝛼 be the position of first principle point (P1) from the lens 𝐿1 then,

𝑓𝑑
𝛼=
𝑓2

Cardinal Points
In the combination of two thin lenses, there exist three pairs of points in the principal axis which are
considered as reference points to measure various distances, are called cardinal points. These are two
principal points(𝑃1 &𝑃2 ), two focal points (𝐹1 &𝐹2 ) and two nodal points ((𝑁1 &𝑁2 ). Nodal points are
those points in the principal axis about which angular magnification is unity.

126
The planes which are perpendicular to the principal axis and pass through focal points are called focal
planes. Similarly,the planes which are perpendicular to the principal axis and pass through principal
points are called principal planes and the planes which are perpendicular to the principal axis and pass
through nodal points are called nodal planes.

Chromatic aberration
The inability of a lens to focus all the colors of light at a single point after refraction is called chromatic
aberration. It is given by

Chromatic aberration= 𝑓𝑟 − 𝑓𝑣

Consider the rays of white light parallel to principal axis be incident on a convex lens of mean focal
length 𝑓. After refraction, red and violet colored images will be formed at R and V respectively.

We have for mean color,

1 1 1
= (𝜇 − 1)( − )
𝑓 𝑅2 𝑅1

127
 1 1 1
𝑜𝑟, − =
𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑓(𝜇 − 1)

Now for red color,

1 1 1 𝜇𝑟 − 1
= (𝜇𝑟 − 1) ( − ) =
𝑓𝑟 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑓(𝜇 − 1)

Similarly for violet color,

1 1 1 𝜇𝑣 − 1
= (𝜇𝑣 − 1) ( − ) =
𝑓𝑣 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑓(𝜇 − 1)
1 1 𝜇𝑣 −𝜇𝑟
Now, − =
𝑓𝑣 𝑓𝑟 𝑓(𝜇−1)

𝑓𝑟 − 𝑓𝑣 𝜔 𝜇𝑣 − 𝜇𝑟
𝑜𝑟, = (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, = 𝜔 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠)
𝑓𝑟 𝑓𝑣 𝑓 𝜇−1

𝑓𝑟 − 𝑓𝑣 𝜔
𝑜𝑟, = (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑓𝑟 𝑓𝑣 ≈ 𝑓 2 )
𝑓2 𝑓

𝑜𝑟, 𝑓𝑟 − 𝑓𝑣 = 𝜔𝑓

This gives the longitudinal chromatic aberration.

Circle of least confusion

Consider the rays of white light from a point source O be incident on a convex lens of mean focal length
𝑓. After refraction through the lens, red and violet colored images will be formed at points R and V
respectively. If a screen XY is placed between these images, then an image with least chromatic
aberration is formed on the screen in the form of circle, called the circle of least confusion.
1 1 1 1 1 1
We have, = − and = −
𝑓𝑣 𝑣𝑣 𝑢 𝑓𝑟 𝑣𝑟 𝑢

128
 1 1 1 1
∴ − = −
𝑓𝑣 𝑓𝑟 𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑟

𝑓𝑟 − 𝑓𝑣 𝑣𝑟 − 𝑣𝑣
𝑜𝑟, =
𝑓𝑟 𝑓𝑣 𝑣𝑟 𝑣𝑣

𝑓𝑟 − 𝑓𝑣 𝑣𝑟 − 𝑣𝑣
𝑜𝑟, = (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟 𝑓𝑣 ≈ 𝑓 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑣𝑟 𝑣𝑣 ≈ 𝑣 2 )
𝑓2 𝑣2

𝜔𝑓 𝑣𝑟 − 𝑣𝑣
𝑜𝑟, = (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟 − 𝑓𝑣 = 𝜔𝑓)
𝑓2 𝑣2

𝜔𝑣 2
∴ 𝑣𝑟 − 𝑣𝑣 = … … … … … . . (𝑖)
𝑓

Question: Show that longitudinal chromatic aberration is equal to

(i) 𝜔𝑓 if object is at infinity
𝜔𝑣 2
(ii) 𝑓
if object is at finite distance.

Since ∆𝐿𝑁𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐴𝐵𝑅 are similar,

𝑀𝑅 𝐶𝑅
∴ = … … … … … (𝑖𝑖)
𝐿𝑁 𝐴𝐵

Again ∆𝐿𝑁𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐴𝐵𝑉 are similar,

𝑀𝑉 𝐶𝑉
∴ = … … … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝐿𝑁 𝐴𝐵

Now adding equations (ii) and (iii) we get

𝑀𝑅 + 𝑀𝑉 𝐶𝑅 + 𝐶𝑉
=
𝐿𝑁 𝐴𝐵
𝑣𝑟 + 𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑟 − 𝑣𝑣
𝑜𝑟, =
𝐿𝑁 𝐴𝐵
𝑣𝑟 + 𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑟 − 𝑣𝑣
𝑜𝑟, =
𝐷 𝑑

Where LN=D is the aperture of the lens and AB=d is the diameter of the circle of least confusion.

𝑣𝑟 +𝑣𝑣 𝜔𝑣 2
𝑜𝑟, 𝐷
= 𝑓𝑑
(Since, using equation (i))

2𝑣 𝜔𝑣 2
𝑜𝑟, = (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑣𝑟 ≈ 𝑣𝑣 ≈ 𝑣)
𝐷 𝑓𝑑

1 𝑣
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑 = 𝜔𝐷
2 𝑓

129
If the object is at infinity, then 𝑣 = 𝑓

1
∴ 𝑑 = 𝜔𝐷
2

This shows that diameter of the circle of least confusion is independent of the focal length of lens.

Achromatism (Chromatic doublet)

The process of removal of chromatic aberration is called achromatism.

(i) Achromatism by using two lenses placed in contact

Consider a convex lens having focal length 𝑓1 and dispersive power 𝜔1 is placed in contact
with a concave lens having focal length 𝑓2 and dispersive power 𝜔2 as shown in figure.

We have the equivalent focal length is

1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2
𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔,
1 1 1
− 2 𝑑𝑓 = − 2 𝑑𝑓1 − 2 𝑑𝑓2
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2
But for achromatism, 𝑑𝑓 = 0
𝑑𝑓1 1 𝑑𝑓2 1
∴ (− ) + (− ) =0
𝑓1 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓2
𝜔1 𝜔2
𝑜𝑟, + =0
𝑓1 𝑓2
𝑑𝑓1 𝑑𝑓2
Where, − 𝑓1
= 𝜔1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝑓2
= 𝜔2
This gives the condition of achromatism. This shows that two lenses of same nature cannot
be used for this purpose.
(ii) Achromatism by using two lenses separated by a distance
Consider a convex lens having focal length 𝑓1 and dispersive power 𝜔1 is separated by a
distance x with a concave lens having focal length 𝑓2 and dispersive power 𝜔2 as shown in
figure.

130
 We have the equivalent focal length is
1 1 1 𝑥
= + −
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓2
𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
− 2 𝑑𝑓 = − 2 𝑑𝑓1 − 2 𝑑𝑓2 − 𝑥(− 𝑑𝑓2 − 𝑑𝑓 )
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓2 2 𝑓2 𝑓12 1
But for achromatism, 𝑑𝑓 = 0
𝑑𝑓1 1 𝑑𝑓2 1 𝑥 𝑑𝑓1 𝑑𝑓2
∴ (− ) + (− ) − {(− ) + (− )} = 0
𝑓1 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓2
𝜔1 𝜔2 𝑥
𝑜𝑟, + − (𝜔 + 𝜔2 ) = 0
𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓2 1
𝑑𝑓1 𝑑𝑓2
Where, − = 𝜔1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 – = 𝜔2
𝑓1 𝑓2
If 𝜔1 = 𝜔2 = 𝜔 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝜔 𝜔 𝑥
+ − (𝜔 + 𝜔) = 0
𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓2
1 1 2𝑥
𝑜𝑟, + − =0
𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓2
𝑜𝑟, 2𝑥 = 𝑓1 + 𝑓2
𝑓1 + 𝑓2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 =
2
If 𝑓1 = 𝑓2 = 𝑓′ then
𝑥 = 𝑓′

Problem Solving Technique

Given: 𝒇𝟏 , 𝒇𝟐 , 𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒖 𝒐𝒓 𝒗

131
 1 2 𝑓𝑓
1. Equivalent focal length 𝑓 = 𝑓 +𝑓 −𝑑
1 2
𝑓𝑑
2. Position of first principal point from 𝐿1 𝛼 =
𝑓2
𝑓𝑑
3. Position of second principal point from 𝐿2 𝛽 = − 𝑓
1
4. Position of first focal point F1from 𝐿1 = 𝑓 − 𝛼
5. Position of Second focal point F2 from 𝐿2 = 𝑓 + 𝛽
6. Object distance for equivalent lens 𝑈 = 𝑢 − 𝛼
7. Image distance for equivalent lens 𝑉 = 𝑣 − 𝛽
1 1 1
8. For equivalent lens, = − +
𝑓 𝑈 𝑉
9. If object is at ∞ then, 𝑢 = ∞ so U = 𝑢 − 𝛼 = ∞
1 1 1
∴ =− +
𝑓 𝑈 𝑉

∴𝑉=𝑓

10. If image is formed at ∞ then, 𝑣 = ∞ so V = 𝑣 − 𝛽 = ∞

1 1 1
∴ =− +
𝑓 𝑈 𝑉

∴ 𝑈 = −𝑓

Numerical
1. Two thin convex lenses having focal lengths 10cm and 4cm are coaxially separated by a
distance of 5cm. Find the equivalent focal length of the combination. Determine also the
position of the principle points.

→ Here, 𝑓1 = 10𝑐𝑚, 𝑓2 = 4𝑐𝑚, 𝑑 = 5𝑐𝑚

1 2 𝑓𝑓
We have equivalent focal length 𝑓 = 𝑓 +𝑓 −𝑑
=?
1 2

𝑓𝑑
Position of first principal point 𝛼 = 𝑓2
=?

𝑓𝑑
And Position of second principal point 𝛽 = − 𝑓 =?
1

132
2. Two thin lenses of focal lengths 8cm each are identical and coaxially separated by 4cm.
Determine the equivalent focal length of this lens combination and illustrate the principle
points. If the image is formed at infinity at a particular position of the object, find the object
distance.

→ Here, 𝑓1 = 8𝑐𝑚, 𝑓2 = 8𝑐𝑚, 𝑑 = 4𝑐𝑚, v = ∞, 𝑢 =?

𝑓1 𝑓2
We have equivalent focal length 𝑓 = =?
𝑓1 +𝑓2 −𝑑

𝑓𝑑
Position of first principal point 𝛼 = =?
𝑓2

𝑓𝑑
And Position of second principal point 𝛽 = − 𝑓 =?
1

Again image distance for equivalent lens 𝑉 = 𝑣 − 𝛽 = ∞

1 1 1 1
We have =− + =−
𝑓 𝑈 𝑉 𝑈

∴ 𝑈 = −𝑓 =?

Now 𝑢 = 𝑈 + 𝛼 =?

3. A coaxial lens system placed in air has two lenses of equal focal length f are separated by a
distance 2f/3. Find the positions of the cardinal points.
2𝑓
→ Here, 𝑓1 = 𝑓, 𝑓2 = 𝑓, 𝑑 = 3
𝑓1 𝑓2
We have equivalent focal length 𝑓′ = =?
𝑓1+𝑓2−𝑑

𝑓′𝑑
Position of first principal point 𝛼 = 𝑓2
=?

𝑓′𝑑
And Position of second principal point 𝛽 = − 𝑓1
=?

Position of first focal point = 𝑓′ − 𝛼 =?

Position of second focal point = 𝑓′ + 𝛽 =?

4. Two thin converging lenses of focal length 20cm each are set coaxially 5cm apart. An image of
an upright pole 200m distant and 10m high is formed by the combination. Find the position of
the principal point, focal planes and the image. Also find the size of image.
→ Here,𝑓1 = 20𝑐𝑚, 𝑓2 = 20𝑐𝑚, 𝑑 = 5𝑐𝑚,u = −200m = −20000cm, ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑂 =
10𝑚 = 1000𝑐𝑚,
𝑓1 𝑓2
We have equivalent focal length 𝑓 = =?
𝑓1 +𝑓2 −𝑑

133
 𝑓𝑑
Position of first principal point 𝛼 = 𝑓2
=?

𝑓𝑑
And Position of second principal point 𝛽 = − =?
𝑓1

Position of first focal point = 𝑓 − 𝛼 =?

Position of second focal point = 𝑓 + 𝛽 =?

Now, object distance for equivalent lens 𝑈 = 𝑢 − 𝛼 =?

1 1 1
We have = − +
𝑓 𝑈 𝑉

∴ 𝑉 =?

Now, 𝑣 = 𝑉 + 𝛽 =?
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒
Again, magnification 𝑚 = =
𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡

𝑣 𝐼
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚 = =
𝑢 𝑂

∴ 𝐼 =?

5. Two thin converging lenses of focal length 3cm and 4cm respectively are placed coaxially in air
and separated by a distance of 2cm. An object is placed 4cm in front of the first lens. Find the
position, nature of the image and its lateral magnification.

→ Here,𝑓1 = 3𝑐𝑚, 𝑓2 = 4𝑐𝑚, 𝑑 = 2𝑐𝑚,u = −4cm

𝑓1 𝑓2
We have equivalent focal length 𝑓 = =?
𝑓1 +𝑓2 −𝑑

𝑓𝑑
Position of first principal point 𝛼 = 𝑓2
=?

𝑓𝑑
And Position of second principal point 𝛽 = − 𝑓 =?
1

Now, object distance for equivalent lens 𝑈 = 𝑢 − 𝛼 =?

1 1 1
We have = − +
𝑓 𝑈 𝑉

∴ 𝑉 =?

Now, 𝑣 = 𝑉 + 𝛽 =? (if 𝑣 is +ve, image is real and inverted, if 𝑣 is -ve, image is virtual and erect)
𝑣
Again lateral magnification m=𝑢 =?

134
6. A convex lens A of focal length 20cm and concave lens B of focal length 5cm are kept along the
same axis with distance d between them. If a parallel beam of light falling on A leaves B as
parallel beam, what will be the value of d?
→ Here,𝑓1 = 20𝑐𝑚, 𝑓2 = −5𝑐𝑚, 𝑢 = ∞, v = ∞
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑈 = 𝑢 − 𝛼 = ∞ and V = v − 𝛽 = ∞
1 1 1
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 = − +
𝑓 𝑈 𝑉
∴𝑓=∞
𝑓1 𝑓2
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑓 =
𝑓1 + 𝑓2 − 𝑑
1 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 − 𝑑
𝑜𝑟, =
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2
𝑓1 + 𝑓2 − 𝑑
𝑜𝑟, 0 =
𝑓1 𝑓2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 − 𝑑 = 0

∴ 𝑑 = 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 =?
7. A thin convex and thin concave lens, each of focal length 50cm are coaxially situated and
separated by 1Ocm. Find the position and nature of the final image formed if an object placed
20cm from the convex lens.

→ Here,𝑓1 = 50𝑐𝑚, 𝑓2 = −50𝑐𝑚, 𝑑 = 10𝑐𝑚, 𝑢 = −20cm

1 2 𝑓𝑓
We have equivalent focal length 𝑓 = 𝑓 +𝑓 −𝑑
=?
1 2

𝑓𝑑
Position of first principal point 𝛼 = 𝑓2
=?

𝑓𝑑
And Position of second principal point 𝛽 = − 𝑓 =?
1

Now, object distance for equivalent lens 𝑈 = 𝑢 − 𝛼 =?

1 1 1
We have 𝑓 = − 𝑈 + 𝑉

∴ 𝑉 =?

Now, 𝑣 = 𝑉 + 𝛽 =? (if 𝑣 is +ve, image is real and inverted, if 𝑣 is -ve, image is virtual and erect)

8. What is the power of combination of lenses of focal lengths 50cm and 10cm which are
separated by a distance 10cm.
→ Here,𝑓1 = 50𝑐𝑚, 𝑓2 = 10𝑐𝑚, 𝑑 = 10𝑐𝑚,
1 2 𝑓𝑓
We have equivalent focal length 𝑓 = 𝑓 +𝑓 −𝑑
= ⋯ … . 𝑐𝑚 = ⋯ … … . . 𝑚
1 2
1
Now power 𝑃 = 𝑓 =?

135
9. Dispersive powers of two different glass types are 0.0163 and 0.0243 respectively. How can
you design an achromatic contact doublet of focal length 50cm.

→ Here, 𝜔1 = 0.0163, 𝜔2 = 0.0243, 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑓 = 50𝑐𝑚

𝜔 𝜔2
We have, 𝑓1 + 𝑓2
=0
1

𝑓2 𝜔2 0.0243
𝒐𝒓, =− =− = −1.49
𝑓1 𝜔1 0.0163

𝑜𝑟, 𝑓2 = −1.49𝑓1

1 1 1
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, = +
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2

1 1 1
𝑜𝑟, = −
50 𝑓1 1.49𝑓1

∴ 𝑓1 =? And 𝑓2 = −1.49𝑓1 =?

10. An achromatic doublet of focal length 90cm is to be made of two lenses, the material of one
having 1.5 times the dispersive power of the other. Find the focal length of each lenses.
→ 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑠 9.
11. It is required to form a converging achromatic system of focal length 0.30m consisting of two
lenses made of the same material. If one of the lens be convex and of focal length 0.2m, find a)
the focal of the other, b) the distance between lenses.

→ Here, equivalent focal length = 0.30𝑚 , 𝑓1 = 0.2𝑚, 𝑓2 =? 𝑑 =?

𝑓1 +𝑓2 0.2+𝑓2
We have, 𝑑 = 2
= 2
… … … (𝑖 )

1 2𝑓𝑓
Also, 𝑓 = 𝑓 +𝑓 −𝑑
1 2

0.2×𝑓2
𝑜𝑟, 0.30 = 0.2+𝑓2
0.2+𝑓2−( )
2

𝑜𝑟, 𝑓2 =?
0.2+𝑓2
Now from (i), 𝑑 = 2
=?

12. Two lenses of focal lengths +4.5cm and +1.5cm are separated by a finite distance. Find the
position of principle points if the combination makes an achromatic combination.

→ Here, 𝑓1 = 4.5𝑐𝑚, 𝑓2 = 1.5𝑐𝑚

𝑓1 + 𝑓2
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑠𝑜 𝑑 = =?
2

136
 1 2 𝑓𝑓
𝑁𝑜𝑤, equivalent focal length 𝑓 = 𝑓 +𝑓 −𝑑
=?
1 2

𝑓𝑑
Position of first principal point 𝛼 = =?
𝑓2

𝑓𝑑
And Position of second principal point 𝛽 = − 𝑓 =?
1

13. Two thin lenses of focal length f 1 and f2 separated by a distance d have an equivalent focal
length 50cm. The combination satisfies the conditions for no chromatic aberration and
minimum spherical aberration. Find the values of f 1, f2 and d. Assume that both the lenses are
of the same material.
→ Here, Equivalent focal length 𝑓 = 50𝑐𝑚
𝑓1 +𝑓2
For no chromatic aberration, 𝑑 = 2
… … … … (𝑖 )
For minimum spherical aberration, 𝑑 = 𝑓1 − 𝑓2 … … … … (𝑖𝑖)
Solving (i) and (ii) we get

3𝑑 𝑑
𝑓1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓2 =
2 2
𝑓1 𝑓2
Again we have 𝑓 = 𝑓 +𝑓 −𝑑
1 2
3𝑑 𝑑
×
𝑜𝑟, 50 = 2 2
3𝑑 𝑑
2 +2−𝑑
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑 =?
3𝑑 𝑑
∴ 𝑓1 = =? 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓2 = =?
2 2
14. A crown glass convex lens has radii of curvature 20cm and 30 cm. If 𝝁𝒓 =1.513 and 𝝁𝒃 =1.523,
find the longitudinal chromatic aberration produced by the lens.

→ Here, 𝑅1 = −20𝑐𝑚, 𝑅2 = 30𝑐𝑚, 𝜇𝑟 = 1.513, 𝜇𝑏 = 1.523

𝜇𝑏 −𝜇𝑟 𝜇2 +𝜇1
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝜔 = 𝜇−1
=? (here, 𝜇 = 2
)

1 1 1
Again we have, 𝑓 = (𝜇 − 1) (− 𝑅 + 𝑅 ) =?
1 2

𝑁𝑜𝑤, longitudinal chromatic aberration = 𝜔𝑓 =?

137
LASER
The word LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. It is the process by
which a parallel beam of monochromatic highly intense and coherence light is produced. The LASER light
emerges out as a narrow beam which can travel long distance without much loss of intensity.

Properties

 The beam is monochromatic.

 The light is coherent with all the waves exactly in phase with each other.
 It is highly intense.
 The beam hardly diverges.

An atom can have energy in discrete value which is known as energy level of an atom. The transition of
an electron from one energy level to another energy level is called quantum transition. There are three
kinds of transition involving electromagnetic radiation between two energy levels E1 and E2.

1. Induced absorption
Consider two energy levels of an atom with energies E1 and E2 as shown in figure. Consider an
atom in E1 level and a photon having energy 𝐸 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝑓 is incident on the atom at E1, the
atom may absorb this incident photon and moves in the excited level E2. This is called induced
absorption.

2. Spontaneous emission
The life time of an atom in the excited state is very short (≈ 10−8 𝑠𝑒𝑐). After finishing its life
time, the atom moves in the lower state with emitting a photon of energy 𝐸 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 =
ℎ𝑓.This type of emission is called spontaneous emission.

138
3. Stimulated emission
When a photon strikes on an atom on the excited state, the atom moves to the lower energy
state with the emission of two photons of same frequency which are in phase and propagate in
the same direction.This type of emission is called stimulated emission.

Thus we get two coherent photons in this case. If these two photons are made to strike another
two atoms in the excited state then four photons of same frequency are produced. If this
process can be made go on, it may able to increase the intensity of radiation enormously. This is
the basic operation of LASER.
The necessary condition for this type of amplification is that the number of atoms in the upper
energy level must be sufficiently increased.
Active medium
The medium in which light gets amplified is called active medium. This medium may be solid,
liquid or gas.
Population Inversion
The number of active atoms occupying an energy state is known as population of that state. At
normal condition, the number of atoms in the lower state is greater than that on the excited
state. The establishment of the situation, in which number of atoms in the excited state is
greater than that on the lower state is called population inversion.
Metastable State
Normally, the life time of an atom in the excited state is very short (≈ 10−8 𝑠𝑒𝑐). Some energy
stateshave comparatively longer life time (10−2 sec 𝑡𝑜 10−4 𝑠𝑒𝑐) and are known as metastable
states.
Pumping
The process by which population inversion is achieved is called pumping.
Types of pumping
 Optical pumping
 Electrical pumping
 Chemical pumping
 Heating pumping

139
He-Ne LASER

The He-Ne LASER tube is about 5mm in diameter and 0.5m long. It contains helium and neon gas
mixture in the ratio of 5:1 at a pressure of 1 mm of Hg. The tube has two parallel mirrors at two ends,
one of them is partially reflecting.

The He-Ne mixture contained in the discharge tube is ionized by passing a dc current through the gas.
He atoms are excited very efficiently by electron impact in 2s level while Ne atoms are much less readily
excited by the electrons. This excited 2s state of helium is relatively long lived. The energy of this level is
almost the same as the energy of 5s level in Ne. Hence the energy of the He atoms is easily transferred
to the Ne atoms when they collide. The 5s state of Ne results in a population inversion between 5s state
and 3p state.The purpose of He atoms is thus for the population inversion in the Ne atoms. The
transitions of atoms from 5s to 3p state produce photons of wavelength 632.8nm. Photons travelling
parallel to the tube are reflected back and forth between the mirrors placed at the ends, and rapidly
build up into an intense beam which escapes through the end without any losses.

140
Application of LASER

1. Industrial Applications
 Welding purpose
 Cutting purpose
 Drilling purpose
 LASER heat treatment
2. Medical Application
 It is used in bloodless surgery
 It is used to cure ulcer, bone fracture, tumor.
 It is used in ophthalmology to cure retina.
3. Communication
LASER is used to establish communication between satellites, satellites and aircrafts and the
satellite and the station in the ground. It is helpful to communicate between two sub marines in
water.
4. LASER is used to check environmental pollutant. It is also used to forecast weather condition.
5. It is used in thermonuclear fusion.
6. It is used in isotopes separation.
7. It is used in holography.
8. It is used in war.
9. It is used to guide aircraft landing.

Optical Fibers
The hair like structures which are made up of glass or plastic designed to transmit the signals
from one end to other end is called optical fiber. It works on the principal of total internal
reflection.

141
 Types of optical fiber

Step index optical fiber Graded index optical fiber

1. In this optical fiber, the refractive index of 1. In this optical fiber, the refractive index
core ( 𝜇1 ) is fixed and that of cladding (𝜇2 ) is of cladding ( 𝜇2 ) is fixed but that of core
also fixed. (𝜇1 ) goes on decreasing from axis to
2. There is noticeable boundary between core core cladding interface.
and cladding. 2. There is no such noticeable boundary
between core and cladding.

3. There is high transmission loss due to splitting

of the signals. 3. There is low transmission loss due to
self- focusing.

Acceptance angle and Numerical aperture of optical fiber

Acceptance angle: The angle of incidence for which refracted ray inside the core suffers total internal
reflection is called acceptance angle.

Consider an optical fiber and light is send from an end known as lunching end. Let 𝜇1 and 𝜇2 be the
refractive index of core and cladding respectively. Let 𝜇0 be the refractive index of surrounding of
lunching end.

142
Applying Snell’s law at A,

𝜇0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 = 𝜇1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟

𝑜𝑟, 𝜇0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 = 𝜇1 sin(90 − 𝛼 ) = 𝜇1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 … … … … … (𝑖)

Again using Snell’s law at B when 𝛼 = 𝐶

𝜇1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 𝜇2 𝑠𝑖𝑛900
𝜇2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶 =
𝜇1

Now from (i)

𝜇0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 = 𝜇1 √1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼

𝜇22
𝑜𝑟, 𝜇0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 = 𝜇1 √1 −
𝜇12

𝑜𝑟, 𝜇0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 = √𝜇12 − 𝜇22

√𝜇12 − 𝜇22
𝑜𝑟, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 =
𝜇0

√𝜇2 − 𝜇22
𝑜𝑟, 𝑖 = sin−1 { 1 }
𝜇0

This gives the acceptance angle.

Numerical aperture (NA): The NA of optical fiber is defined as sine of maximum acceptance angle. It
measures the light gathering power of optical fiber.

Now, 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑜𝑟, 𝑁𝐴 = √𝜇12 − 𝜇22 (Since, 𝜇0 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟)

143
 𝜇12 − 𝜇22
𝑜𝑟, 𝑁𝐴 = √{ } × 2𝜇12
2𝜇12

𝑜𝑟, 𝑁𝐴 = √∆ × 2𝜇12

𝑜𝑟, 𝑁𝐴 = 𝜇1 √2∆

𝜇12 −𝜇22
Here, ∆= is fractional refractive index change.
2𝜇12

Optical fiber may be characterized by one more parameter called V-number or normalized frequency
which is given by

2𝜋𝑎 2𝜋𝑎
𝑉 − 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = × 𝑁𝐴 = × 𝜇1 √2∆
𝜆 𝜆

Where, 𝑎 is core radius and 𝜆 is wavelength of signal.

Numerical
1. A silica glass optical fiber has core of refractive index 1.50 and the cladding of refractive index
1.45. Calculate the critical angle for core cladding interface, the acceptance angle in air,
corresponding angle of obliqueness, the numerical aperture of fiber and percentage of light
collected by fiber w.r.t. the incident light.

→ Here, refractive index of core 𝜇1 = 1.50, refractive index of cladding𝜇2 = 1.45

𝜇2
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶 =
𝜇1
𝜇2
∴ 𝐶 = sin−1 ( ) =?
𝜇1

√𝜇12 −𝜇22
Acceptance angle 𝑖 = sin−1 { 𝜇0
} = sin−1 {√𝜇12 − 𝜇22 } =? (𝜇0 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟)

Angle of obliqueness= 900 − 𝐶 =?

𝑁. 𝐴. = √𝜇12 − 𝜇22 =?

% of light collected by optical fiber= (𝑁. 𝐴. )2 × 100% =?

2. Calculate the refractive indices of the core and cladding materials of a fiber from following
data. NA=0.22 and fractional refractive index change=0.012.
→ Here,𝑁. 𝐴. = 0.22, Fractional refractive index change ∆= 0.012

144
 𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑁𝐴 = 𝜇1 √2∆
𝑁𝐴
∴ 𝜇1 = =?
√2∆
Again, 𝑁𝐴 = √𝜇12 − 𝜇22
∴ 𝜇2 =?

3. Calculate the numerical aperture and acceptance angle of fiber, given µcore=1.62 and
µcladding=1.52.

→ Here, refractive index of core 𝜇1 = 1.62, refractive index of cladding 𝜇2 = 1.52

𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑁𝐴 = √𝜇12 − 𝜇22 =?

√𝜇12−𝜇22
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖 = sin−1 { 𝜇0
} = sin−1 {√𝜇12 − 𝜇22 } =?(𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝜇0 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟)

4. The light ray enters from air to a fiber. The refractive index of air is 1.0 The fiber has
refractive index of core equal to 1.5 and that of cladding equal to 1.48. Calculate the critical
angle, the refractive index change, the acceptance angle and the numerical aperture.
→ Here, 𝜇0 = 1 , 𝜇1 = 1.5, 𝜇2 = 1.48
𝜇2
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐶 = sin−1 ( ) =?
𝜇1
𝜇1 − 𝜇22
2
𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 ∆= =?
2𝜇12
√𝜇12 − 𝜇22
𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖 = sin−1 { } =?
𝜇0

𝑁𝐴 = √𝜇12 − 𝜇22 =?
5. An optical fiber has a numerical aperture of 0.2. The cladding has the r.i.1.48. Calculate the
acceptance angle in water with r.i.4/3. Also calculate the critical angle at core cladding
interface.

→ Here, 𝑁𝐴 = 0.2, 𝜇2 = 1.48, 𝜇0 = 4/3

√𝜇12 − 𝜇22 𝑁𝐴
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖 = sin−1 { } = sin−1 { } =?
𝜇0 𝜇0

𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑁𝐴 = √𝜇12 − 𝜇22

∴ 𝜇1 =?
𝜇
Now, 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐶 = sin−1 (𝜇2 ) =?
1

145
6. A glass clad fiber is made with a core glass of r.i.1.5 and the cladding is doped to give a
fractional index change 5x10-4. Determine a) cladding index b) critical internal reflection
angle c) external critical acceptance angle and d) NA

→ Here, 𝜇1 = 1.5, ∆= 5 × 10−4

𝜇12 −𝜇22
𝑎)We have ∆= 2𝜇12

∴ 𝜇2 =?
𝜇
b) Critical internal angle 𝐶 = sin−1 ( 2 ) =?
𝜇1

√𝜇12 −𝜇22
c) External critical acceptance angle𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖 = sin−1 { 𝜇0
} =? (𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝜇0 = 1)

d) 𝑁𝐴 = √𝜇12 − 𝜇22 =?

7. Find the core diameter necessary for single mode operation at 450µm in step index fiber with
n1=1.48 and n2=1.47. What is NA and maximum acceptance angle of this fiber? Given V-
number=2.405.
→ Here, Wavelength 𝝀=450𝜇𝑚 = 450 × 10−6 𝑚, 𝜇1 = 1.48, 𝜇2 = 1.47, 𝑉 − 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 2.405
We have, 𝑁𝐴 = √𝜇12 − 𝜇22 =?

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑖 = sin−1 {√𝜇12 − 𝜇22 } =?

2𝜋𝑎
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑉 − 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 = × 𝑁𝐴
𝜆
𝑜𝑟, 𝑎 =? ∴ 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑑 = 2𝑎 =?

146
Chapter 5: Electrostatics
Electric Force and Field

Coulomb’s law of electrostatics

Force of attraction or repulsion between two charges is

a) directly proportional to the product of their charges and

b) inversely proportional to the square of the distance between two charges

1
𝐹 ∝ 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹 ∝ 𝑟2

On combining, we get
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹∝
𝑟2
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑜𝑟, 𝐹 = 𝑘 𝑟2

1
Where 𝑘 = 4𝜋𝜀 = 9 × 109 𝑁𝑚2 𝐶 −2 𝑖𝑛 𝑆. 𝐼. 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 = 1 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑔𝑠 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚.
0

In vector form it can be written as

1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑟
⃗F = ȓ Where ȓ is a unit vector, ȓ= 𝐼𝑟𝐼
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2

1 𝑞1 𝑞2
Hence ⃗F = 𝑟
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3

Electric Field
The space around a charge where another charge can experience a force due that charge is
called electric field.

Electric Field Intensity

Electric Field Intensity at a point in side an electric field is defined as a force experienced by a
unit positive test charge at that point. It is denoted by E. It is a vector quantity. It’s unit is
𝑁𝐶 −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑚−1 𝑖𝑛 𝑆. 𝐼. 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚.

147
 1 q𝑞𝑜
We have 𝐹 = 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝑟2

Where 𝑞𝑜 is a unit positive test charge.

𝐹 1 q
Now, 𝐸 = 𝑞 = 4𝜋𝜀 2
𝑜 0𝑟

Electric dipole
It is an arrangement of two equal and opposite charges separated by a certain distance so that
net effect of electric field at a point due to the dipole is zero.

If two charges +q and –q are separated by a distance 2d as shown figure,

Then electric dipole moment is given by

P = q ×2d

It is a vector quantity and its direction is always from negative charge to positive charge.

Its unit in SI system is C-m.

Electric Field Intensity due to an electric dipole

a) At a point on its axial line

Consider two equal and opposite charges +q and –q are located at points A and B are separated
by a distance 2d as shown in figure. Suppose a point P lies on its axial line at a distance r from
the center of the dipole.

148
Here electric field intensity at point P due to the charge +q at A is given by
1 𝑞
𝐸𝐴 = 4𝜋𝜀 (Along PX)
0 (𝑟+𝑑)2

Similarly, electric field intensity at point P due to the charge -q at B is given by

1 𝑞
𝐸𝐵 = 4𝜋𝜀 2 (Along PB)
0 (𝑟−𝑑)

Therefore, net electric field intensity at P due to the dipole is

𝐸 = 𝐸𝐵 − 𝐸𝐴

1 𝑞 1 𝑞
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 = −
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑑)2 4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 + 𝑑)2

𝑞 1 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 = { 2
− }
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑑) (𝑟 + 𝑑)2

𝑞 (𝑟 + 𝑑)2 − (𝑟 − 𝑑)2
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 = { }
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 − 𝑑 2 )2

𝑞 𝑟 2 + 2𝑑𝑟 + 𝑑 2 − 𝑟 2 + 2𝑑𝑟 − 𝑑 2
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 = ( )
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 − 𝑑 2 )2

𝑞 4𝑑𝑟
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 =
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑑 2 )2
2

(𝑞 × 2𝑑) 2𝑟
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 =
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑑 2 )2
2

1 2𝑃𝑟
∴ 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 2 2 2 Where, 𝑃 = 𝑞 × 2𝑑 dipole moment
0 (𝑟 −𝑑 )

For a very short dipole, d˂˂r

149
 1 2𝑝
So 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝑟3

b) At a point on its equatorial line

Consider two equal and opposite charges +q and –q are located at points A and B are separated
by a distance 2d as shown in figure. Suppose a point P lies on its equatorial line at a distance r
from the center of the dipole.

Here, 𝐴𝑃 = 𝐵𝑃 = √𝑟 2 + 𝑑 2

Now, electric field intensity at P due to a charge +q at A is given by

1 𝑞 1 𝑞
𝐸𝐴 = =
4𝜋𝜀0 ( √𝑟 2 + 𝑑 2 )2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 + 𝑑 2

Similarly, electric field intensity at p due to charge -q at B is given by

1 𝑞 1 𝑞
𝐸𝐵 = =
4𝜋𝜀0 ( √𝑟 2 + 𝑑 2 )2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 + 𝑑 2
2

Here, 𝐸𝐴 sin 𝜃 and 𝐸𝐵 sin 𝜃 are equal and opposite so they cancel each other.

∴ Net electric field intensity at p will be

𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴 cos 𝜃 + 𝐸𝐵 cos 𝜃 = 2𝐸𝐴 cos 𝜃 (Since, 𝐸𝐴 = 𝐸𝐵 )

1 𝑞 𝑑
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 = 2 4𝜋𝜀 2 2 2 2
0 𝑟 +𝑑 √𝑟 +𝑑

150
 𝑃
∴ 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 2 2 3/2
0 (𝑟 +𝑑 )

Where, 𝑃 = 𝑞 × 2𝑑 dipole moment

For a very short dipole, d˂˂r

1 𝑃
So 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝑟3

From above results we see that the electric field intensity at a point on the axial line is equal to
twice that on the equatorial line for a very short dipole.

Torque and Potential Energy due to a Dipole in an electric field

Let a uniform electric field of strength E is represented by a number of line of force as shown in
figure. Suppose an electric dipole AB having two equal and opposite charges +q and –q
separated by a distance 2d is placed inside the electric field such that it makes an angle 𝜃with
the direction of E. Here the net force exerted on the dipole due to the field is zero. But these
forces exert a net torque on the dipole about its center of mass.

We have, Torque 𝜏 =Force× perpendicular distance

𝑜𝑟, 𝜏 = 𝑞𝐸 × 2𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑃𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

In vector form, 𝜏 = 𝑃⃗ × 𝐸⃗

When 𝜃 = 00 , 𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0

When 𝜃 = 900 , 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑃𝐸

Now, work done by external field in turning the dipole from initial angle 𝜃1 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝜃2 is

151
 𝜃2 𝜃2
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = − ∫ 𝜏𝑑𝜃 = − ∫ 𝑃𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝜃1 𝜃1

Here, negative sign indicates that 𝜏 tends to decrease 𝜃.

𝑜𝑟, 𝑊 = 𝑃𝐸(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 )

Since the work done by external field is equal to negative of change in potential energy so we
have change in potential energy is

∆𝑈 = −𝑊 = −𝑃𝐸 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 ) = −𝑃𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 − (−𝑃𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 ) = 𝑈𝑓 − 𝑈𝑖

∴ Potential energy at any arbitrary angle 𝜃 is

𝑈 = −𝑃𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

When 𝜃 = 00 , 𝑈𝑚𝑖𝑛 = −𝑃𝐸 (Stable equilibrium)

When 𝜃 = 900 , 𝑈 = 0

When 𝜃 = 1800 , 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑃𝐸 (Unstable equilibrium)

Quadruple
It is an arrangement of four equal and opposite charges or it is an arrangement of two dipoles.

The electric quadruple moment is given by 𝑄 = 𝑞 × 2𝑑 2 . It is tensor quantity.

It is used to identify the shape of nucleus.

If 𝑄 = 0, then the shape is spherical.

If 𝑄 > 0, then the shape is prolate.

If 𝑄 < 0, then the shape is oblate.

152
Electric field due to a linear quadruple
Let us consider an electric quadruple separated by a distance 2d. Consider a point at P at a
distance r from the center of AB i.e. OP=r

Now electric field at P due to the charge +q at A is

1 𝑞
𝐸𝐴 = 4𝜋𝜀 along PX
𝑜 (𝑟+𝑑)2

Similarly, electric field at P due to +q at B is

1 𝑞
𝐸𝐵 = 4𝜋𝜀 2 along PX
𝑜 (𝑟−𝑑)

And electric field at P due to charge -2q at O is

1 2𝑞
𝐸𝑂 = 4𝜋𝜀 along PO
𝑜 𝑟2

So total electric field at P due to the quadruple is

𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝐵 − 𝐸𝑂

𝑞 1 1 2
𝐸= [ 2
+ 2
− 2]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 + 𝑑) (𝑟 − 𝑑) 𝑟

𝑞 (𝑟 − 𝑑)2 + (𝑟 + 𝑑)2 2
= [ − 2]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 − 𝑑 2 )2 𝑟

𝑞 𝑟 2 (𝑟 2 − 2𝑑𝑟 + 𝑑 2 + 𝑟 2 + 2𝑑𝑟 + 𝑑 2 ) − 2(𝑟 4 − 2𝑟 2 𝑑 2 + 𝑑 4 )

= [ ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 − 𝑎 2 )2 𝑟 2

𝑞 2𝑟 4 + 2𝑑 2 𝑟 2 − 2𝑟 4 + 4𝑑 2 𝑟 2 − 2𝑑 4
= { }
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 − 𝑑 2 )2 𝑟 2

153
 𝑞 6𝑑 2 𝑟 2 − 2𝑑 4
= { }
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 − 𝑑 2 )2 𝑟 2

𝑞 × 2𝑑 2 3𝑟 2 − 𝑑 2
= { 2 }
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 − 𝑑 2 )2 𝑟 2

𝑄 3𝑟 2 − 𝑑 2
∴𝐸= { 2 }
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 − 𝑑 2 )2 𝑟 2

Where, 𝑄 = 𝑞 × 2𝑑 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡.

If d≪r, then

3𝑄
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 4

This shows that electric field due to a quadruple varies inversely with fourth power of the
distance from the center of quadruple.

Electric Field due to a charged ring

Let a circular ring of radius R and charge +q is distributed uniformly on it with linear charge
density λ. Consider a point P at a distance x from the center of ring on its axis.

Here, r =√𝑥 2 + 𝑅2

Now electric field at P due to the charge 𝑑𝑞 = λ𝑑𝑙 is

1 𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀
𝑜 (√𝑥 2+𝑅2 )2

1 λ 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀
𝑜 𝑥 2+𝑅2

Here, 𝑑𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 components of electric field cancel each other and only the effective
components are 𝑑𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃.

154
∴ Net electric field intensity at P is
2𝜋𝑅
𝐸 = ∫𝑜 𝑑𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

2𝜋𝑅
1 λ 𝑑𝑙
𝐸=∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑜 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑥 + 𝑅2
2

1 2𝜋𝑅 λ 𝑑𝑙 𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 ∫𝑜
𝑜 𝑥 2 +𝑅2 √𝑥 2 +𝑅2

2𝜋𝑅
λ 𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 = 3∫ 𝑑𝑙
4𝜋𝜀𝑜
(𝑥 2 + 𝑅2 ) 2 𝑜

λx
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 = 3 ( 2𝜋𝑅 − 0)
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑥 2 + 𝑅2 ) 2

(λ × 2𝜋𝑅)x
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 = 3
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑥 2 + 𝑅2 ) 2
𝑞x
∴𝐸= 3
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑥 2 + 𝑅2 ) 2

This is the electric field intensity due to the charged ring.

𝑑𝐸
Note 1: Here electric field will be maximum when 𝑑𝑥 = 0

𝑑 x
𝑜𝑟, { 3} =0
𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 2 + 2
𝑅 )2

1 3𝑥 2
𝑜𝑟, 3 − 5 =0
(𝑥 2 + 𝑅2 ) 2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑅2 ) 2

𝑥 2 + 𝑅2 − 3𝑥 2
𝑜𝑟, 5 =0
(𝑥 2 + 𝑅2 ) 2

𝑜𝑟, 𝑅2 − 2𝑥 2 = 0
𝑅
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 =
√2

𝑅
∴ 𝐸 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 =
√2

155
 𝑞𝑥
Note2: If 𝑥 ≪ 𝑅 then 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 3
𝑜𝑅

Now the force acting on a charge –q’ located near to the center of ring is

𝐹 = −𝑞 ′ 𝐸
𝑞𝑥
∴ 𝐹 = −𝑞 ′
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅3
𝑞
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚𝑎 = −(𝑞 ′ 4𝜋𝜀 3 )𝑥
𝑜𝑅

𝑞𝑞′
𝑜𝑟, 𝑎 = −(4𝜋𝜀 3 )𝑥
𝑜 𝑚𝑅

𝑜𝑟, 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥

This shows that charge –q’ describes SHM whose angular frequency is

𝑞𝑞 ′
𝜔=√
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑚𝑅3

1 𝑞𝑞 ′
∴ 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝑓 = √
2𝜋 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑚𝑅3

Electric field intensity due to a charged disc

Consider a charged disc of radius R with uniform surface charge density 𝜎. Consider a point P at
a distance x from the center O of the disc on its axis at which electric field intensity is to be
determined.

156
As a disc consists of large number of circular rings, the electric field at P due to a circular ring of
radius r and thickness dr is
1 𝑑𝑞𝑥 1 (𝜎×2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟)𝑥 𝜎𝑥 2𝑟𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 3 = 4𝜋𝜀 3 = 4𝜀 3 (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜎 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜎 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟)
𝑜 (𝑥 2+𝑟 2) 2 𝑜 (𝑥 2+𝑟 2) 2 𝑜 (𝑥 2+𝑟 2 ) 2

Hence total electric field at point P due to the disc is

𝑅
𝜎𝑥 2𝑟𝑑𝑟 𝜎𝑥 𝑅 2𝑟𝑑𝑟
𝐸 = ∫ 𝑑𝐸 = ∫ 3 = ∫ 3
4𝜀𝑜 4𝜀𝑜 𝑜
𝑜 (𝑥 2 + 𝑟2) 2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑟 2 ) 2

Put 𝑥 2 + 𝑟 2 = 𝑦

Then 2𝑟𝑑𝑟 = 𝑑𝑦
𝑅
𝜎𝑥 𝑅 𝑑𝑦 𝜎𝑥 𝑅 −3 𝜎𝑥 𝑦 −1⁄2 𝜎𝑥 𝑅
∴𝐸= ∫ 3= ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 =
2 [ ] =− [(𝑥 2 + 𝑟 2 )−1⁄2 ]0
4𝜀𝑜 𝑜 2 4𝜀𝑜 𝑜 4𝜀𝑜 − 1⁄2 0 2𝜀𝑜
𝑦

𝜎𝑥 −1 𝜎𝑥 1 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 = [𝑥 − (𝑥 2 + 𝑅2 )−1⁄2 ] = [ − ]
2𝜀𝑜 2𝜀𝑜 𝑥 √𝑥 2 + 𝑅2
𝜎 𝑥
∴ 𝐸 = 2𝜀 [1 − √𝑥 2 ]
𝑜 +𝑅2

This is the electric field due to an insulating charge disc.

𝜎
Note: If R→ ∞ 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐸 = 2𝜀
𝑜

This is the electric field produced by infinite sheet of uniform charge.

157
If 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐸 = 0

Electric Potential Due to a Dipole at any point

Consider an electric dipole AB with separation 2d. Consider a point P at a distance r from the
center O of dipole which is at a distance r1 from +q and r2 from –q. Let < 𝑃𝑂𝐴 = 𝜃.

Now potential at P due to +q at A is

1 𝑞
𝑉𝐴 =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟1

And potential at P due to –q at B is

1 𝑞
𝑉𝐵 = −
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2

∴ Net potential at P is

𝑞 1 1 𝑞 𝑟2 − 𝑟1
𝑉 = 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉𝐵 = [ − ]=
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟1 𝑟2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟1 𝑟2

For 𝑟 ≫ 𝑑, 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 ≈ 2𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟1 𝑟2 ≈ 𝑟 2

𝑞 2𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
∴𝑉=
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2

𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉 =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2
𝑃
On the axis, 𝜃 = 00 𝑠𝑜 𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜖 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝜃 = 900 𝑠𝑜 𝑉 = 0
0𝑟

Electric Potential due to a Quadruple

158
Consider a linear quadruple of length 2d. Consider a point P at a distance r from the center O of
the quadruple at which electric potential is to be determined.

1 𝑞
Now, electric potential at P due to charge +q at A is 𝑉𝐴 = 4𝜋𝜖
0 𝑟+𝑑

1 2𝑞
Electric potential at P due to charge -2q at O is 𝑉𝑂 = − 4𝜋𝜖
0 𝑟

1 𝑞
And electric potential at P due to charge +q at B is 𝑉𝐵 = 4𝜋𝜖
0 𝑟−𝑑

∴ Net potential at P is 𝑉 = 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉𝑂 + 𝑉𝐵

𝑞 1 2 1 𝑞 𝑟 2 − 𝑟𝑑 − 2𝑟 2 + 2𝑑 2 + 𝑟 2 + 𝑟𝑑
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉 = [ − + ]= [ ]
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 + 𝑑 𝑟 𝑟 − 𝑑 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 (𝑟 + 𝑑 )(𝑟 − 𝑑)

𝑞 2𝑑 2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉 =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟(𝑟 2 − 𝑑 2 )

𝑄
∴𝑉=
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟(𝑟 2 − 𝑑 2 )

Where, 𝑄 = 𝑞 × 2𝑑 2 is electric quadruple moment.

𝑄
For 𝑟 ≫ 𝑑, 𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜖 3
0𝑟

Electric potential due to ring of charge

Consider a charged ring of radius R having linear charge density λ. Consider a point P at a
distance x from the center O of the ring at which electric potential is to be determined.

159
Electric potential at P due to elemental segment 𝑑𝑙 which contains charge dq is

1 𝑑𝑞 1 λ𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝑉 = =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜖0 √𝑥 2 + 𝑅2

∴ Net potential at P is
2𝜋𝑅 2𝜋𝑅
1 λ𝑑𝑙 1 λ 1 λ
𝑉 = ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ = ∫ 𝑑𝑙 = × 2𝜋𝑅
0 4𝜋𝜖0 √𝑥 + 𝑅
2 2 4𝜋𝜖0 √𝑥 + 𝑅 0
2 2 4𝜋𝜖0 √𝑥 + 𝑅2
2

1 𝑞
∴ 𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜖 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑞 = λ × 2𝜋𝑅)
0 √𝑥 2+𝑅2

Electric potential due to disc of charge

Consider a charged disc of radius R with uniform surface charge density 𝜎. Consider a point P at
a distance x from the center O of the disc on its axis at which electric potential is to be
determined.

160
As a disc consists of large number of circular rings, the electric potential at P due to a circular
ring of radius r and thickness dr is

1 𝑑𝑞 1 𝜎 × 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑉 = =
4𝜋𝜖0 √𝑥 2 + 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜖0 √𝑥 2 + 𝑟 2
𝜎 𝑅 2𝑟𝑑𝑟
∴ net potential is 𝑉 = ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = 4𝜖 ∫0
0 √𝑥 2+𝑟 2

Put Put 𝑥 2 + 𝑟 2 = 𝑦

Then 2𝑟𝑑𝑟 = 𝑑𝑦
𝑅
𝜎 𝑅 𝑑𝑦 𝜎 𝑅 −1 𝜎 𝑦 1⁄2 𝜎 𝑅
∴𝑉= ∫ 1= ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = [ ] = [(𝑥 2 + 𝑟 2 )1⁄2 ]0
4𝜀𝑜 𝑜 2 4𝜀𝑜 𝑜 4𝜀𝑜 1⁄2 0 2𝜀𝑜
𝑦
𝜎 𝜎
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉 = [(𝑥 2 + 𝑅2 )1⁄2 − 𝑥] = [√𝑥 2 + 𝑅2 − 𝑥]
2𝜀𝑜 2𝜀𝑜

Potential Gradient
The change of potential with distance is known as potential gradient.

Electric field and Potential Gradient

We have the work done in moving the charge 𝑞0 from B to A is

⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −𝐹𝑑𝑥 = −𝑞0 𝐸𝑑𝑥 … … … … … … … . . (𝑖)

𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑥
𝑊
Again we have the electric potential is 𝑉 = 𝑞
0

𝑑𝑊
∴ 𝑑𝑉 =
𝑞0

𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑞0 𝑑𝑉 … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝑖𝑖)

Now from equations (i) and (ii) we have

𝑞0 𝑑𝑉 = −𝑞0 𝐸𝑑𝑥

161
 𝑑𝑉
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 = −
𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
If 𝑉 = 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) then 𝐸𝑥 = − 𝜕𝑥 , 𝐸𝑦 = − 𝜕𝑦 , 𝐸𝑧 = − 𝜕𝑧

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∴ 𝐸⃗ = 𝒊𝐸𝑥 + 𝒋𝐸𝑦 + 𝒌𝐸𝑧 = − (𝒊 +𝒋 + 𝒌 ) 𝑉 = −𝛁𝑉
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

This shows that the electric field at a point is equal to the negative gradient of potential.
𝑑𝑉
Note: If V is known then 𝐸 = − 𝑑𝑥

If E is known then 𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝑥

Numerical
1. If a copper coin has mass 3.11g, what is the number of atoms and total charge on the nucleus
of the atoms in the coin? (Z=29,M=63.5gm/mol for copper and NA=6.02x1023 atom/mol)

→ Here, mass of copper coin, m=3.11gm, atomic number, z=29, molar mass, M=63.5gm,

Avogadro’s number, 𝑁𝐴 = 6.02 × 1023

We know, 63.5gm of copper contains 6.02 × 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠.

6.02×1023
∴ 3.11gm of copper contains × 3.11 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
63.5

6.02×1023
Hence the no of atoms, 𝑁 = × 3.11 =?
63.5

Since each atom contains 29 protons so total charge 𝑞 = 𝑍𝑁𝑒 =?

2. Two charges 2.1x10-8C and -8.4x10-8C are placed at a separation of 50cm. Find the point along the
straight line passing through the two charges at which electric field is zero.

→ Here, 𝑞1 = 2.1 × 10−8 𝐶, 𝑞2 = −8.4 × 10−8 𝐶

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 2.1 × 10−8 𝐶.

162
 1 𝑞1
Electric field at P due to charge 𝑞1 placed at A is 𝐸𝐴 = 4𝜋𝜀 2 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑋′
0𝑥
1 𝑞2
And Electric field at P due to charge 𝑞2 placed at B is 𝐹𝐵 = 4𝜋𝜀 (0.5+𝑥)2
𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝐴
0
By question, 𝐸𝐴 = 𝐸𝐵
1 𝑞1 1 𝑞2
𝑜𝑟, 2
=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑥 4𝜋𝜀0 (0.5 + 𝑥)2
(0.5 + 𝑥)2 𝑞2 8.4
𝑜𝑟, = =
𝑥2 𝑞1 2.1
0.5 + 𝑥 8.4
𝑜𝑟, =√
𝑥 2.1
∴ 𝑥 =?
3. Two point charges 6 𝝁C and -24 𝝁C are 18cm apart. Locate the position of zero potential on the
line joining between them.
→ Here, 𝑞1 = 6𝜇𝐶 = 6 × 10−6 𝐶, 𝑞2 = −24𝜇𝐶 = −24 × 10−6 𝐶
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 6𝜇𝐶.

1 𝑞1 1 6×10−6
Electric potential at P due to charge placed at A, 𝑉𝐴 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑥
= 4𝜋𝜀 𝑥
0 0
1 𝑞2 1 24×10−6
And Electric potential at P due to charge placed at B, 𝑉𝐵 = =−
4𝜋𝜀0 (18×10−2 −𝑥) 4𝜋𝜀0 (18×10−2−𝑥)
By question, net potential, 𝑉 = 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉𝐵 = 0

163
 1 6 × 10−6 1 24 × 10−6
𝑜𝑟, − =0
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑥 4𝜋𝜀0 (18 × 10−2 − 𝑥)
1 6 × 10−6 1 24 × 10−6
𝑜𝑟, =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑥 4𝜋𝜀0 (18 × 10−2 − 𝑥)
∴ 𝑥 =?
4. Two similar balls of mass m are hung from silk threads of length 𝒍 m and carry similar charges
𝟑 𝒒𝟐 𝒍
q. Prove that the separation of the balls is x= √ .
𝟐𝝅𝝐𝟎𝒎𝒈
→ Here,

1 𝑞2
Electrostatic force between two charges is 𝐹𝑒 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑥2
0
We have, from figure, 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝐹𝑒 … … … . . (𝑖)
And 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔 … … … … … … (𝑖𝑖)
Dividing equation (i) by (ii) we get
𝐹𝑒
tan 𝜃 =
𝑚𝑔
𝑥
For small angle, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 2𝑙
𝑥 𝐹𝑒
∴ =
2𝑙 𝑚𝑔
𝑥 1 1 𝑞2
𝑜𝑟, =
2𝑙 𝑚𝑔 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑥 2
3 𝑞2 𝑙
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 = √
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑚𝑔
5. An electric dipole consists of charges +2e and -2e separated by 0.78nm. It is in electric field of
strength 3.4x106 N/C . Calculate the magnitude of the torque on the dipole when the dipole
moment is (a) parallel, (b) at right angle and (c) opposite to the electric field.
→ Here, charge, q=2e, separation between two charges, 2d=0.78nm=0.78x10-9m,
Electric field intensity, E=3.4x106 N/C

164
 We have, torque due to a dipole is 𝜏 = 𝑃𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Where dipole moment
𝑃 = 𝑞 × 2𝑑 = 2𝑒 × 2𝑑 = 2 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 0.78 × 10−9 = ⋯ … . . 𝐶 − 𝑚
a) When the dipole moment is parallel to electric field, 𝜃 = 00 𝑠𝑜 𝜏 = 𝑃𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛00 = 0
b) When the dipole moment is at right angle to electric field, 𝜃 = 900 𝑠𝑜 𝜏 =
𝑃𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛900 =?
c) When the dipole moment is opposite to electric field, 𝜃 = 1800 𝑠𝑜 𝜏 =
𝑃𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛1800 = 0

6. How much work is required to turn an electric dipole 1800 in a uniform electric field of
magnitude 46N/C if dipole moment is 3.02x10-25Cm and the initial angle is 640?

→ Here, Electric field intensity, E=46N/C, dipole moment P= 3.02x10-25C-m

𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒, 𝑊 = 𝑃𝐸(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 ) = 𝑃𝐸[𝑐𝑜𝑠(1800 + 640 ) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠640 ] =?

7. For the system of two positive charges separated by a distance d, find an expression for an
𝟏 𝟐𝒒
electric field along its axial line at a distance r and prove that E= for r>>d.
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝟐
→ Here,

1 𝑞
Here electric field intensity at point P due to the charge +q at A, 𝐸𝐴 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑑 (Along PX)
0 (𝑟+ )2
2

1 𝑞
And electric field intensity at point P due to the charge +q at B, 𝐸𝐵 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑑 (Along PX)
0 (𝑟− )2
2

𝑑2
𝑞 1 1 𝑞 2(𝑟 2+ )
4
∴ Net electric field intensity at P is 𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝐵 = [ 𝑑 + 𝑑 ]= [ 𝑑 2 ]
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟+ )2 (𝑟− )2 4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2− )2
2 2 4

1 2𝑞
For 𝑟 ≫ 𝑑 , 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝑟2

8. Calculate the electric field due to a uniformly charged rod of length 𝒍 at a point along its long
axis at a distance a from its nearest end.

165
 → Here,

The electric field intensity at P due to a small charge element 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜆𝑑𝑥 is

1 𝑑𝑞 1 𝜆𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 = 4𝜋𝜀
0 (𝑥+𝑎)2 0 (𝑥+𝑎)2
∴ Net electric field at P is
𝑙1 𝜆𝑑𝑥 𝜆 𝑙 𝑑𝑥 𝜆 1 𝑙 𝜆 1 1 𝜆𝑙
𝐸 = ∫ 𝑑𝐸 = ∫0 4𝜋𝜀 2 = ∫
4𝜋𝜀0 0 (𝑥+𝑎)2
= 4𝜋𝜀0
[− ]
𝑥+𝑎 0
= [
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑎
− 𝑙+𝑎] = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑎(𝑙+𝑎)
=
0 (𝑥+𝑎) 0
𝑞
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑎(𝑙+𝑎)

9. At what distance along the central axis of a uniform charged plastic disk of radius a is the
electric field strength equal to half the value of the field at the center of the disk.
→ Here, we have the electric field due to a charged disc of radius a at a distance x from its
center is
𝜎 𝑥
𝐸= [1 − ]
2𝜀𝑜 √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2
𝜎
𝐴𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝐸0 =
2𝜀𝑜
1
𝐵𝑦 𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝐸 = 𝐸0
2
𝜎 𝑥 1 𝜎
𝑜𝑟, [1 − ]=
2𝜀𝑜 √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 2 2𝜀𝑜
𝑥 1
𝑜𝑟, =
√𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 2
2
𝑥 1
𝑜𝑟, 2 =
𝑥 + 𝑎2 4
𝑜𝑟, 4𝑥2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑎2
𝑎
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥 =
√3
This is the required distance.
10. If a disk of radius 2.5cm had a surface charge density 5.5𝜇Cm-2 on its upper surface, what is the
electric field (i) at a point on the central axis at a distance 12cm from the disk and (ii) at the
surface of the disk.
→ Here, radius of charged disk, a=2.5cm=0.025m, surface charge density, 𝜎 = 5.5𝜇𝐶𝑚 −2 =
5.5 × 10−6 𝐶𝑚 −2
a) We have the electric field due to a charged disc of radius a at a distance x from its center is
𝜎 𝑥
𝐸= [1 − ] =?
2𝜀𝑜 √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2

166
 b) at the surface, x=a so
𝜎 𝜎
𝐸= = =?
2𝜀𝑜 2𝜀𝑜
11. Four charges 12nC,-24nC, 31nC and 17nC are placed at the corners of a square of side 1.3m.
Calculate the potential at the center of the square.
→ Here, 𝑞1 = 12𝑛𝐶 = 12 × 10−9 𝐶, 𝑞2 = −24𝑛𝐶 = −24 × 10−9 𝐶, 𝑞3 = 31𝑛𝐶 = 31 ×
10−9 𝐶, 𝑞4 = 17𝑛𝐶 = 17 × 10−9 𝐶

Diagonal of square, 𝑑 = √1.32 + 1.32 =?

𝑑
∴ 𝑟 = 𝑂𝐴 = 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑂𝐶 = 𝑂𝐷 = =?
2
Now potential at the center is
1 9×109
𝑉 = 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉𝐵 + 𝑉𝐶 + 𝑉𝐷 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 [𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3 + 𝑞4 ] = [12 − 24 + 31 + 17] × 10−9 =
𝑜 𝑟
⋯ … … . 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
12. If the electric field intensity of a charged disk of radius a at point P at a distance x along its axis
𝜎 𝑥
from the center is E= [1 − ]. Find the electric potential at point P.
2𝜖0 √𝑥 2+𝑎 2
→ Here, electric field due to a charged disc at a distance x is
𝜎 𝑥
𝐸= [1 − ]
2𝜖0 √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑃 𝑖𝑠
𝜎 𝑥 𝜎 𝜎
𝑉 = − ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ [1 − ] 𝑑𝑥 = − [𝑥 − √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 ] = [√𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 − 𝑥]
2𝜖0 √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 2𝜖0 2𝜖0

13. Two large parallel plates are separated by a distance of 5cm. The plates have equal but
opposite charges that create an electric field in the region between the plates. An alpha
particle (q=3.2x10-19,m=6.68x10-27kg) is released from the positively charged plate, and it
strikes the negatively charged plate 2x10-6s later. Assuming that the electric field between the
plates is uniform and perpendicular to the plates, what is the strength of electric field?
→ Here, distance between two plates, d=5cm=0.05m, Charge, q=3.2x10-19C, mass, m=6.68x10-
27
kg, Time, t=2x10-6s
1 1
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑆 = 𝑑 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 = 𝑎𝑡 2 (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑢 = 0)
2 2
2𝑑
∴𝑎= 2
𝑡

167
 𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑞𝐸
𝑚𝑎 𝑚 2𝑑
∴𝐸= = =?
𝑞 𝑞 𝑡2
14. Calculate the electric potential at a point due to a uniform line of charge of length L at a
distance D from its one end which lies in perpendicular line.
→ Here,

The electric potential due to a small charge element 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜆𝑑𝑥 is

1 𝑑𝑞 1 𝜆𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑉 = =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 √𝑥2 + 𝐷2
𝐿
𝜆 𝑑𝑥
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑡 𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑉 = ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = ∫
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 0 √𝑥2 + 𝐷2
𝐿
𝜆
= [ln(𝑥 + √𝑥2 + 𝐷2 )]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 0

𝜆 𝑞 𝐿 + √𝐿2 + 𝐷2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉 = [ln (𝐿 + √𝐿2 + 𝐷2 ) − 𝑙𝑛𝐷] = ln ( )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝐿 𝐷
15. A spherical drop of water carrying a charge of 30pC has a potential of 500V at its surface. (a)
What is the radius of the drop? (b) if two such drops of the same charge and radius combine to
form a single spherical drop, what is the potential at the surface of the new drop?
→ Here, charge q=30pC=30x10-12C, Potential, v= 500V
1 𝑞
a) We have, 𝑣 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟
𝑜

1 𝑞 9 30 × 10−12
∴𝑟= = 9 × 10 × = ⋯……..𝑚
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑣 500
b) Let R and V be the radius and potential of bigger drop.
Charge on the bigger drop is Q=2q
Here, initial volume = final volume
4 4
𝑜𝑟, 2 × 𝜋𝑟 3 = 𝜋𝑅3
3 3
1⁄3
𝑜𝑟, 𝑅 = 2 𝑟
Now potential of bigger drop is

168
 1 𝑄 1 2𝑞 1 𝑞
𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜀 = 4𝜋𝜀 1⁄3 = 22⁄3 (4𝜋𝜀 ) = 22⁄3 × 𝑣 = 22⁄3 × 500 =?
𝑜 𝑅 𝑜 2 𝑟 𝑜 𝑟
16. What is the magnitude of electric field at point (3i-2j+4k) m if the electric potential is given by
V=2xyz2, where V is in volts and x, y, and z are in meters.
→ Here, potential, 𝑉 = 2𝑥𝑦𝑧 2
𝜕𝑉
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑, 𝐸𝑥 = − 𝜕𝑥 = −2𝑦𝑧 2
𝜕𝑉
𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑, 𝐸𝑦 = − 𝜕𝑦 = −2𝑥𝑧 2
𝜕𝑉
And 𝑧 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑, 𝐸𝑧 = − = −4𝑥𝑦𝑧
𝜕𝑧

Hence the magnitude of electric field is 𝐸 = √𝐸𝑥2 + 𝐸𝑦2 + 𝐸𝑧2 = √4𝑦 2 𝑧 4 + 4𝑥 2 𝑧 4 + 16𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 2
Now at point (3i-2j+4k)
𝐸 = √4𝑦 2 𝑧 4 + 4𝑥 2 𝑧 4 + 16𝑥 2 𝑦 2 𝑧 2 = ⋯ … … … . 𝑉/𝑚

17. The potential in a region between x=0m and x=6m is V=a+bx2 where a=10 and b = -7v/m.
Determine (i) the potentials at x= 0m, 3m and 6m and (ii) the magnitude of electric fields at
x:=0m, 3m and 6m.
→ Here, potential 𝑉 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑎 = 10 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = −7𝑉/𝑚
i) At x=0m, 𝑉 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 2 = 10 + (−7) × 02 = 10 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
At x=3m, 𝑉 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 2 = 10 + (−7) × 32 = −53 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
At x=6m, 𝑉 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 2 = 10 + (−7) × 62 =?
𝑑𝑉
ii) For second part, 𝐸 = − 𝑑𝑥 = −2𝑏𝑥
∴ At x=0m, 𝐸 = −2𝑏𝑥 = 0
At x=3m, 𝐸 = −2𝑏𝑥 = −2 × −7 × 3 = 42𝑉/𝑚
At x=6m, 𝐸 = −2𝑏𝑥 =?

18. What is the magnitude of the electric field at point (3,2) m if the electric potential is given by
V= 2x-5xy+3y2 volts. What acceleration does an electron experiences in the x-direction.
→ Here, potential V= 2x-5xy+3y2
𝜕𝑉
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑, 𝐸𝑥 = − 𝜕𝑥 = −(2 − 5𝑦)
𝜕𝑉
And 𝑦 − 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑, 𝐸𝑦 = − 𝜕𝑦 = −(−5𝑥 + 6𝑦)

Hence the magnitude of electric field is 𝐸 = √𝐸𝑥2 + 𝐸𝑦2 = √(2 − 5𝑦)2 + (−5𝑥 + 6𝑦)2
Now at point (3,2)
𝐸 = √(2 − 5𝑦)2 + (−5𝑥 + 6𝑦)2 = ⋯ … … … . 𝑉/𝑚
Again we have 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑒𝐸𝑥
𝑒𝐸𝑥
∴𝑎= 𝑚
Where, 𝐸𝑥 = −(2 − 5𝑦) = 8𝑉/𝑚
1.6 × 10−19 × 8
𝑜𝑟, 𝑎 = =?
9.1 × 10−31

169
19. Over certain region of space, the electric potential is V=5x-3x2y+2yz2. Find the expressions for
the x, y and z components of the electric field over this region. What is the magnitude of the
field at the point P that has coordinates (1,0,-2)m?
→ Here, Same as 21,22,23.

20. A particle of charge –q and mass m is placed midway between two equal positive charges q0 of
separation d. If the negative charge –q is displaced in perpendicular direction to the line joining
𝝅𝟑𝒅𝟑 𝒎𝝐𝟎
them and released, show that the particle describes a SHM with a period T=√ 𝒒𝒒𝟎
.
→ Here,

𝑑2
Here, 𝑟 = √𝑦 2 + 4
1 𝑞𝑞0
We have, 𝐹𝐴 = 𝐹𝐵 = − 4𝜋𝜀 𝑑2
= 𝐹(𝑠𝑎𝑦)
𝑜 (𝑦 2 + 4 )

Net force is 𝐹 ′ = 2𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

1 𝑞𝑞0 𝑦
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚𝑎 = −2 2
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑦 2 + 𝑑 ) 2 𝑑2
4 √𝑦 + 4
2𝑞𝑞0 𝑦
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚𝑎 = −
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 (𝑦 2 + 𝑑2 )3⁄2
4
2
𝑑 3 𝑑3
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑦 ≪ 𝑑, (𝑦 2 + ) ⁄2 ≈
4 8
4𝑞𝑞0
∴ 𝑚𝑎 = − 𝑦
𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑑3
4𝑞𝑞0
𝑜𝑟, 𝑎 = − 𝑦
𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑚𝑑3
4𝑞𝑞0
𝑜𝑟, 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑦 Where, 𝜔 = √𝜋𝜀 3
𝑜 𝑚𝑑

𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦

170
 4𝑞𝑞0
𝜔=√
𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑚𝑑3

𝜔 1 4𝑞𝑞0 𝑞𝑞
∴ 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑓 = = √ 3
=√ 3 0 3
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑚𝑑 𝜋 𝜀 𝑜 𝑚𝑑

1 𝜋3 𝑑3 𝑚𝜀𝑜
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇 = =√
𝑓 𝑞𝑞0
21. For the system of charges as shown in fig, prove that the potential at point p for r>>d is
𝒒 𝟐𝒅
V=𝟒𝝅𝝐 [𝟏 + 𝒓
]
𝟎

→ Here,

1 𝑞
Potential at P due to charge -q at A, 𝑉𝐴 = − 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟+𝑑
𝑜
1 𝑞
Potential at P due to charge +q at B, 𝑉𝐵 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟
𝑜
1 𝑞
Potential at P due to charge +q at C, 𝑉𝐶 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟−𝑑
𝑞 1 1 1
∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑡 𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑉 = 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉𝐵 + 𝑉𝐶 = [− + + ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟+𝑑 𝑟 𝑟−𝑑
1
𝑞 2𝑑
= [ + ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 (𝑟 − 𝑑)(𝑟 + 𝑑)
𝑞 1 2𝑑
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉 = [ + ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2 − 𝑑2 𝑟
𝑞 1 2𝑑 𝑞 2𝑑
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑟 ≫ 𝑑, 𝑉 = [ + 2] = [1 + ]
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 𝑟

22. A plastic rod contains uniformly distributed charge –q. the rod has been bent in 1200 circular
arc of radius R as in fig. Prove that the magnitude of electric field E produced at the center of
𝟎.𝟖𝟑𝒒
the bent rod is E=𝟒𝝅𝝐 𝟐 .
𝟎𝑹

171
 → Here, Consider the bent rod has linear charge
density 𝝀.

Electric field at the center due to a small charge 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑅𝑑𝜃 is

1 𝑑𝑞 1 λ𝑑𝑥 1 λ𝑅𝑑𝜃 1 λ𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝐸 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅 2 = 2 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅 2 =4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅

Here, 𝑑𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 components of electric field cancel out and the effective components are
𝑑𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃.
𝜃 1 λ𝑑𝜃 λ 𝜃
∴ 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠, 𝐸 = ∫ 𝑑𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ∫−𝜃 4𝜋𝜀 𝑅
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 4𝜋𝜀 ∫−𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝑜 𝑜𝑅

λ λ λ 2λsin𝜃 2λsin600
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃]𝜃−𝜃 = [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − sin(−𝜃)] = [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + sin𝜃] = =
𝑜 𝑅 4𝜋𝜀 𝑜𝑅 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅

Here, for 3600 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 2𝜋𝑅

120 2𝜋𝑅
∴ For 1200 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 360 2𝜋𝑅 = 3

q 3q
Hence, λ = 2𝜋𝑅 =
2𝜋𝑅
3

2λsin600 2sin600 3q 0.83q

∴𝐸= = × 2𝜋𝑅 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅2

172
Capacitor
An electrical device which is used to store the electric charge is called is called capacitor.

The ability of a capacitor to store the electric charge is called its capacitance.

The amount of charge stored in a capacitor is directly proportional to the potential difference
between the two plates of capacitor.

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑞 ∝ 𝑉

𝑜𝑟, 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉
𝑞
Where, 𝐶 = 𝑉 is capacitance of a capacitor. Its unit is Farad(F) in SI system.

Note: 1𝜇𝐹 = 10−6 𝐹, 1𝑛𝐹 = 10−9 𝐹, 1𝑝𝐹 = 1𝜇𝜇𝐹 = 10−12 𝐹

Cylindrical capacitor

Figure shows a cylindrical capacitor of length 𝑙 with inner radius a and outer radius b. As a
Gaussian surface, we draw a cylinder of radius r and length 𝑙 as shown in figure.

From Gauss Law,

𝑞
𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑎 =
𝜀𝑜
𝑞
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 =
𝜀0

173
 𝑞
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 =
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑙

Now the potential difference between the cylinders is

𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
𝑞 𝑞 1 𝑞 𝑏
𝑉 = ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝑟 = ∫ 𝑑𝑟 = ∫ 𝑑𝑟 = ln( )
𝑎 𝑎 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑙 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑙 𝑎 𝑟 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑙 𝑎

Hence the capacitance of cylindrical capacitor is given by

𝑞 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑙
𝐶= =
𝑉 ln(𝑏 )
𝑎
Note: Steps to find the capacitance of a capacitor
𝑞
i) 𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Use Gauss Law ∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑎 = 𝜀 and find E.
𝑜
ii) Find V using 𝑉 = ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝑟
𝑞
iii) Find capacitance using 𝐶 = 𝑉

Energy stored in a capacitor and Energy Density

Small amount of work done to charge the capacitor by small amount dq is
𝑞
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑉𝑑𝑞 = 𝑑𝑞
𝐶
𝑞
Where, 𝑉 = is potential difference between the plates of capacitor.
𝐶

Now total work done to charge the capacitor from 0 to q is

𝑞
𝑞 1 𝑞 𝑞2
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑞 = ∫ 𝑞𝑑𝑞 =
0 𝐶 𝐶 0 2𝐶

This work done is stored as potential energy (UE) in the capacitor.

𝑞2
∴ 𝑈𝐸 = 𝑊 =
2𝐶
𝑞2 1 1
Hence, 𝑈𝐸 = = 𝐶𝑉 2 = 𝑞𝑉
2𝐶 2 2

This is the energy stored in the capacitor.

Now energy stored per unit volume between the plates of capacitor is called electrical energy
density and is given by

174
 1 2
𝑈𝐸 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑉 2 𝜖0 𝐴 𝑉 2 1 𝑉2
𝑢𝑏 = = 2 = = = 𝜖
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐴𝑑 2𝐴𝑑 𝑑 2𝐴𝑑 2 0 𝑑 2
1 𝑉
∴ 𝑢𝑏 = 2 𝜖0 𝐸 2 Where, 𝐸 = 𝑑 is the electric field intensity between the plates of capacitor.

This shows that the electrical energy density is proportional to square of electric field intensity.

Gauss Law in Dielectrics

Figure (a) and (b) show the parallel plate capacitor without and with dielectrics.

Applying Gauss law in figure (a)

𝑞
𝐸0 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑎 =
𝜀𝑜
𝑞
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸0 𝐴 =
𝜀𝑜
𝑞
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸0 = 𝜀 … … … … … … … … . . (𝑖)
0𝐴

Here, 𝐸0 is the electric field between the plates of capacitor without dielectrics.

Now consider a dielectric slab having dielectric constant K is inserted between the plates of
capacitor then the electric field reduced from 𝐸0 𝑡𝑜 𝐸 due to induced dipole with induced
charges 𝑞𝑖 .

175
Now applying Gauss Law in figure (b)
𝑞 − 𝑞𝑖
⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑎 … … … … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
𝜀𝑜
𝑞 − 𝑞𝑖
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸𝐴 =
𝜀𝑜
𝑞 − 𝑞𝑖
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 = … … … … … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝜀𝑜 𝐴
𝐸0
We have, 𝐾 = 𝐸

𝐸0 𝑞
∴𝐸= = … … … … … . . (𝑖𝑣)
𝐾 𝜀0 𝐴𝐾

Hence from equation (iii) and (iv),

𝑞 𝑞 − 𝑞𝑖
=
𝜀0 𝐴𝐾 𝜀𝑜 𝐴
𝑞
𝑜𝑟, 𝑞 − 𝑞𝑖 =
𝐾
1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑞𝑖 = (1 − ) 𝑞
𝐾
Hence the Gauss Law with dielectrics is
𝑞
∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑎 =
𝐾𝜀𝑜

Again, from equations (iii) and (iv),

𝑞 𝑞 − 𝑞𝑖
=
𝜀0 𝐴𝐾 𝜀𝑜 𝐴

𝑞 𝑞 𝑞𝑖
𝑜𝑟, = −
𝜀0 𝐴𝐾 𝜀𝑜 𝐴 𝜀𝑜 𝐴
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞𝑖
𝑜𝑟, = 𝜀𝑜 +
𝐴 𝜀0 𝐴𝐾 𝐴

𝑜𝑟, 𝐷 = 𝜀𝑜 𝐸 + 𝑃
𝑞 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
Where, 𝐷 = 𝐴 = is the magnitude of displacement vector.
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

176
 𝑞𝑖 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
And 𝑃 = = is the magnitude of polarization vector.
𝐴 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

In vector form, we can write

⃗ = 𝜀0 𝐸⃗ + 𝑃⃗
𝐷

RC-Circuit (Charging and Discharging of Capacitor)

a) When switch S is connected to a then charging of capacitor takes place.

Using KVL,
𝑞
𝐸 = 𝐼𝑅 +
𝐶
𝑜𝑟, 𝐶𝐸 − 𝑞 = 𝐼𝑅𝐶

𝑑𝑞
𝑜𝑟, 𝐶𝐸 − 𝑞 = 𝑅𝐶
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑞 1
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑑𝑡
𝐶𝐸 − 𝑞 𝑅𝐶

Integrating both sides,

𝑑𝑞 1
∫ = ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝐶𝐸 − 𝑞 𝑅𝐶
1
𝑜𝑟, − ln(𝐶𝐸 − 𝑞 ) = 𝑅𝐶 𝑡 + 𝑘1 … … … … (𝑖)

Where, 𝑘1 is integration constant.

When 𝑡 = 0, 𝑞 = 0

∴ 𝑘1 = −𝑙𝑛𝐶𝐸

Hence from equation (i),

177
 1
− ln(𝐶𝐸 − 𝑞 ) = 𝑡 − 𝑙𝑛𝐶𝐸
𝑅𝐶
𝐶𝐸 − 𝑞 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑙𝑛 { }=− 𝑡
𝐶𝐸 𝑅𝐶
𝑞 1
𝑜𝑟, 1 − = 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 𝑡
𝐶𝐸
1
𝑞
𝑜𝑟, 1 − = 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶𝑡 Where, 𝑞0 = 𝐶𝐸 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟.
𝑞0

1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑞 = 𝑞0 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 𝑡 )

This gives the expression for growth of charge.

When, 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶 = 𝜏𝐶 then 𝑞 = 𝑞0 (1 − 𝑒 −1 ) = 0.63𝑞0 = 63%𝑜𝑓 𝑞0

Hence the time at which charge through the capacitor growth to 63% of the maximum
charge is called capacitive time constant.
1 1
𝑑𝑞 1
Again charging current is 𝐼 = = 𝑞0 × × 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶𝑡 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶

𝑞
Where, 𝐼0 = 𝑅𝐶0 is maximum current.

b) When switch S is connected to b then discharging of capacitor takes place.

Using KVL,
𝑞
𝐼𝑅 + =0
𝐶
𝑑𝑞 𝑞
𝑜𝑟, 𝑅 =−
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑑𝑞 1
𝑜𝑟, =− 𝑑𝑡
𝑞 𝑅𝐶

Integrating both sides,

𝑑𝑞 1
∫ =− ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑞 𝑅𝐶

1
𝑜𝑟, ln 𝑞 = − 𝑡 + 𝑘2 … … … … (𝑖𝑖)
𝑅𝐶

Where, 𝑘2 is integration constant.

178
When 𝑡 = 0, 𝑞 = 𝑞0

∴ 𝑘2 = 𝑙𝑛𝑞0

Hence from equation (ii),

1
ln 𝑞 = − 𝑡 + 𝑙𝑛𝑞0
𝑅𝐶
𝑞 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑙𝑛 =− 𝑡
𝑞0 𝑅𝐶
𝑞 1
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 𝑡
𝑞0
1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑞 = 𝑞0 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 𝑡

This gives the expression for decay of charge.

When, 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶 = 𝜏𝐶 then 𝑞 = 𝑞0 𝑒 −1 = 0.37𝑞0 = 37%𝑜𝑓 𝑞0

Hence the time at which charge through the capacitor decays to 37% of the maximum
charge is called capacitive time constant.
1 1
𝑑𝑞 1
Again charging current is 𝐼 = = −𝑞0 × 𝑅𝐶 × 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶𝑡 = −𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶𝑡
𝑑𝑡

𝑞
Where, 𝐼0 = 𝑅𝐶0 is maximum current.

Here, we see that the magnitude of current is same in the case of both charging and discharging
of capacitor.

179
Fig: Variation of charge with time

Fig: Variation of current with time

Note: We have the magnitude of current is

1
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 𝑡

𝐼 1
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 𝑡
𝐼0

1 𝐼0
𝑜𝑟, 𝑡 = ln ( )
𝑅𝐶 𝐼
𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝐶 =
𝐼
𝑅 ln ( 𝐼0 )

Numericals
1. A sheet of paper 40mm wide and 1.5x10-2mm thick between metal plates of the same width is
used to make a 2𝜇𝐹 capacitor. If the dielectric constant of the paper is 2.5, what is the length of
paper required?
→ Here, width of paper = width of plate =w=40mm=0.04m,
Thickness of paper = distance between plates=d=1.5x10-2mm=1.5x10-5m, capacitance C’=2 𝜇𝐹 =
2 × 10−6 𝐹
Dielectric constant, K=2.5
Let 𝑙 be the length of paper required.
We have capacitance of a capacitor with dielectric is

180
 𝐾𝜀0𝐴 𝐾𝜀0 (𝑙×𝑤)
𝐶′ = 𝑑
= 𝑑
𝐶′𝑑 2 × 10−6 × 1.5 × 10−5
∴𝑙= = =?
𝐾𝜀0 𝑤 2.5 × 8.85 × 10−12 × 0.04

2. Into a parallel plate capacitor of separation d and plate area A, an uncharged copper plate of
thickness b is inserted, midway between plates. Find the change in capacitance.
𝜀0 𝐴
→ Here, initial capacitance before inserting the copper plate is 𝐶 = 𝑑
𝐴𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒,
0 0 𝜀 𝐴 2𝜀 𝐴
𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = (𝑑−𝑏) = (𝑑−𝑏)
⁄2

Since, 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are in series, so net capacitance is

2𝜀0 𝐴 2𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶1 𝐶2 (𝑑 − 𝑏) (𝑑 − 𝑏) 𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶′ = = =
𝐶1 + 𝐶2 2𝜀0 𝐴 2𝜀 0 𝐴 (𝑑 − 𝑏)
+
(𝑑 − 𝑏) (𝑑 − 𝑏)
𝜀0 𝐴 𝜀0 𝐴 𝜀0 𝐴𝑏
∴ 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐶′ − 𝐶 = − =
(𝑑 − 𝑏) 𝑑 𝑑(𝑑 − 𝑏)
3. A parallel plate capacitor is filled with is filled with two dielectric having dielectric constant k 1
and k2 in the way as in fig. prove that the capacitance is given by (a)
𝟐𝝐𝟎 𝑨 𝒌𝟏𝒌𝟐 𝝐𝟎 𝑨 𝒌𝟏+𝒌𝟐
( ) 𝐚𝐧𝐝 (𝐛) ( )
𝒅 𝒌𝟏+𝒌𝟐 𝒅 𝟐

→ Here, (a) In this case, distance is divided. So

𝐾1 𝜀0𝐴 2𝐾1 𝜀0𝐴 𝐾2𝜀0 𝐴 2𝐾2𝜀0𝐴
𝐶1 = = and 𝐶2 = =
𝑑/2 𝑑 𝑑/2 𝑑
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑠𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠
2𝐾1 𝜀0 𝐴 2𝐾2 𝜀0 𝐴
′
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑑 𝑑 2𝜖0 𝐴 𝑘1 𝑘2
𝐶 = = = ( )
𝐶1 + 𝐶2 2𝐾1 𝜀0 𝐴 + 2𝐾2 𝜀0 𝐴 𝑑 𝑘1 + 𝑘2
𝑑 𝑑

181
 (𝑏) In this case, area is divided. So
𝐾1 𝜀0𝐴 𝐾2𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶1 = 2𝑑
and 𝐶2 = 2𝑑
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑠𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠
𝐾1 𝜀0 𝐴 𝐾1 𝜀0 𝐴 𝜖0 𝐴 𝑘1 + 𝑘2
𝐶 ′ = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 = + = ( )
2𝑑 2𝑑 𝑑 2
4. An air filled parallel plate capacitor has an capacitance of 1.32pF. The separation of the plates
is doubled and wax is inserted between them. The new capacitance is 2.57pF. Find the
dielectric constant of the wax.
→ Here, Capacitance without dielectric C=1.32pF, Capacitance with dielectric C’=2.57pF
𝜀0 𝐴
We have, 𝐶 =
𝑑
𝐾𝜀0𝐴 𝐾𝐶
New capacitance with dielectric and distance doubled, 𝐶 ′ = 2𝑑
= 2
2𝐶′
∴𝐾= =?
𝐶
5. When a dielectric slab of thickness 0.5cm and dielectric constant 2.5 is inserted
between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor of area 100 cm 2 and separation 1.5cm.
Calculate the resultant capacitance.
𝜀0 𝐴
→We have, 𝐶 = 𝑡 =?
𝑑−𝑡+
𝑘
6. If a parallel plate capacitor is to be designed to operate in an environment of fluctuating
temperature, prove that the rate of change of capacitance C with temperature T is given by
𝒅𝑪 𝟏 𝒅𝑨 𝟏 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝑻
=C[𝑨 𝒅𝑻 − 𝒙 𝒅𝑻].
→ Here, we have the capacitance of parallel plate capacitor with plate area A and plate
separation x is
𝜖0 𝐴
𝐶=
𝑥
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑇,
𝑑𝐶 1 𝑑𝐴 𝐴 𝑑𝑥 𝜖0 𝐴 1 𝑑𝐴 1 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝐴 1 𝑑𝑥
= 𝜖0 [ − 2 ]= [ − ] = 𝐶[ − ]
𝑑𝑇 𝑥 𝑑𝑇 𝑥 𝑑𝑇 𝑥 𝐴 𝑑𝑇 𝑥 𝑑𝑇 𝐴 𝑑𝑇 𝑥 𝑑𝑇
7. A long cylindrical conductor has length 1m and is surrounded by a co-axial cylindrical
conducting shell with inner radius double that of long cylindrical conductor. Calculate the
capacitance of this capacitor assuming that there is a vacuum in space between cylinders.
→ Here, length 𝑙 = 1𝑚, outer radius b=2a
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑙
𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝐶 =
𝑏
ln(𝑎)
2 × 𝜋 × 8.85 × 10−12 × 1
= =?
𝑙𝑛2

8. The space between two concentric conducting spherical shells of radii 1.7cm and 1.2cm is
filled with a substance of dielectric constant K=23.5. A potential difference V=73V is applied
across the inner and outer shells. Determine (a) the capacitance of the device, (b) the free
charge q on the inner shell, and (c) the charge q’ induced along the surface of inner shell.

182
 → Here, outer radius, b=1.7cm=1.7x10-2m inner radius, a=1.2cm=1.2x10-2m dielectric constant,
K=23.5
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑉 = 73𝑉
𝑎𝑏 23.5 1.7×1.2
a) We have, capacitance 𝐶 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝐾 (𝑏−𝑎) = 9×109 (1.7−1.2) × 10−2 =?
b) Free charge 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉 =?
1
c) Induced charge, 𝑞′ = (1 − 𝐾) 𝑞 =?
9. A parallel plate capacitor has a capacitance of 100 pF, a plate area of 100 cm 2 and a mica
dielectric. At 50 volts potential difference calculate the magnitudes of (a) E in the mica (b) the
free charge on the plates and (c) the induced surface charge(d) Displacement vector (e)
polarization vector, if dielectric constant for mica, k = 5.4]
→ Here, Capacitance, C=100pF=100x10-12F, plate area A=100cm2=100x10-4m2, potential
difference, V=50V
𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐾 = 5.4
𝑞 𝐶𝑉
a) We have 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐸 = 𝜺 =𝜺 =?
𝟎 𝑨𝑲 𝟎 𝑨𝑲
b) Free charge 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉 =?
1
c) Induced charge, 𝑞′ = (1 − 𝐾) 𝑞 =?
𝑞
d) Displacement vector 𝐷 = 𝐴 =?
𝑞′
e) Polarization vector 𝑃 = =?
𝐴
10. A parallel plate capacitor of plate area 115 cm 2 and separation 1.24 cm is charged by a
p.d. 85.5V. The battery is disconnected then a dielectric slab of dielectric constant 2.61
and thickness 0.78mm is inserted between the plates. Calculate (a) the capacitance
before the slab is inserted (b) the induced electric field and (c) the capacitance when
the slab is inserted. Ans.:8.20pF, 4253V/m, 8.53pF
𝜀0 𝐴
→ (a) Capacitance before the slab is inserted, 𝐶 = =?
𝑑
𝑞 𝐶𝑉
(b)Electric field before the slab is inserted, 𝐸0 = 𝜀 =𝜀 =?
0𝐴 0𝐴
𝑞 𝐶𝑉
Electric Field after the slab is inserted, 𝐸 = 𝜀 =𝜀 =?
0 𝐴𝐾 0 𝐴𝐾

∴ Induced electric field 𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸0 − 𝐸 =?

𝜀0 𝐴
(c)Capacitance when the slab is inserted, 𝐶′ = 𝑡 =?
𝑑−𝑡+
𝑘

11. Two capacitors having capacitance 25 𝝁𝑭 and 5 𝝁𝑭 are connected in parallel and charged with
a 100V power supply. Calculate the total energy stored in the two capacitors.
→ Here, 𝐶1 = 25𝜇𝐹 = 25 × 10−6 𝐹, 𝐶2 = 5𝜇𝐹 = 5 × 10−6 𝐹, P.D., V=100V
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐶1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠
𝐶 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 = 30 × 10−6 𝐹
1
∴ 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑈 = 𝐶𝑉 2 =?
2
12. A cylindrical capacitor has radii a and b. Show that the half the stored potential energy lies
with a cylinder of radius r=√𝒂𝒃.

183
 → Here, we have the capacitance of cylindrical capacitor having outer radius b and inner radius
a is
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑙
𝐶= 𝑏
ln(𝑎)
∴ 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑎 𝑖𝑠
𝑞2 𝑞2 𝑏
𝑈= = ln( )
2𝐶 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑙 𝑎
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟 𝑖𝑠
𝑞2 𝑏
𝑈′ = ln( )
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑙 𝑟
1
𝐵𝑦 𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑈′ = 𝑈
2
𝑞2 𝑏 1 𝑞2 𝑏
ln ( ) = ln ( )
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑙 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑙 𝑎
𝑏 1 𝑏
𝑜𝑟, ln ( ) = ln ( )
𝑟 2 𝑎
𝑏 𝑏
𝑜𝑟, ln ( ) = 𝑙𝑛√
𝑟 𝑎

𝑏 𝑏
𝑜𝑟, =√
𝑟 𝑎
𝑜𝑟, 𝑟 = √𝑎𝑏

13. A fully charged capacitor stores energy W 0. How much energy remains when its charge has
decrease to ½ its original value.
1 𝑞02
→ Here, 𝑊0 = 2 𝐶
𝑞0
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑞 = 2
𝑞
0 2
1 𝑞2 1(2) 1 1 𝑞02 1
Then energy 𝑊 = 2 𝐶
=2 𝐶
= 42 𝐶
= 4 𝑊0
14. A capacitor of capacitance C is discharged through a resister of resistance R. After how many
time constants is the stored energy ¼ of its initial value?
𝑡 𝑡
−
→ Here, we have in case of discharging, 𝑞 = 𝑞0 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 = 𝑞0 𝑒 𝜏𝐶

1 𝑞02
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑈0 =
2𝐶
1 𝑞2 1 𝑞02 −2𝑡 −
2𝑡
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑈 = = 𝑒 𝜏𝐶 = 𝑈0 𝑒 𝜏𝐶
2𝐶 2𝐶
1 2𝑡
−
𝑜𝑟, 𝑈0 = 𝑈0 𝑒 𝜏𝐶
4
2𝑡
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑙𝑛4
𝜏𝐶

184
 𝑙𝑛4
𝑜𝑟, 𝑡 = 𝜏 = 0.693𝜏𝐶
2 𝐶
15. A capacitor C is discharged through a resistor R. After how many time constants does its (i)
charge falls to ½ of its initial value (ii) the store energy drop to ½ of its initial value.
𝑡 𝑡
−
→ Here, (i) we have in case of discharging, 𝑞 = 𝑞0 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 = 𝑞0 𝑒 𝜏𝐶

1 𝑡
−
𝑜𝑟, 𝑞0 = 𝑞0 𝑒 𝜏𝐶
2
𝑡
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑙𝑛2
𝜏𝐶
𝑜𝑟, 𝑡 =?
2𝑡 2𝑡
1 𝑞2 1 𝑞02 − −
(ii) Again, 𝑈 = 2 𝐶
=2 𝐶
𝑒 𝜏𝐶 = 𝑈0 𝑒 𝜏𝐶

1 2𝑡
−
𝑜𝑟, 𝑈0 = 𝑈0 𝑒 𝜏𝐶
2
2𝑡
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑙𝑛2
𝜏𝐶
𝑜𝑟, 𝑡 =?
16. How many time constants must elapse before a capacitor in an RC circuit is charged for 99% of
its maximum charge?
𝑡
→ Here, we have in case of charging, 𝑞 = 𝑞0 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 )
𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 0.99 𝑞0 = 𝑞0 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 )
𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 = 0.01
𝑡
𝑜𝑟, − = 0.01
𝜏𝐶
𝑜𝑟, 𝑡 =?

185
Chapter 6: Electromagnetism
Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction

It states that the induced emf in a circuit is equal to the negative of the time rate of change of magnetic
flux through the circuit.
𝑑ɸ𝐵
i.e. induced emf𝜀 = − 𝑑𝑡

Induction and Energy Transfer

Consider a rectangular conducting loop of width 𝑙 is moving with velocity 𝑣 under the action of some
external force in a uniform magnetic field B. Here, magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the plane of
loop.

The rate of doing work is power and is given by

𝑃 = 𝐹𝑣 … … … … … (𝑖)

The force acting on the conductor is

𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙

We have magnetic flux ɸ𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐵𝑙𝑥

From Faraday’s law,

𝑑ɸ𝐵 𝑑𝑥
Induced emf is 𝜀 = 𝑑𝑡
= 𝐵𝑙 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣

186
 𝜀 𝐵𝑙𝑣
∴ 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼 = =
𝑅 𝑅
𝐵𝑙𝑣 𝐵2 𝑙 2 𝑣
Hence, force on the conductor is 𝐹 = 𝐵 𝑅
𝑙= 𝑅

Now, from equation (i)

𝐵2 𝑙 2 𝑣 𝐵2 𝑙 2 𝑣 2
𝑃= 𝑣=
𝑅 𝑅

Again, the rate at which the thermal energy appeared in the loop when the conductor is pulled or
pushed is given by

𝐵2 𝑙 2 𝑣 2
𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 =
𝑅

∴ The work that we do in pulling the conductor through the magnetic field appears as thermal energy.

In short, mechanical energy → electrical energy → thermal energy

Self-induction

The phenomenon in which induced emf is produced due to the change of current passing through a coil
is called self-induction.

The change in flux is proportional to the change in current passing through a coil.

i.e.𝑑ɸ𝐵 𝛼 𝑑𝐼

𝑜𝑟, 𝑑ɸ𝐵 = 𝐿𝑑𝐼

Where, L is constant called coefficient of self- induction or self- inductance.

𝑑ɸ𝐵
∴𝐿=
𝑑𝐼
𝑑ɸ𝐵
According to Faraday’s law of e-m induction, 𝜀 = − 𝑑𝑡

𝑑ɸ𝐵 𝑑𝐼
𝑜𝑟, 𝜀 = −
𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼
𝑜𝑟, 𝜀 = −𝐿
𝑑𝑡

This is induced emf due to self- induction.

𝑑𝐼
If 𝑑𝑡 = 1A/s then 𝜀 = 𝐿(numerically)

187
Hence, when the rate of change of current is 1 A/s, then the induced emf is numerically equal to the
self-inductance of the coil.

Self-Inductance of solenoid

The magnetic field inside a solenoid of length 𝑙 carrying current 𝐼 is

𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 = 𝑙
where, 𝑁 is number turns in the solenoid.

The magnetic flux linkage with the single turn is

𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
ɸ𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐴
𝑙

Now self -inductance is given by

𝑁ɸ𝐵 𝜇0 𝑁 2 𝐴
𝐿= =
𝐼 𝑙

𝑜𝑟, 𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙whichdepends only on geometric factors but is independent of current.

Self-Inductance of toroid

Consider a toroid of rectangular cross-section having N number of turns carrying current 𝐼. Let 𝑅1
and𝑅2 be the internal and external radii of the toroid. Consider an elementary section 𝑑𝑟 at a distance 𝑟
from its center and h be the width of the strip.

We have the magnetic field inside the toroid is

𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 = 2𝜋𝑟
where, 𝑁 is number turns in the solenoid.

188
The magnetic flux through the cross-section of the toroid is
𝑅2
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼 𝜇 𝑁𝐼ℎ 𝑅2 𝑑𝑟 𝜇0 𝑁𝐼ℎ 𝑅2
⃗ . 𝑑𝐴 = ∫
ɸ𝐵 = ∫ 𝐵 (ℎ𝑑𝑟) = 0 ∫ = ln( )
𝑅1 2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋 𝑅1 𝑟 2𝜋 𝑅1

Now self -inductance is given by

𝑁ɸ𝐵 𝜇0 𝑁 2ℎ 𝑅
𝐿= 𝐼
= 2𝜋
ln(𝑅2 )whichdepends only on geometric factors but is independent of current.
1

Energy stored in Magnetic Field

Consider a circuit as shown in figure.

Using KVL,

𝑑𝐼
𝐸 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼2 𝑅 + 𝐿𝐼
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼
Here, the term 𝐿𝐼 𝑑𝑡 represents the rate of energy stored in the magnetic field.

𝑑𝑈𝐵 𝑑𝐼
∴ = 𝐿𝐼
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝑈𝐵 = 𝐿𝐼𝑑𝐼

𝐼
1
∴ 𝑈𝐵 = ∫ 𝑑𝑈𝐵 = ∫ 𝐿𝐼𝑑𝐼 = 𝐿𝐼2
0 2

Hence the energy stored in the magnetic field is

1
𝑈𝐵 = 𝐿𝐼2
2

Now magnetic energy density is given by

189
 𝑈 1 1 𝜇0 𝑛2𝐴𝑙𝐼 2
𝐵
𝑢𝑏 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 2 𝐿𝐼2 × 𝐴𝑙 = 2𝐴𝑙
(Since, 𝐿 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙 )

(𝜇0 𝑛𝐼)2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑢𝑏 =
2𝜇0

𝐵2
∴ 𝑢𝑏 =
2𝜇0

This shows that magnetic energy density is proportional to square of magnetic field.

LR-Circuit (Growth and Decay of Current)

a) When switch S is connected to a then growth of current takes place.

Using KVL,

𝑑𝐼
𝐸 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝐸 𝐿 𝑑𝐼
𝑜𝑟, −𝐼 =
𝑅 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼 𝑅
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑑𝑡
𝐸 𝐿
𝑅−𝐼

Integrating both sides,

𝑑𝐼 𝑅
∫ = ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝐸 𝐿
𝑅−𝐼
𝐸 𝑅
𝑜𝑟, − ln ( − 𝐼) = 𝑡 + 𝑘1 … … … … (𝑖)
𝑅 𝐿

190
Where, 𝑘1 is integration constant.

When 𝑡 = 0, 𝐼 = 0

𝐸
∴ 𝑘1 = −𝑙𝑛
𝑅

Hence from equation (i),

𝐸 𝑅 𝐸
− ln ( − 𝐼) = 𝑡 − 𝑙𝑛
𝑅 𝐿 𝑅
𝐸
−𝐼 𝑅
𝑜𝑟, 𝑙𝑛 { 𝑅 }=− 𝑡
𝐸 𝐿
𝑅
𝐼 𝑅
𝑜𝑟, 1 − = 𝑒−𝐿 𝑡
𝐸⁄
𝑅
𝑅
𝐼
𝑜𝑟, 1 − 𝐼 = 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 Where, 𝐼0 = 𝐸⁄𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡.
0

𝑅
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 )

This gives the expression for growth of current.

𝐿
When, 𝑡 = = 𝜏𝐿 then 𝐼 = 𝐼0 (1 − 𝑒 −1 ) = 0.63𝐼0 = 63%𝑜𝑓 𝐼0
𝑅

Hence the time at which current through the inductor growth to 63% of the maximum current is called
inductive time constant.

b) When switch S is connected to b then decay of current takes place.

Using KVL,

𝑑𝐼
𝐼𝑅 + 𝐿 =0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼𝑅 = −𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼 𝑅
𝑜𝑟, = − 𝑑𝑡
𝐼 𝐿

Integrating both sides,

𝑑𝐼 𝑅
∫ = − ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝐼 𝐿

191
 𝑅
𝑜𝑟, ln 𝐼 = − 𝑡 + 𝑘2 … … … … (𝑖𝑖)
𝐿

Where, 𝑘2 is integration constant.

When 𝑡 = 0, 𝐼 = 𝐼0

∴ 𝑘2 = 𝑙𝑛𝐼0

Hence from equation (ii),

𝑅
ln 𝐼 = 𝑡 + 𝑙𝑛𝐼0
𝐿
𝐼 𝑅
𝑜𝑟, 𝑙𝑛 =− 𝑡
𝐼0 𝐿

𝐼 𝑅
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑒−𝐿 𝑡
𝐼0
𝑅
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡

This gives the expression for decay of current.

𝐿
When, 𝑡 = 𝑅 = 𝜏𝐿 then 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −1 = 0.37𝐼0 = 37%𝑜𝑓 𝐼0

Hence the time at which current through the inductor decays to 37% of the maximum current is called
inductive time constant.

Displacement Current

192
Current through the plates of capacitor due to time varying electric field is called displacement current.
𝑞
We have 𝐸 =
𝜖0 𝐴

𝑜𝑟, 𝑞 = 𝜖0 𝐴𝐸

𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝐸
∴ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑑 = = 𝜖0 𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑉 𝜖0 𝐴 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
𝑜𝑟, 𝑖𝑑 = 𝜖0 𝐴 ( )= =𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝐸
Now the displacement current density is 𝑗𝑑 = 𝐴
= 𝜖0 𝑑𝑡

1
Also the induced magnetic field is𝐵 = 2 𝜇0 𝑟𝑗𝑑

Cyclotron
It is a device which is used to accelerate the positively charged particles (proton,
deuteron,𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑡𝑐) to acquire enough energy to carry out nuclear
disintegration.

A cyclotron consists of two hollow semicircular metallic surfaces called dee’s. These two
dee’s are connected to a powerful ac frequency oscillator. A source of positively charged
particle is placed at the midpoint of two dee’s. The whole apparatus is then placed
between two poles of a strong electromagnet. The magnetic field due to this magnet is
perpendicular to the plane of dee’s.
The necessary centripetal force for the charged particle to move in the circular path is
provided by the magnetic force.
𝑚𝑣 2
i.e.𝐵𝑞𝑣 =
𝑟

193
 𝑚𝑣
𝑜𝑟, 𝑟 =
𝐵𝑞
Now, time taken by the charged particle to complete the semi-circle inside a dee is
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜋𝑟 𝜋 𝑚𝑣 𝜋𝑚
𝑡= = = × =
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑣 𝑣 𝐵𝑞 𝐵𝑞
which is independent of velocity of charged particle and radius of circular path.
Again, the time period of cyclotron is
2𝜋𝑚
𝑇 = 2𝑡 =
𝐵𝑞
1 𝐵𝑞
∴frequency,𝑓 = 𝑇 = 2𝜋𝑚
𝐵𝑞
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 =
𝑚
Now the energy gained by the charged particle is
1 1 𝐵𝑞𝑟 2 1 2 2 2
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑚 { } = 𝐵 𝑞 𝑟
2 2 𝑚 2𝑚
𝐵𝑞
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑓 =
2𝜋𝑚
∴ 𝐵𝑞 = 2𝜋𝑚𝑓
1
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐸 = × 4𝜋 2 𝑚 2 𝑓 2 × 𝑟 2
2𝑚
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 = 2𝜋 2 𝑓 2 𝑟 2 𝑚
Hence, the maximum energy of cyclotron is
1 2 2 2
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐵 𝑞 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝜋 2 𝑓 2 𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
𝑚
2𝑚
∴energy is maximum on the periphery of dee’s.
𝑳𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔
1. It cannot accelerate the uncharged particles like neutron.
2. When 𝑣 ≈ 𝑐, it does not work properly.

In Synchrotron, the frequency of ac field is reduced in the same rate as the frequency of charge particle
decreases due to increased mass of the charge particle.

Numerical

1. A solenoid 1.3m long 2.6cm in diameter carries a current of 18 A. The magnetic field inside the
solenoid is 23mT. Find the length of the wire forming the solenoid and self inductance of the
solenoid.
→ Here, length of solenoid 𝑙 = 1.3𝑚, 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑟 = 1.3𝑐𝑚 = 0.013𝑚,
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼 = 18𝐴, 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝐵 = 23𝑚𝑇 = 0.023𝑇
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
We have 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 =
𝑙
∴ 𝑁 =?

194
 Now, length of wire forming the solenoid= 𝑁 × 2𝜋𝑟 =?

Again, self- inductance

𝜇0 𝑁 2 𝐴 𝜇0 𝑁 2
𝐿= = × 𝜋𝑟 2 =?
𝑙 𝑙

2. A toroid has number of turns 1250, internal radius 52 mm, external radius 95 mm andthickness of
the ring 13 mm, calculate the inductance.
→ Here,𝑁 = 1250, 𝑅1 = 52𝑚𝑚 = 0.052𝑚, 𝑅2 = 95𝑚𝑚 = 0.095𝑚, ℎ = 13𝑚𝑚 = 0.013𝑚
𝜇0 𝑁 2 ℎ 𝑅2
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐿 = ln ( ) =?
2𝜋 𝑅1
3. A circular loop of wire of radius 5cm carries a current of 100A. What is the energy density at the
center of the loop?
→ Here, radius 𝑅 = 5𝑚 = 0.05𝑚, 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼 = 100𝐴
𝐵2 1 𝜇0 𝐼 2
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑢𝑏 = = ( ) =?
2𝜇0 2𝜇0 2𝑅
4. Calculate the energy required to set up in a cube of 10cm edge (a) a uniform electric field of 105V/m
(b) a uniform magnetic field of 1T.

→ Here, Side of cube 𝑙 = 10𝑐𝑚 = 0.1𝑚, E=105V/m, B=1T

1
a) 𝑈𝐸 = 𝑢𝑒 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜖0 𝐸 2 × 𝑙 3 =?
2
𝐵2
b) 𝑈𝐵 = 𝑢𝑏 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 2𝜇 × 𝑙 3 =?
0

5. A loop of wire of radius r is placed in a uniform magnetic field perpendicular to its plane. The
magnitude of the field varies with time according to 𝐵 = 𝐵0𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 where 𝐵0 and 𝜏 are constant. Find
the emf in the loop as a function of time.

→ Since the plane of the loop is perpendicular to the magnetic field B, We have the magnetic flux
𝑡
through the loop is 𝜑𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐴𝐵0 𝑒 −𝜏
𝑡
−
𝑑𝜑𝐵 𝐴𝐵0 𝑒 𝜏
From Faraday’s law we have, induced emf is 𝑒 = − 𝑑𝑡
= 𝜏

6. A helicopter has blades of length 3m extending out from a central hub and rotating at 2rev/s. If the
vertical component of earth’s magnetic field is 50𝜇𝑇, what will be the induced emf between the
blade tip and central hub.
→ The induced emf due to the rotation of the helicopter blades in the magnetic field B is
𝑑𝜀 = 𝐵𝑣𝑑𝑟 = 𝐵𝑟𝜔𝑑𝑟
𝑙 𝑙
𝐵𝜔𝑙 2 𝐵2𝜋𝑓𝑙 2
∴ 𝜀 = ∫ 𝑑𝜀 = ∫ 𝐵𝑟𝜔𝑑𝑟 = = =?
0 0 2 2

195
7. An inductance L is connected to a battery of emf E through a resistance R. Show that the potential
𝑹𝒕
difference across the inductance after time t is VL=E𝒆− 𝑳 . At what time is the p.d. across the
inductance equal to that across the resistance such that i=i 0/2.
𝑅
→ We have,𝐼 = 𝐼0 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 )

Now, potential difference across the inductor is

𝑑𝐼 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
𝑉𝐿 = 𝐿 = 𝐿 × 𝐼0 × 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 = 𝐼0 𝑅𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 = 𝐸𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐸 = 𝐼0 𝑅

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡, 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑅

𝑅
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑅 𝐼0
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼0 𝑅𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 = 𝑅
2
𝑅
𝑜𝑟, 𝑡 = 𝑙𝑛2
𝐿
𝐿
𝑜𝑟, 𝑡 = 𝑙𝑛2 × = 0.693𝜏𝐿
𝑅

8. A solenoid having an inductance of 6.3𝝁H is connected in series with a 1.2 kΩ resistor. (a) If a 14V
battery is connected across the pair, how long will it take for the current through the resistor to
reach 80% of its final value? (b) What is the current resistor at time t=𝝉L?

→ Here, L=6.3𝜇H=6.3× 10−6 𝐻, 𝑅 = 1.2kΩ = 1200Ω, 𝐸 = 14𝑉

𝑅
𝑎) 𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑐𝑒, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 )
𝑅
𝑜𝑟, 0.8𝐼0 = 𝐼0 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 )

𝑅
𝑜𝑟, 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 = 0.2

𝑜𝑟, 𝑡 =?

𝐸
𝑏) 𝐴𝑡 𝑡 = 𝜏𝐿 , 𝐼 = 𝐼0 (1 − 𝑒 −1 ) = 0.63𝐼0 = 0.63 × =?
𝑅

9. A series circuit has 25ohm resistance and 0.1henry inductance. What will be the initial rate of
increase of current if the circuit contains a 12V steady source? What time is required for the
current to attain a value of 100mA?
→ Here, R=25Ω, L=0.1H, E=12V, I=100mA=0.1A

196
 𝑅
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑐𝑒, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 )
𝑑𝐼 𝑅 𝑅 𝐸 𝑅
∴ = 𝐼0 × 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 = 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 =?
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿
𝑅
Again, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 )
𝐸 𝑅
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼 = (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 )
𝑅
∴ 𝑡 =?
10. A parallel plate capacitor with circular plates of radius R be charged, prove that the induced
magnetic field at radius r in the region between the plates is
𝟏 𝒅𝑬
B=𝟐 𝝁0𝝐0r 𝒅𝒕 for r≤ 𝑹 and
𝟏 𝒅𝑬
B=𝟐𝒓 𝝁0𝝐0R2 𝒅𝒕 for r≥ 𝑹
→ 𝐹𝑜𝑟 r ≤ 𝑅, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒

𝑑ɸ𝐸
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜀0
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
∮𝐵
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝐴
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 × 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑟
2 𝑑𝑡
𝐹𝑜𝑟 r ≥ 𝑅, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒

197
 𝑑ɸ𝐸
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜀0
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
∮𝐵
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝐴
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 × 𝜋𝑅2
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑅2
2𝑟 𝑑𝑡

11. Calculate the displacement current between the circular plates of area 1.5x10 -2 and rate of electric
field change is 1.5x1012 V/ms. Also calculate the displacement current density and induced
magnetic field for r=R=69mm.
𝑑𝐸
→ Here, A=1.5× 10−2 𝑚 2 ,=1.5x1012 V/m-s
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑑 = 𝜀0 𝐴 =?
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑦 𝑗𝑑 = 𝜀0 =?
𝑑𝑡
1
𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑟𝑗𝑑 =?
2

12. The induced magnetic field at radial distance 6mm from the central axis of a circular parallel plate
capacitor is 2x10-7T. The plates have radius 3mm. At what rate is the electric field between the
plates changing?
→ Here, 𝑟 = 6𝑚𝑚 = 0.006𝑚, 𝐵 = 2 × 10−7 𝑇, 𝑅 = 3𝑚𝑚 = 0.003𝑚
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 r > 𝑅

198
 𝑑ɸ𝐸
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜀0
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
∮𝐵
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝐴
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 × 𝜋𝑅2
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑅2
2𝑟 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸 𝐵 × 2𝑟
∴ = =?
𝑑𝑡 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑅2

13. As a parallel plate capacitor with circular plates 20cm in diameter is being chatged, the current
density of the displacement current in the region between the plates is uniform and has a
magnitude of 20A/m2. (a) Calculate the magnitude B of the magnetic field at a distance r=50mm
for the axis of symmetry of this region. (b) Calculate dE/dt in this region.

→ Here, R=10cm=0.1m, 𝑗𝑑 =20A/m2, r=50mm=0.05m

For r<R,

199
 𝑑ɸ𝐸
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜀0
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
∮𝐵
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝐴
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 × 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝐸 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑟 = 𝜇 𝑟𝑗 =?
2 𝑑𝑡 2 0 𝑑
𝑑𝐸
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑗𝑑 = 𝜀0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸 𝑗𝑑
∴ = =?
𝑑𝑡 𝜀0

14. A parallel plate capacitor with circular plates of 10cm radius is charged by varying electric field of
1.5x1012V/ms. Evaluate induced magnetic field if the radius of the plate is 55mm and
displacement current in this situation.
𝑑𝐸
→ Here, R=10cm=0.1m, =1.5x1012V/m-s, r=55mm=5.5cm=0.055m
𝑑𝑡

For r<R,
𝑑ɸ𝐸
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜀0
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
∮𝐵
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝐴
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 × 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑟 =?
2 𝑑𝑡

200
 𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐸
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑖𝑑 = 𝜀0 𝐴 = 𝜀0 × 𝜋 × 𝑟 2 × =?
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

15. A circular parallel plate capacitor of area 154cm2 is being charged has a uniform current density of
a displacement current, having magnitude 20 Am-2. Calculate (a) the magnitude of magnetic field
at a distance r=50mm about the central axis between the plates. (b) dE/dt in this region.

→ Here, 𝜋𝑅2 = 154𝑐𝑚 2

∴ 𝑅 = 7𝑐𝑚 = 0.07𝑚,𝑗 𝑑 =20 Am-2, r=50mm=5cm=0.05m

a) For r<R,

𝑑ɸ𝐸
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 𝜀0
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
∮𝐵
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝐴
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 × 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝑟 =?
2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸
𝑏) 𝑗𝑑 = 𝜀0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸 𝑗𝑑
∴ = =?
𝑑𝑡 𝜀0

201
16. A parallel plate capacitor with circular plates is charged by current i. (a) what is the magnitude of
∮ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒔 in terms of µ0 and i between the plates if r=a/5 from the center? (b) What is the
magnitude of induced magnetic field for r=a/5 in terms of displacement current.

→ (a) Wehave, ∮ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒔 = 𝝁𝟎 𝒊′

𝑖 𝑖′
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐽 = =
𝜋𝑎2 𝜋𝑟 2

𝑟2 1
∴ 𝑖′ = 2
×𝑖 = 𝑖
𝑎 25
1 𝝁𝟎 𝒊
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, ∮ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒔 = 𝝁𝟎 × 𝑖=
25 25

(b) Again we have, ∮ 𝑩. 𝒅𝒔 = 𝝁𝟎 𝒊′

𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝝁𝟎 𝒊′

𝝁𝟎 𝒊′ 𝝁𝟎 1 𝝁𝟎 5 1 𝝁𝟎 𝒊
𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 = = × 𝑖= × 𝑖=
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟 25 2𝜋 𝑎 25 10𝜋𝑎

17. If a test charge revolves round a circular path of radius 8.5cm where the magnetic field increases
at steady rate 0.13T/s, calculate the magnitude of induced electric field at a point 12.5cm and
4cm.
𝑑𝐵
→ Here, R=8.5cm=8.5x10-2m, = 0.13𝑇
𝑑𝑡

For r=12.5cm=12.5x10-2m, we have from Faraday’s law

𝑑𝜑𝐵
∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 =
𝑑𝑡

𝑑(𝐵𝐴)
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐵
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜋𝑅2 ×
𝑑𝑡

1 𝑅2 𝑑𝐵
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 = =?
2 𝑟 𝑑𝑡

Again for r=4cm=4x10-2m,

𝑑𝜑𝐵
∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 =
𝑑𝑡

202
 𝑑(𝐵𝐴)
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐵
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ×
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝐵
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 = 𝑟 =?
2 𝑑𝑡

18. A long solenoid of radius 2cm has 1000 turns per meter and carries a sinusoidally varying current
𝑰 = 𝟓𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟎𝟎𝝅𝒕, where 𝑰 is in ampere and t is in second. Determine the magnitude of induced
electric field at a radius r=1cm and r=3cm from its central axis.

→ Here, R=2cm=2x10-2m, n=1000 turns/m, 𝐼 = 5𝑠𝑖𝑛100𝜋𝑡

𝑑𝐵 𝑑(𝜇0 𝑛𝐼) 𝑑(5𝑠𝑖𝑛100𝜋𝑡)
We have, = = 𝜇0 𝑛 = 𝜇0 𝑛 × 5 × 100𝜋𝑐𝑜𝑠100𝜋𝑡 = ⋯ … … 𝑐𝑜𝑠100𝜋𝑡 T/s
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

For r=1cm=1x10-2m,

𝑑𝜑𝐵
∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 =
𝑑𝑡

𝑑(𝐵𝐴)
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐵
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ×
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑𝐵
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 = 𝑟 = ⋯ … … … . . 𝑐𝑜𝑠100𝜋𝑡 V/m
2 𝑑𝑡

For r=3cm=3x10-2m, we have from Faraday’s law

𝑑𝜑𝐵
∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 =
𝑑𝑡

𝑑(𝐵𝐴)
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐵
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜋𝑅2 ×
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑅 2 𝑑𝐵
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 = 2 𝑟 𝑑𝑡
= ⋯ … … . 𝑐𝑜𝑠100𝜋𝑡 V/m

203
19. An air cored solenoid with length 25cm, area of cross-section 30cm2 and number of turns 490
carries a current of 20A. The current is suddenly switched off in a brief time of 10 -3 sec. How much
is the average back emf induced across the ends of the open switch in the circuit?

→ Here, we have induced emf

𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐼 490 20
𝜀 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙 𝑑𝑡 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 × (0.25)2 × 30 × 10−4 × 0.25 10−3 = ⋯ … . 𝑉

20. An LR circuit having inductance 4H, resistance 1 ohm and applied D.C. emf of 6V is
switched at t=0. Find the power dissipated in the circuit at t=4sec.
→ We have current at t=4s is
𝑅 𝐸 𝑅
𝐼 = 𝐼0 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 ) = (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 ) =?
𝑅
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 =?

21. In a certain cyclotron, a proton moves in a circle of radius 0.5m. The magnitude of magnetic field
is 1.2 T. (a) What is the oscillator frequency? (b) What is the K.E. of the proton, in eV?

→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑟 = 0.5𝑚, 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝐵 = 1.2𝑇, 𝑞 = 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶,

Mass of proton, 𝑚 = 1.67 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔

𝐵𝑞
𝑎) We have frequency 𝑓 = 2𝜋𝑚 =?

1
𝑏) 𝐾. 𝐸 = 2𝜋 2 𝑓 2 𝑟 2 𝑚 = ⋯ … . . 𝐽 = ⋯ … … .× 𝑒𝑉
1.6 × 10−19

22. A physicist designed a cyclotron to accelerate protons to 1/10th the speed of light. The magnet used
will produce a field of 1.4T Calculate (a) the radius of the cyclotron (b) the corresponding oscillator
frequency.
𝑐
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑣 = = 3 × 107 m/s, B=1.4T , 𝑞 = 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶, 𝑚 = 1.67 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔
10

𝑚𝑣
𝑎) 𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑟 = =?
𝐵𝑞

𝐵𝑞
𝑏) 𝑓 = =?
2𝜋𝑚

23. A cyclotron is operated at an oscillator frequency of 12MHz and has radius 53cm. (a) What is the
magnitude of magnetic field needed for deuterons to be accelerated in the cyclotron? (b) What is
the resulting K.E. of deuterons?

→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑓 = 12𝑀𝐻𝑧 = 12 × 106 𝐻𝑧, 𝑟 = 53𝑐𝑚 = 0.53𝑚, 𝑞 = 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶,

204
𝑚 = 2𝑚𝑝 = 2 × 1.67 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔

𝐵𝑞
a) We have, 𝑓 = 2𝜋𝑚
∴ 𝐵 =?
b) K.E.= 2𝜋 2 𝑓 2 𝑟 2 𝑚 =?
24. Deuterons in a cyclotron describe a circle of radius 0.32m just before emerging from dees. The
frequency of the applied emf is 10MHz. Find the flux density of the magnetic field and the velocity
of deuterons emerging out of the cyclotron. Mass of deuteron=3.32x10 -27Kg, charge=1.6x10-19C.

→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑟 = 0.32𝑚, 𝑓 = 10𝑀𝐻𝑧 = 10 × 106 𝐻𝑧, 𝑚 = 3.32 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔, 𝑞 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
𝐵𝑞
We have, 𝑓 = 2𝜋𝑚
∴ 𝐵 =?
𝑚𝑣
Again, 𝑟 =
𝐵𝑞
𝐵𝑞𝑟
∴𝑣= =?
𝑚
25. An electron with kinetic energy 2.5KeVcircles ina a plane perpendicular to a uniform
magnetic field. The radius of the orbit is 25cm. Calculate(i) the speed of the electron(ii)
the flux density of magnetic field (iii) the number of revolutions per second.
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, E=2.5KeV=2.5x1000x1.6x10-19J, r=0.25m, q=e=1.6x10-19C, m=9.1x10-31kg
1
(𝑖 ) 𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
2𝐸
∴ 𝑣 = √ =?
𝑚
𝑚𝑣
(ii)Again, 𝑟 = 𝐵𝑞
𝑚𝑣
∴𝐵= =?
𝑟𝑞
𝐵𝑞
(iii)and , 𝑓 = 2𝜋𝑚 =?

26. A 10eV electron is circulating in a plane at right angles to a uniform field of magnetic
induction 1x10-4 Wb/m2. Calculate the orbital radius, cyclotron frequency, and period of
revolution.
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, E=10eV=10x1.6x10-19J, B=1x10-4 Wb/m2, q=e=1.6x10-19C, m=9.1x10-31kg
1
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
2𝐸
∴ 𝑣 = √ =?
𝑚

𝑚𝑣
Now, 𝑟 = =?
𝐵𝑞

205
 𝐵𝑞
𝑓 = 2𝜋𝑚 =?
1
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 = =?
𝑓

27. A cyclotron in which the flux density is 1.4wb/m2 is employed to accelerate process. How rapidly
should the electric field between the dees be reversed? Mass of proton =1.67x10-27Kg and
charge=1.6x10-19C.
𝜋𝑚
→ The required time is 𝑡 = =?
𝐵𝑞
28. What radius is needed in proton synchrotron to atom particle energy of10GeV, assuming that a
guide field of 1.8wb/m2 is available?
→ We have total energy of proton 𝐸 = 𝐾. 𝐸. + 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸 = 10𝐺𝑒𝑉 + 𝑚0 𝑐 2 = 10 × 109 × 1.6 × 10−19 + 1.67 ×× 10−27 × (3 × 108 )2 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
Again we have 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
𝐸
∴ 𝑚 = 2 =?
𝑐
𝑚𝑣 𝑚𝑐
Now, 𝑟 = = =?
𝐵𝑞 𝐵𝑒

206
Chapter 7 : Electromagnetic Waves
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
 Del Operator, ∇= 𝑖̂ 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑗̂ 𝜕𝑦 + 𝑘̂ 𝜕𝑧
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
 ∇2 = ∇. ∇= + +
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
 Divergence of a vector𝐴 = ∇. 𝐴
 Curl of a vector 𝐴 = ∇ × 𝐴
 Line integral of vector 𝐴 = ∮ 𝐴. 𝑑𝑙⃗⃗⃗
 Surface integral of vector 𝐴 = ∮ 𝐴. ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑎
 Volume integral of vector 𝐴 = ∮ 𝐴𝑑𝑉
 Gauss Divergence Theorem ∮ 𝐴. 𝑑𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∮(∇. 𝐴)𝑑𝑉
 Stoke’s Theorem ∮ 𝐴. 𝑑𝑙⃗⃗⃗ = ∮(∇ × 𝐴). 𝑑𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Electric Flux ɸ𝐸 = ∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑎
 Magnetic Flux ɸ𝐵 = ∫ 𝐵 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑎
 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Current 𝐼 = ∮ 𝐽 . 𝑑𝑎
 Charge 𝑞 = ∮ 𝜌𝑑𝑉
Maxwell’s Equations
1) Integral Form
𝑞
i) ⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑎 (Gauss Law in Electrostatics)
𝜖0
ii) ∮𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0(Gauss Law in magnetism)
⃗ . 𝑑𝑎
iii) ⃗⃗⃗ = − 𝑑ɸ𝐵 (Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic Induction)
∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑡
iv) ∮𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 (𝐼 + 𝜖0 𝑑ɸ𝐸 ) (Modified Ampere’s Law)
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝑡
2) Differential Form
𝜌
i) ∇. 𝐸⃗ = 𝜖
0
ii) ⃗ =0
∇. 𝐵
⃗
𝑑𝐵
iii) ∇ × 𝐸⃗ = − 𝑑𝑡
⃗
iv) ⃗ = 𝜇0 (⃗𝐽 + 𝜖0 𝑑𝐸 )
∇×𝐵 𝑑𝑡

Physical Significance

i) It signifies that the existence of electric monocharges in nature.

ii) It signifies that the non-existence of magnetic monopoles in nature.
iii) It signifies that electric field can be generated by the variation of magnetic flux.
iv) It signifies that magnetic field can be generated by the flow of current in a conductor
as well as by the variation of electric flux.

Conversion of Maxwell’s equations from integral form to differential form

i) First Maxwell’s equation in integral form is

𝑞
∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑎 =
𝜖0
If 𝑑𝑞be the small amount of charge in elemental volume 𝑑𝑉, then 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜌𝑑𝑉

207
 Where, 𝜌 is volume charge density.
Now, total charge 𝑞 in the entire volume 𝑉 is 𝑞 = ∮ 𝜌𝑑𝑉
1
∴ ∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑎 = ∮ 𝜌𝑑𝑉
𝜖0

Using Gauss Divergence Theorem on L.H.S. we get

1
∮(∇. 𝐸⃗ )𝑑𝑉=𝜖 ∮ 𝜌𝑑𝑉
0
𝜌
∴ ∇. 𝐸⃗ =
𝜖0
ii) Second Maxwell’s equation in integral form is
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑎 = 0
Using Gauss Divergence Theorem on L.H.S. we get

⃗ )𝑑𝑉 = 0
∮(∇. 𝐵
⃗ =0
∴ ∇. 𝐵
iii) Third Maxwell’s equation in integral form is

𝑑ɸ𝐵
⃗⃗⃗ = −
∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝑡
We have, Magnetic Flux ɸ𝐵 = ∮ 𝐵 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑎
𝑑
⃗⃗⃗ = − ∮ 𝐵
∴ ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ . 𝑑𝑎
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐵⃗
⃗⃗⃗ = − ∮
𝑜𝑟, ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
. 𝑑𝑎
𝑑𝑡
𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑘𝑒 ′ 𝑠𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 𝑜𝑛 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆. , 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
𝑑𝐵 ⃗
∮(∇ × 𝐸⃗ ). ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑑𝑎 = − ∮ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑎
𝑑𝑡
⃗
𝑑𝐵
∴ ∇ × 𝐸⃗ = −
𝑑𝑡
iv) Fourth Maxwell’s Equation in integral form is
𝑑ɸ𝐸
∮𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 (𝐼 + 𝜖0
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, Current 𝐼 = ∮ 𝐽 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑎
And Electric Flux ɸ𝐸 = ∮ 𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑎

𝑑
∴ ∮𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 (∮ 𝐽 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑎 + 𝜖0 ∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑎)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐸⃗
⃗⃗⃗ = ∮ [𝜇0 ( 𝐽 + 𝜖0
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
𝑜𝑟, ∮ 𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
)] . 𝑑𝑎
𝑑𝑡

208
 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑘𝑒 ′ 𝑠𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 𝑜𝑛 𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆. , 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
𝑑𝐸⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∮ [𝜇0 ( 𝐽 + 𝜖0
⃗ ). 𝑑𝑎
∮(∇ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
)] . 𝑑𝑎
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸⃗
∴ ∇×𝐵⃗ = 𝜇0 ( 𝐽 + 𝜖0 )
𝑑𝑡

Electromagnetic Wave Equations in non-conducting and an isotropic medium

We have Maxwell’s equation in any medium are

𝜌
∇. 𝐸⃗ = … … … … . . (𝑖)
𝜖
⃗ = 0 … … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖)
∇. 𝐵
𝑑𝐵⃗
∇ × 𝐸⃗ = − … … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑑𝑡
∇×𝐵 ⃗ = 𝜇 (𝜎⃗⃗⃗𝐸 + 𝜖 𝑑𝐸⃗) … … … … . . (𝑖𝑣) (Since, 𝐽 = 𝜎⃗⃗⃗𝐸 )
𝑑𝑡

For non-conducting and anisotropic medium, 𝜎 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌 = 0

∴ 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑖 )𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑖𝑣)𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒

∇. 𝐸⃗ = 0 … … … (𝑣)

𝑑𝐸⃗
⃗ = 𝜇𝜖
∇×𝐵 … … … … . . (𝑣𝑖)
𝑑𝑡

Now taking curl of equation (iii), we get

⃗
𝑑𝐵
∇ × ∇ × 𝐸⃗ = ∇ × −
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝑜𝑟, (∇. 𝐸⃗ )∇ − (∇. ∇)𝐸⃗ = − ⃗ )[Since, 𝐴 × 𝐵
(∇ × 𝐵 ⃗ × 𝐶 = (𝐴. 𝐶 )𝐵
⃗ − (𝐴. 𝐵
⃗ )𝐶 ]
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑑𝐸⃗
𝑜𝑟, −∇2 𝐸⃗ = − 𝑑𝑡 (𝜇𝜖 𝑑𝑡 ) (Since, using equations (𝑣)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑣𝑖 ))

2⃗
𝑑2 𝐸⃗
𝑜𝑟, ∇ 𝐸 = 𝜇𝜖 2 … … … … … . (𝑣𝑖𝑖)
𝑑𝑡

𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑣𝑖 )𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡

𝑑𝐸⃗
⃗ = ∇ × 𝜇𝜖
∇×∇×𝐵
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
⃗ )∇ − (∇. ∇)𝐵
𝑜𝑟, (∇. 𝐵 ⃗ = 𝜇𝜖 (∇ × 𝐸⃗ )
𝑑𝑡

209
 𝑑 ⃗
𝑑𝐵
⃗ = 𝜇𝜖 (− )
𝑜𝑟, −∇2 𝐵 (Since, using equations (𝑖𝑖 )𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑖𝑖𝑖))
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

⃗
𝑑2 𝐵
⃗ = 𝜇𝜖
𝑜𝑟, ∇2 𝐵 … … … … … . (𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑑𝑡 2

Here, equations (𝑣𝑖𝑖) and (𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖) represent the electromagnetic wave equations (plane wave
equations) for non-conducting and anisotropic medium.

The plane wave solutions of equations (𝑣𝑖𝑖) and (𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖) can be written as

𝐸 = 𝐸0 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = 𝐵0 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)

Where, 𝐸0 and 𝐵0 are maximum values of electric and magnetic fields respectively.

Now comparing equations (𝑣𝑖𝑖) and (𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖) with differential equation of wave motion (∇2 𝑦 =
1 𝑑2 𝑦
𝑣 2 𝑑𝑡 2
), we get the velocity of e-m wave is

1
𝑣=
√𝜇𝜖
1 𝑐 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑣 = = Where 𝑐 = is velocity of light in free space.
√𝜇𝑟 𝜖𝑟 𝜇0 𝜖0 √𝜇𝑟 𝜖𝑟 √𝜇0 𝜖0

This shows that the velocity of e-m wave in a medium is less then velocity of light in free space.

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒, 𝜇𝑟 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜖𝑟 = 1

∴𝑣=𝑐

Hence, the 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒 − 𝑚 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 is equal to the velocity of light 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒.

Ratio of Electric and magnetic Fields

The electric and magnetic fields at a point due to the propagation of e-m wave can be written as

𝐸 = 𝐸0 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = 𝐵0 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)

𝐸 𝐸0
∴ = … … … … . . (𝑖)
𝐵 𝐵0

We have from Faraday’s law of e-m induction,

𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐵
=−
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡

210
 𝑜𝑟, −𝑘𝐸0 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 ) = − 𝜔𝐵0 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)

𝐸0 𝜔
𝑜𝑟, = =𝑣
𝐵0 𝑘

Now, from equation (i),

𝐸 𝐸0
= =𝑣
𝐵 𝐵0

For free space,

𝐸 𝐸0
= =𝑐
𝐵 𝐵0

𝐵2 𝐸2 𝐸2 1
Note: we have magnetic energy density 𝑢𝑏 = 2𝜇 = 2𝜇 2 = 2𝜇 𝜇0 𝜀0 = 2 𝜀0 𝐸 2 =
0 0𝑐 0
𝑢𝑒 ; 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

∴ 𝑢𝑏 = 𝑢𝑒

𝑷𝒐𝒚𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑽𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓
The rate of flow of energy per unit area in the case of e-m wave is measured in terms of a vector, called
pointing vector and is given by

1
𝑃𝑜𝑦𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝑆= (𝐸⃗ × 𝐵
⃗)
𝜇

Let us consider an electromagnetic wave is propagating through a medium with velocity 𝑣. Let us divide
the medium into infinite number of small layers of thickness 𝑑𝑥 and area of cross-section 𝐴.

Now total energy developed in a layer is

𝑑𝑈 = 𝑑𝑈𝐸 + 𝑑𝑈𝐵
𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑈𝐵
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝑈 = 𝑢𝑒 𝐴𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑏 𝐴𝑑𝑥 (Since, 𝑢𝑒 = 𝐴𝑑𝑥𝐸 and 𝑢𝑏 = 𝐴𝑑𝑥
)

𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝑈 = 2𝑢𝑏 𝐴𝑑𝑥 (Since, 𝑢𝑒 = 𝑢𝑏 )

𝐵2 𝐵2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝑈 = 2 2𝜇 𝐴𝑑𝑥 (Since, 𝑢𝑏 = 2𝜇 )

𝐵𝐸 𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝑈 = 𝜇 𝑣 𝐴𝑑𝑥 (Since, 𝐵 = 𝑣)

𝑑𝑈 𝐸𝐵 𝑑𝑥
Now, =
𝐴𝑑𝑡 𝜇𝑣 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑈 𝐸𝐵 𝑑𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 𝐴𝑑𝑡 = 𝜇𝑣
𝑣 (Since, 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣 )

211
 𝐸𝐵
𝑜𝑟, 𝑆 =
𝜇
𝑑𝑈
Where, 𝑆 = 𝐴𝑑𝑡 is the magnitude of𝑃𝑜𝑦𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟.

1
In vector form, 𝑆 = 𝜇 (𝐸⃗ × 𝐵
⃗)

For free space, 𝜇 = 𝜇0

1
∴ 𝑆= (𝐸⃗ × 𝐵
⃗)
𝜇0

Now the intensity of electromagnetic wave is given by average of the magnitude of 𝑆.

𝐸𝐵 1 𝐸0 𝐵0
We have, 𝑆 = = 𝐸0 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) 𝐵0 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
𝜇0 𝜇0 𝜇0

𝐸0 𝐵0
∴𝐼=
2𝜇0

𝑐𝐵02
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼 = ⟹ 𝐼 ∝ 𝐵02
2𝜇0

𝐵2
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼 = 𝑐𝑢𝑏 (Since, 𝑢𝑏 = 2𝜇 )
0

𝐸2
Also, 𝐼 = 2𝑐𝜇0 ⟹ 𝐼 ∝ 𝐸02
0

𝐸02 𝐸02 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝐼 = 2
𝑐 = 𝜇0 𝜖0 𝑐 = 𝑐 × 𝜖0 𝐸02 = 𝑐𝑢𝑒
2𝑐 𝜇0 2𝜇0 2

Continuity Equation (Charge Conservation Theorem)

It states that total charge for an isolated system is conserved. It gives the relation between charge
density and current density as

𝑑𝜌
∇. 𝐽 + =0
𝑑𝑡

We have the fourth Maxwell’s equation is

𝑑𝐸⃗
⃗ = 𝜇0 (⃗𝐽 + 𝜖0
∇×𝐵 )
𝑑𝑡

Taking divergence on both sides

𝑑(∇. 𝐸⃗ )
⃗ = 𝜇0 (∇. ⃗𝐽 + 𝜖0
∇. ∇ × 𝐵 )
𝑑𝑡

212
 ⃗ =0
Since the divergence of curl is always zero, so ∇. ∇ × 𝐵

𝑑(∇. 𝐸⃗ )
∴ 𝜇0 (∇. ⃗𝐽 + 𝜖0 )=0
𝑑𝑡

𝑑(∇. 𝐸⃗ )
𝒐𝒓, ∇. ⃗𝐽 + 𝜖0 =0
𝑑𝑡
𝜌
From first Maxwell’s Equation we have ∇. 𝐸⃗ = 𝜖
0

𝜌
𝑑 (𝜖 )
0
𝒐𝒓, ∇. ⃗𝐽 + 𝜖0 =𝟎
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜌
𝒐𝒓, ∇. 𝐽 + =0
𝑑𝑡

Numerical on Electromagnetic Waves

1. The earth’s mean radius is 6.37x106m and mean earth-sun distance is 1.5x108km. What fraction of
the radiation emitted by the sun is intercepted by the disk of the earth?

→ Here, radius of earth r=6.37x106m, mean earth sun distance R=1.5x108km=1.5x1011m

𝑃
We have, the intensity of radiation emitted by sun 𝐼 = 4𝜋𝑅 2

𝑃
And the intensity of radiation received by the disc of earth 𝐼′ =
𝜋𝑟 2

𝐼
∴ =?
𝐼′

2. The intensity of direct solar radiation that is not absorbed by the atmosphere on a particular
summer day is 100W/m2. How close would you stand to a 1KW electric heater to feel the same
intensity for uniform distribution of heater radiation?

→ Here, Intensity 𝐼 = 100W/m2, Power P=1KW=1000W

𝑃 𝑃
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝐼 = =
𝐴 4𝜋𝑟 2

∴ 𝑟 =?

3. A space probe 2x1010m from a star measures the total intensity of em radiation from the star to be
5x103 W/m2. If the star radiates uniformly in all directions, what is the total average power output?

→ Here, distance r=2x1010m, Intensity 𝐼 = 5000W/m2

213
 𝑃 𝑃
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, 𝐼 = =
𝐴 4𝜋𝑟 2

∴ 𝑃 =?

4. Sunlight just outside the earth’s atmosphere has an intensity of 1.4KW/m 2. Calculate the
magnitude of pointing vector, maximum electric field and maximum magnetic fields for sunlight,
assuming it to be a plane wave.

→ Here, Intensity 𝐼 =1.4KW/m2=1400 W/m2

Magnitude of pointing vector S=1400 W/m2

𝑐𝐵2
We have, 𝐼 = 2𝜇0
0

2𝜇0 𝐼
∴ 𝐵0 = √ =?
𝑐

Again 𝐸0=c𝐵0 =?

5. Calculate the magnitude of Poynting vector and amplitudes of electric and magnetic
fields at a distance of 3Km from a radio station which a radar power of 10 5W uniformly
radiates in all direction.
𝑃 𝑃
→ Magnitude of Poynting vector 𝐼 = 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟2 =?

𝑐𝐵2
Again 𝐼 = 2𝜇0
0

2𝜇0 𝐼
∴ 𝐵0 = √ =?
𝑐

And 𝐸0=c𝐵0 =?

6. Sunlight strikes the earth outside its atmosphere with an intensity of 2cal/cm 2-min. Calculate the
magnitudes of electric and magnetic fields.
2×4.2
→ Here, Intensity 𝐼 =2cal/cm2-min10−4 ×60 = 1400 W/m2

𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑠 4.

7. The maximum electric field 10m from an isotropic point source is 2V/m. What are (a) the
maximum value of magnetic field (b) average intensity of light and (c) power of the source?

214
 → Here, distance r=10m, 𝐸0 =2V/m
𝐸0
𝑎)we have, 𝐵0 = =?
𝑐

𝑐𝐵02
𝑏) 𝐼 = =?
2𝜇0

𝑐) 𝑃 = 𝐼 × 𝐴 = 𝐼 × 4𝜋𝑟 2 =?

8. A certain radio station broadcasts at a frequency of 10 20 Hz. At a point some distance from the
transmitter, the maximum magnetic field of the em wave is 1.6x10-4T. (a) What is the speed of
the propagation of the the wave (b) What is the wavelength? (c) What is the maximum electric
field?

→ Here,𝑓 = 1020 𝐻𝑧, 𝐵0 =1.6x10-4T

𝑎)𝑣 = 𝑐 = 3 × 108 m/s

𝑐
𝑏) 𝜆 = =?
𝑓

𝑐) 𝐸0 = 𝑐𝐵0 =?

9. Calculate the power per unit area delivered by a laser pulse of energy 4x10 -3J and the pulse
length in time 10-9s when the pulse is focused on target to a very small spot of radius
1.5x10-5m.
𝐸
→ Here, power 𝑃 = =?
𝑡
𝑃 𝑃
Now 𝐼 = 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟2 =?
10. A certain plane wave emitted by a microwave antenna has a wavelength of 3cm and maximum
magnitude of electric field 2x10-4V/m.(a) What is the frequency of wave? (b) What is the maximum
magnetic field? (c) What is maximum energy density? (d) What is intensity of wave?

→ Here,=3cm=0.03m, 𝐸0 =2x10-4V/m
𝑐
a) 𝑓 = λ =?
𝐸0
b) 𝐵0 = 𝑐
=?
𝐵02
c) 𝑢𝑏 = =?
2𝜇0
𝑐𝐵2
d) 𝐼 = 2𝜇0 =?
0
11. An isotropic point source emits light at wavelength 500nm at the rate of 200W. A light detector is
positioned 400m from the source. What is the maximum rate at which magnetic component of the
light changes with time at the detector’s location?

215
→ Here, 𝝀=500nm=500× 10−9 𝑚, P=200W, r=400m

We have, 𝐵 = 𝐵0 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)

𝑑𝐵
∴ = 𝜔𝐵0 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐵
𝑜𝑟, [ 𝑑𝑡 ] = 𝜔𝐵0 ……………..(i)
𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑐𝐵02 𝑃
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐼 = =
2𝜇0 4𝜋𝑟 2

∴ 𝐵0 =?

𝑑𝐵 𝑐
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑖 ), [ ] = 2𝜋𝑓 × 𝐵0 = 2𝜋 × × 𝐵0 =?
𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥 λ

12. What is the radiation pressure 1.5m away from a 500W light bulb? Also calculate the amplitudes
of electric and magnetic field there.

→ Here, r=1.5m, P=500W

𝐼 𝑃
We have radiation pressure 𝑝𝑟 = 𝑐 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑐 =?

𝑃 𝑐𝐵02
Again, 𝐼 = =
4𝜋𝑟2 2𝜇0
∴ 𝐵0 =?

Also, 𝐸0 = 𝑐𝐵0 =?

13. The sun delivers about 103W/m2 of energy to the earth’s surface through EM radiation. Calculate
(a) the total power incident on a roof of dimensions 8mx20m. (b) radiation pressure and force
exerted on the roof, assuming roof is perfect absorber.

→ Here, I=103W/m2, Area A=8mx20m

a) P=IxA=?
𝐼
b) 𝑝𝑟 = 𝑐 =?
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 = 𝑝𝑟 × 𝐴 =?
14. The relative permittivity of distilled water is 81. Calculate the refractive index and velocity
of light in it.

→ We have the refractive index 𝑛 = √𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟 = √1 × 81 = 9 (Since 𝜇𝑟 = 1 for non-magnetic material)

𝑐
And 𝑣 = =?
√𝜇𝑟 𝜀𝑟

216
Chapter 8: Photon and matter waves
In order to explain the motion of macro particles, classical mechanics is sufficient. To explain the motion
of micro particles, scientists developed a new mechanics, known as quantum mechanics or wave
mechanics.

De-Broglie Wavelength

When the microparticles are in motion then they show dual nature i.e. particle nature and wave nature.
Wave mechanics explains the motion of particles which are in atomic dimension.

According to Planck’s law of radiation, the energy of radiation is in the form of packet. The minimum
value of energy of radiation is known as quanta and its value is

𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 … … (𝑖)

Where ℎ = 6.62 × 10−34 Js is Planck’s constant and 𝑓 is frequency of radiation.

Also from Einstein’s mass energy relation, 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖)

Where, 𝑚 is mass of the particle and 𝑐 is velocity of light.

Now from equations (i) and (ii)

𝑚𝑐 2 = ℎ𝑓

𝑐 ℎ
𝑜𝑟, =
𝑓 𝑚𝑐

ℎ ℎ
𝑜𝑟, 𝜆 = =
𝑚𝑐 𝑃

Where, P is momentum of the particle. This is de-Broglie wavelength.

ℎ
Note: 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = 2𝜋 2𝜋𝑓 = ℏ ω
ℎ ℎ 2𝜋
Also, 𝑃 = 𝝀 = 2𝜋 𝝀
=ℏ 𝑘
𝜔
Phase velocity 𝑢 = 𝑘
= 𝜆𝑓

𝑑𝜔
Group velocity, 𝑣𝑔 = 𝑑𝑘

Relation between phase velocity and group velocity

217
If a wave is propagating through a medium, then the rate of displacement of wave is phase velocity or
wave velocity. For a wave, the phase velocity is given by
𝜔
𝑢= = 𝜆𝑓
𝑘

If more than one wave are propagating through a medium, then there is a resultant wave which is
formed due to the superposition of component wave. Also, there is a periodically change in velocity. The
velocity of resultant wave due to the superposition of component waves is group velocity and is given by

𝑑𝜔
𝑣𝑔 =
𝑑𝑘

Since, 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 so 𝑑𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑑𝑓

2𝜋 2𝜋
Also, 𝑘 = 𝝀
so 𝑑𝑘 = − 𝝀𝟐 𝑑𝜆

𝑢
𝑑𝜔 2𝜋𝑓𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑓 𝑑 (𝜆 ) 𝑢 1 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
∴ 𝑣𝑔 = = = −𝜆2 = −𝜆2 = −𝜆2 [− 2 + ] = 𝑢−𝜆
2𝜋
𝑑𝑘 − 𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜆 𝜆 𝜆 𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜆
𝜆2

This shows that the phase velocity is greater than group velocity.
𝑑𝑢
For free space, 𝑑𝜆 = 0

∴ 𝑣𝑔 = 𝑢

i.e. group velocity=phase velocity

Wave Function
It is the mathematical tool which is used to characterize the wave motion of a particle. It may be in the
form of real or imaginary. It is represented by ψ (psi). It is given by

ψ(x, t) = R𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡)
𝑖
ℎ ℎ ℎ 2𝜋
𝑜𝑟, ψ(x, t) = R𝑒 ℏ(𝑃𝑥−𝐸𝑡) (Since, 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = 2𝜋 2𝜋𝑓 = ℏω and 𝑃 = 𝝀 = 2𝜋 𝝀
= ℏ𝑘)

Physical Significance of wave function

The wavefunction is the mathematical tool which characterizes all the properties of micro particles. The
product of complex conjugate of a wave function with that wave function gives the probability density
of finding the particle in a certain region. So the square of wave function physically represents the
probability of finding the particle in the given region.

i.e. probability density 𝜌 = ψ∗ ψ = |ψ|2

218
Normalized wave function
If ψ be any wave function then for ψ to be normalized, ∫ ψ∗ ψdx = 1

In most of the cases, the wave function is not normalized. We can normalize the given wave function by
multiplying by a constant, which is known as normalizing constant.

If ψ be unnormalized wave function, it can be normalized by multiplying by a constant A so that A ψ is

the normalized wave function.

∴ ∫(Aψ)∗ (Aψ)dx = 1

𝑜𝑟, ∫ 𝐴2 ψ∗ ψ dx = 1

𝑜𝑟, 𝐴2 ∫ ψ∗ ψdx = 1

1 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝐴2 = =
∫ ψ∗ψdx ∫ 𝜌 dx

Schrodinger’s Wave Equations

To describe the motion of micro particles, Schrodinger developed two differential equations which are
known as Schrodinger’s Wave Equations.

Consider a particle of mass 𝑚 is moving with velocity 𝑣 in the region of potential energy 𝑉 then total
energy of the particle is

1 2
𝑃2
𝐸 = 𝐾. 𝐸. +𝑃. 𝐸. = 𝑚𝑣 + 𝑉 = +𝑉
2 2𝑚

Operating this equation by ψ from right, we get

𝑃2
𝐸ψ = ψ + 𝑉ψ … … … … . (i)
2𝑚

a) Schrodinger’s time dependent wave equation

𝑖
We have the wave function is ψ(x, t) = R𝑒 ℏ(𝑃𝑥−𝐸𝑡) … … … . . (𝑖𝑖)
Here, ψ depends on both position and time.
Now, differentiating equation (ii) with respect to t, we get
𝑑ψ 𝑖𝐸 𝑖 (𝑃𝑥−𝐸𝑡) 𝑖𝐸
= − R𝑒 ℏ =− ψ
𝑑𝑡 ℏ ℏ
ℏ 𝑑ψ 𝑑ψ
∴ 𝐸ψ = − = 𝑖ℏ (Since, 𝑖 2 = −1)
𝑖 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Again, differentiating equation (ii) with respect to 𝑥 twice, we get

219
 𝑑ψ 𝑖𝑃 𝑖 (𝑃𝑥−𝐸𝑡)
= R𝑒 ℏ
𝑑𝑥 ℏ
𝑖
𝑑2 ψ 𝑖𝑃 𝑃2
And = ( )2 R𝑒 ℏ(𝑃𝑥−𝐸𝑡) = − ψ
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ ℏ2
𝑑2 ψ
𝑜𝑟, 𝑃 2 ψ = −ℏ2
𝑑𝑥 2
With the values of 𝐸ψand 𝑃 2 ψ, equation (i) becomes
𝑑ψ ℏ2 𝑑2 ψ
𝑖ℏ =− + 𝑉ψ
𝑑𝑡 2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2

This is Schrodinger’s time dependent wave equation in 1-D.

In 3-D, this becomes
𝑑ψ ℏ2 2
𝑖ℏ =− ∇ ψ + 𝑉ψ
𝑑𝑡 2𝑚
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
Where, ∇2 = 2 + 2 + is square of del operator.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2
b) Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation
𝑖
We have the wave function is ψ(x) = R𝑒 ℏ(𝑃𝑥−𝐸𝑡) … … … . . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
Here, ψ depends only on position.
Now, differentiating equation (iii) with respect to 𝑥 twice, we get
𝑑ψ 𝑖𝑃 𝑖 (𝑃𝑥−𝐸𝑡)
= R𝑒 ℏ
𝑑𝑥 ℏ
𝑖
𝑑2 ψ 𝑖𝑃 𝑃2
And = ( )2 R𝑒 ℏ(𝑃𝑥−𝐸𝑡) = − ψ
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ ℏ2
2
𝑑 ψ
𝑜𝑟, 𝑃 2 ψ = −ℏ2
𝑑𝑥 2
With the value of 𝑃 2 ψ, equation (i) becomes
ℏ2 𝑑2 ψ
𝐸ψ = − + 𝑉ψ
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
ℏ2 𝑑2 ψ
𝑜𝑟, + (𝐸 − 𝑉)ψ = 0
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2 ψ 2𝑚
𝑜𝑟, 2 + 2 (𝐸 − 𝑉)ψ = 0
𝑑𝑥 ℏ
This is Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation in 1-D.
In 3-D, this becomes
2𝑚
∇2 ψ + 2 (𝐸 − 𝑉)ψ = 0
ℏ
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
Where, ∇2 = + + is square of del operator.
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

Particle in 1-D infinite potential well ( Particle in 1-D box)

220
Let us consider a particle of mass m is moving inside the infinite potential well of width a as shown in
figure. The potential can be defined as

𝑉(𝑥) = 0 ; 𝑥 > 0, 𝑥 < 𝑎

𝑉(𝑥) = ∞ ; 𝑥 ≤ 0, 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎

Since the wave function is zero in the region of infinite potential, so outside the well ψ = 0. We have to
find the wave function only inside the well.

We have Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation is

𝑑2 ψ 2𝑚
+ 2 (𝐸 − 𝑉)ψ = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ

But inside the well, 𝑉 = 0

𝑑2 ψ 2𝑚𝐸
∴ + 2 ψ=0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ

𝑑2 ψ 2𝑚𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝛼 2 ψ = 0 Where, 𝛼 = √ ℏ2
… … … … . . (𝑖)

Now the solution of this differential equation can be written as

ψ(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑥 + 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑥 … … . . (𝑖𝑖)

Where A and B are constants whose values is to be determined.

At 𝑥 = 0, ψ = 0

∴ 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼. 0 + 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼. 0 = 0

𝑜𝑟, 𝐵 = 0

With this value, equation (ii) becomes

ψ(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑥 … … . . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)

Again, at 𝑥 = 𝑎, ψ = 0

221
∴ 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑎 = 0

𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑎 = 0 (Since, 𝐴 ≠ 0)

𝑜𝑟, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑎 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜋

𝑜𝑟, 𝛼𝑎 = 𝑛𝜋
𝑛𝜋
∴𝛼= … … … … … (𝑖𝑣)
𝑎
𝑛𝜋
Hence the wave function is ψ(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎
𝑥

Here, the value of A can be determined by using normalizing condition as

𝑎
∫0 ψ∗ ψd𝑥=1
𝑎 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑜𝑟, ∫0 𝐴2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( )d𝑥 =1
𝑎

𝐴2 𝑎 2𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑜𝑟, 2
∫0 [1 − cos( 𝑎
)] d𝑥=1

𝐴2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑎 = 1
2

2
∴𝐴=√
𝑎

2 𝑛𝜋
Hence the wave normalized function is ψ(x) = √ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 ;0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎
𝑎 𝑎

Again from equations (i) and (iv)

2𝑚𝐸 𝑛𝜋
√ 2 =
ℏ 𝑎

2𝑚𝐸𝑛 𝑛2 𝜋 2
𝑜𝑟, 2 = 2
ℏ 𝑎
𝑛2 𝜋 2ℏ2 𝑛 2 𝒉2
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸𝑛 = 2𝑚𝑎 2
= 8𝑚𝑎2 ; 𝑛 = 1,2,3, … … … . (≠ 0)

This shows that energy levels are quantized when a particle is confined in a 1-D infinite potential well.

222
Fig: Wave function and Energy level diagram

Finite Potential Barrier (Tunneling Effect)

Consider a particle of mass m having energy E is incident on a finite potential barrier of width a and
potential height V0 such that E<V0. The potential can be defined as

𝑉(𝑥) = 0 ; 𝑥 < 0, 𝑥 > 𝑎

And 𝑉(𝑥) = 𝑉0 ; 𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎

We have Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation is

𝑑2 ψ 2𝑚
+ 2 (𝐸 − 𝑉)ψ = 0 … … … … . . (i)
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ

For region 1 this equation becomes,

𝑑2 ψ1 2𝑚𝐸
+ 2 ψ1 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ

𝑑2 ψ1 2𝑚𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝑥 2
+ 𝛼 2 ψ1 = 0 Where, 𝛼 = √ ℏ2

The solution of this equation can be written as

ψ1 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝛼𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖𝛼𝑥 … … … … … . (𝑖𝑖 )

Where, A is the amplitude of incident wave at 𝑥 = 0 and B is that of reflected wave from 𝑥 = 0.

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Again, for region 2, equation (i) becomes

𝑑2 ψ2 2𝑚
+ 2 (𝐸 − 𝑉0 )ψ2 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ

For < 𝑉0 ,

𝑑2 ψ2 2𝑚
− 2 (𝑉0 − 𝐸 )ψ2 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ

𝑑2 ψ2 2𝑚
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝑥 2
− 𝛽2 ψ2 = 0 Where, 𝛽 = √ ℏ2 (𝑉0 − 𝐸)

The solution of this equation can be written as

ψ2 = 𝐶𝑒 𝛽𝑥 + 𝐷𝑒 −𝛽𝑥 … … … . . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)

Where, C is the amplitude of transmitted wave from 𝑥 = 0 and D is that of reflected wave from 𝑥 = 𝑎.

Similarly, for region 3, equation (i) becomes

𝑑2 ψ3 2𝑚𝐸
+ 2 ψ3 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ

𝑑2 ψ3 2𝑚𝐸
𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝑥 2
+ 𝛼 2 ψ3 = 0 Where, 𝛼 = √ ℏ2

The solution of this equation can be written as

ψ3 = 𝐹𝑒 𝑖𝛼𝑥 + 𝐺𝑒 −𝑖𝛼𝑥

Where, F is the amplitude of transmitted wave from 𝑥 = 𝑎 and G is that of reflected wave from region 3.

Since, there is no possibility of reflection from region 3, so G=0.

∴ ψ3 = 𝐹𝑒 𝑖𝛼𝑥 … … … … … (𝑖𝑣)

Here, equations (ii), (iii) and (iv) represent the wave equations for region 1,2 and 3 respectively.

Now the transmission coefficient (T) is given by the ratio of the probability of transmitted amplitude to
the incident amplitude.

𝐹 2 𝐸 𝐸
i.e. 𝑇 = |𝐴| =16𝑉 (1 − 𝑉 )𝑒 −2𝛽𝑎
0 0

and the reflection coefficient is given by R=1-T

Tunneling Effect: When a particle of energy E is incident on a potential barrier of height 𝑉0 such that
E<𝑉0 , then there is finite probability of finding the particle in the third region. This is called tunneling
effect. Tunneling microscopes, tunneling diodes are based on this effect.

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Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
It states that, it is impossible to measure two variables accurately and precisely same at a time which
gives the motion of the atomic system. These two variables are known as canonically conjugate
variables. For example, position and momentum, energy and time etc. are canonically conjugate
variables.

If ∆𝑥 be the error in the measurement of position and ∆𝑃 be the error in the measurement of
momentum then the product of errors is always in the order of Planck’s constant.

i.e.∆𝑥. ∆𝑃 ≥ ℏ

Similarly, ∆𝐸. ∆𝑡 ≥ ℏ

∆𝜃. ∆𝐽 ≥ ℏ

Numerical on Photons And Matter Waves

1. Find the de-Broglie wavelength of a 15KV proton.

→ Here, V=15KV=15000V

ℎ ℎ ℎ 6.62×10−34
We have, de-Broglie wavelength 𝜆 = 𝑃 = = = √2×1.67×10−27 =?
√2𝑚𝐸 √2𝑚𝑒𝑉 ×1.6×10−19 ×15000

2. Prove that the group speed of a wave packet is identical to the speed of a particle.

→ We have, group speed

𝑑𝜔 𝑑(ℏ𝜔) 𝑑𝐸 𝑑 𝑃2 2𝑃 𝑚𝑣
𝑣𝑔 = = = = ( )= = = 𝑣 ; 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑑𝑘 𝑑(ℏ𝐤) 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃 2𝑚 2𝑚 𝑚

3. An electron and a photon have a wavelength of 0.2nm. What is the momentum of the (a)
electron and (b) Photon? What is the energy in eV of (c) electron and (d) Photon?
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝜆𝑝 = 𝜆𝑒 = 0.2𝑛𝑚 = 0.2 × 10−9 𝑚,
ℎ
a) Momentum of electron 𝑃𝑒 =𝜆 =?
𝑒
ℎ
b) Momentum of photon𝑃𝑝 =𝜆 =?
𝑝
𝑃𝑒 2
c) Energy of electron 𝐸𝑒 = =?
2𝑚𝑒
d) Energy od Photon 𝐸𝑝 = 𝑃𝑝 𝑐 =?
4. A non- relativistic particle is moving three times as fast as an electron. The ratio of the de-
Broglie wavelength of the particle to that of electron is 1.813x10 -4. By calculating its mass,
identify the particle.
𝜆𝑝
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑣𝑝 = 3𝑣𝑒 , = 1.813 × 10−4
𝜆𝑒

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 𝜆𝑝 ℎ⁄𝑚𝑝 𝑣𝑝 𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑒
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, = =
𝜆𝑒 ℎ⁄𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑝 𝑣𝑝
𝑣 𝜆 1 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑚𝑝 = 𝑣𝑒 𝜆 𝑒 𝑚𝑒 = 3 × 1.813×10−4 × 9.1 × 10−31 = 1.673 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔 (neutron)
𝑝 𝑝

5. Calculate permitted energy levels of an electron in one dimensional potential well of width 2A 0.

→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑎 = 2𝐴0 = 2 × 10−10 𝑚

𝑛 2 𝒉2
We have 𝐸𝑛 = 8𝑚𝑎2 ; 𝑛 = 1,2,3, … … ….

𝑛 2 𝒉𝟐 𝑛2 × (𝟔. 𝟔𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 )2
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸𝑛 = = = 1.5 × 10−18 × 𝑛2 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
8𝑚𝑎2 8 × 9.1 × 10−31 × (2 × 10−10 )2

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1, 𝐸1 = 1.5 × 10−18 × 12 =?

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 2, 𝐸2 = 1.5 × 10−18 × 22 =?

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 3, 𝐸3 = 1.5 × 10−18 × 32 =? 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑜𝑛.

6. An electron is confined to an infinite height box of size 0.1nm. Calculate the ground state
energy of the electron and radiation frequency. How this electron can be put to the third
energy level?

→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑎 = 0.1𝑛𝑚 = 0.1 × 10−9 𝑚

𝑛 2 𝒉2
We have 𝐸𝑛 = 8𝑚𝑎2

For ground state, 𝑛 = 1

𝒉2
∴ 𝐸1 = 8𝑚𝑎2 =?

𝐸1
So radiation frequency 𝑓 = =?
ℎ

To put the electron to third energy level, we need to supply energy=𝐸3 − 𝐸1 = 9𝐸1 − 𝐸1 = 8𝐸1 =?

7. An electron is confined to an one dimensional region in which its ground state energy is 2eV.
(a) what is the length of the region? And (b) how much energy is required to promote the
electron to its first excited state?

→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐸1 = 2𝑒𝑉 = 2 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽

𝑛 2 𝒉2
a) We have 𝐸𝑛 = 8𝑚𝑎2
𝒉2
∴ 𝐸1 =
8𝑚𝑎2

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 ∴ 𝑎 =?
b) To promote the electron to first excited state, we need to supply energy
=𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = 4𝐸1 − 𝐸1 = 3𝐸1 = 6𝑒𝑉
8. Write down the expression for the energy level of a 1gm particle in the infinite potential well of
width 1cm. If the energy of the particle is 1J, what is the value of quantum number at that state?
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚 = 1𝑔𝑚 = 0.001𝑘𝑔, 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑎 = 1𝑐𝑚 = 0.01𝑚, 𝐸𝑛 = 1𝐽
𝑛 2 𝒉2
We have 𝐸𝑛 = 8𝑚𝑎2
∴ 𝑛 =?
9. A football of 500gm is confined between two impenetrable walls of Dasharath Rangashala that
can be modeled as a box of length 100m. Calculate the minimum speed of the ball.
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚 = 500𝑔𝑚 = 0.5𝑘𝑔, 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑎 = 100𝑚
𝑛 2 𝒉2
We have 𝐸𝑛 =
8𝑚𝑎 2
For minimum speed of ball n=1
𝒉2
∴ 𝐸1 =
8𝑚𝑎 2
1
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐸1 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
𝒉2 1
𝑜𝑟, = 𝑚𝑣 2
8𝑚𝑎2 2
ℎ
𝑜𝑟, 𝑣 = =?
2𝑚𝑎

10. A beam of electrons having energy of each 3eV is incident on a potential barrier of height 4eV.
If the width of the barrier is 20A0, calculate the percentage transmission of the beam through
the barrier.

→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝐸 = 3𝑒𝑉 = 3 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽,

Height of potential barrier 𝑉0 = 4𝑒𝑉 = 4 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽, width 𝑎=20𝐴0 = 20 × 10−10 𝑚

𝐸 𝐸
We have transmission coefficient 𝑇=16𝑉 (1 − 𝑉 )𝑒 −2𝛽𝑎
0 0

2𝑚
Where, 𝛽 = √ (𝑉0 − 𝐸) =?
ℏ2

∴ 𝑇 =?

11. A beam of electrons having energy of each 3eV is incident on a potential barrier of height 4eV.
If the width of the barrier is 10A0, calculate the probability of reflection and interpret your
result.
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝐸 = 3𝑒𝑉 = 3 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽,
Height of potential barrier 𝑉0 = 4𝑒𝑉 = 4 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽, width 𝑎=10𝐴0 = 10 × 10−10 𝑚

227
 𝐸 𝐸
We have transmission coefficient 𝑇=16𝑉 (1 − 𝑉 )𝑒 −2𝛽𝑎
0 0

2𝑚
Where, 𝛽 = √ ℏ2 (𝑉0 − 𝐸) =?
∴ 𝑇 =?
And 𝑅 = 1 − 𝑇 =?
As the reflection coefficient is very high, most of the electrons be reflected back into the same
medium.
12. For an electron confined to an infinite potential well of width 0.1nm, determine the
uncertainty in measuring momentum and kinetic energy.
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, ∆𝑥 = 0.1𝑛𝑚 = 0.1 × 10−9 𝑚
ℎ
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, ∆𝑥. ∆𝑃 =
2𝜋
ℎ
𝑜𝑟, ∆𝑃 = =?
2𝜋 × ∆𝑥
(∆𝑃)2
𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐾. 𝐸. = =?
2𝑚
13. The uncertainty in the location of a particle moving with a velocity 7.28x107m/s is double of its
de-Broglie wavelength. Find out the uncertainty in measuring the velocity.
ℎ
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒,velocity𝑣 = 7.28 × 107 𝑚/𝑠, ∆𝑥 = 2𝜆 = 2 × 𝑚𝑣
ℎ
𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, ∆𝑥. ∆𝑃 =
2𝜋
ℎ
𝑜𝑟, ∆𝑥. 𝑚∆𝑣 =
2𝜋
ℎ ℎ 𝑚𝑣 𝑣
𝑜𝑟, ∆𝑣 = = × = =?
2𝜋 × 𝑚∆𝑥 2𝜋 × 𝑚 2ℎ 4𝜋
14. Calculate the smallest possible uncertainty in the position of an electron moving with 3x107m/s.
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, ∆𝑣 = 3 × 107 𝑚/𝑠
ℎ
𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, ∆𝑥. ∆𝑃 =
2𝜋
ℎ
𝑜𝑟, ∆𝑥. 𝑚∆𝑣 =
2𝜋
ℎ
𝑜𝑟, ∆𝑥 = =?
2𝜋 × 𝑚∆𝑣
15. A proton is confined to a nucleus of radius 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓m. Calculate the minimum uncertainty in
its momentum. Also calculate the minimum kinetic energy of proton should have.
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, the maximum uncertainty in measuring the position of proton, ∆𝑥 = 2𝑟 =?
ℎ
∴ minimum uncertainty in momentum, ∆𝑃 = 2𝜋∆𝑥 =?
∆𝑃 𝟐
𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑲. 𝑬. = =?
𝟐𝒎
16. The position and momentum of a 1 keV electron are simultaneously determined. If its position
is located to within 1A0, what is the percentage of uncertainty in its momentum?
→ 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐸 = 1𝑘𝑒𝑉 = 1000 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽, ∆𝑥 =1A0= 10−10 m
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑛 𝑃 = √2𝑚𝐸 =?

228
 ℎ
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, ∆𝑥. ∆𝑃 =
2𝜋
ℎ
𝑜𝑟, ∆𝑃 = =?
2𝜋∆𝑥
𝑃
𝑁𝑜𝑤 % 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = × 100% =?
∆𝑃

229