Steady State Analysis of AC

Circuits

UNIT-II
AC QUANTITY

Changes periodically both in magnitude and direction with respect

to time
Alternates between two values (+ve and –ve maximum)
Analogous example - Pendulum action.
 SINUSOIDAL AC
peak
A

B
peak

The nature of transition between +ve and –ve maximum is

sinusoidal
If A is at higher potential- +ve half cycle
If B is at higher potential- -ve half cycle
INSTANTANEOUS VALUE
The mathematical value at
any instant.
The instantaneous value
changes at every instant in a
sinusoidal function
Instantaneous value is given
as
= sin
= sin
 WAVEFORM
A graph of instantaneous values plotted against time or angular
displacement.

CYCLE
Set of values which repeat itself again and again is called one
cycle
 FREQUENCY
Number of cycles per
second is called frequency
Unit of measurement for
frequency is Hertz or
cycles/second
50 Hz frequency means the
signal repeats 50 cycles in
each second
 TIME PERIOD
Total time consumed during one complete cycle is called time
period
For a 50 Hz frequency signal Time Period will be 0.02 seconds
= 1/
 AMPLITUDE
The displacement across y-
axis either up to maximum
F(x)
positive or maximum
A
negative is called amplitude.
For a sinusoidal signal, if
x
amplitude is A, then
mathematically, A is
multiplied with a sin
function of amplitude 1.
= ∗ sin
 ANGULAR FREQUENCY
Also called angular velocity
The angular displacement per second
Measured either in degrees per second or
radians per second
Total displacement in one rotation = 2 radians
Time period = seconds
Then speed of rotating phasor is given as
= =2 radians per second
 PHASE
Phase gives the comparison of any
signal in the context of time with a
reference signal or origin.
Something can be in phase with
reference or if out of phase, it can
be leading or lagging.
When compared to origin, a signal
is said to be with zero phase, +ve
phase or –ve phase respectively.
Problem
An alternating voltage is given by
= 141.3 sin 314
Find out
Frequency
Amplitude
Instantaneous value at t = 3 milliseconds
Time taken for the voltage to reach 100 V just after
Origin
First maxima
Solution
Given Time taken after origin to 100V
= 141.3 sin 314 100 = 141.3 sin 314
%,,
sin 314 = = 0.707714
Frequency %&%.$
= 314 rad/sec =
./012 ,.3,33%&
=
,.345$ 67897:;
$%& $%& $%& 678/;<=
= "⁄ = = 50 Hertz(Hz)
∗$.%& = 2.5ms
Amplitude Time taken after first maxima to
From given data 100V
= 141.3 Volts 100 = 141.3 sin(314 + ⁄ )
Instant. value at t = 3ms can be 100 = 141.3 cos 314
% %,, ,.345$ 67897:;
known after putting value of t in = cos *% ( ) =
$%& %&%.$ $%& 678/;<=
the given equation
= 2.5ms
= 141.3 sin(314 ∗ 3 ∗ 10*$ )
= 114.4 Volts
 AVERAGE VALUE
Average or Mean of all
instantaneous values over a time
period
Represents actual DC content in
the signal
%
7@A = B, C( )
For pure AC signals, 7@A = 0, that
is DC content in a pure AC wave is
zero for a single time period.
Area under the curve is also gives
the average value for the curve
 RMS VALUE
The signal is squared before taking
mean of it to make every
instantaneous value positive (i.e. –ve
value to +ve) and a square root to
counter the square.
RMS value is that DC equivalent
value of an AC quantity which
dissipates the same power in a
common resistance.
Represents the equivalent DC value,
hence also called effective DC value
F %
D6 ; = B, E C( )

F %
D6 ; = B E C( )
G7;< ,
 FORM FACTOR
It is defined as the ratio of RMS value to the average value.
It describes the shape of any waveform.
It is expressed as,
JKLM
HI =
JNOP

PEAK FACTOR
It is defined as the ratio of maximum value to the RMS value.
It gives an idea for the peak value per unit of RMS value.
It is expressed as,
JLNR
HQ =
JKLM
 PURE SINUSOIDAL WAVE:
Average
For a pure sinusoidal wave,
Function, = , sin
For the average of complete TU

cycle
Base = 2 ,
Limits = 0 − 2
%
7@A = B, C( )
%
7@A = B, , sin C( ) TU
 PURE SINUSOIDAL WAVE:
Average cont2
JV
7@A = B, sin C( )
As,
TU
B, sin C( )=0
Hence,
7@A = 0

TU
 PURE SINUSOIDAL WAVE:
Average cont2
For a pure sinusoidal wave,
Function, = , sin
For the average of half cycle TU

Base = ,
Limits = 0 −
%
7@A = B, C( )
%
7@A = B, , sin C( )
TU
 PURE SINUSOIDAL WAVE:
Average cont2
JV
7@A = B, sin C( )
As,
TU
B, sin C( )=2
Hence,
JV
7@A =

TU
PURE SINUSOIDAL WAVE: RMS
For a pure sinusoidal wave,
Function, = , sin
For the RMS of complete cycle TU

Base = 2 ,
Limits = 0 − 2
F %
6 ; = B, ( )C( )

F JVW TU
6 ; = B, XEY ( )C( )
PURE SINUSOIDAL WAVE: RMS
cont2
F JVW
6 ; = B, XEY ( )C( )
As, TU

B, XEY ( )C( )=
Hence,
JV
6 ; = F

TU
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER: Average
Function,
0−
= JV ./0 "Z
[
, −2
Base = 2 ,
%
7@A = B, C( )
%
7@A = B, , sin C( )
JV
7@A =
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER: RMS
Function,
0−
= JV ./0 "Z
[
, −2
Base = 2 ,
F JVW
6 ; = B, XEY ( )C( )
JV
6 ; =
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER: Average
Function,
= , sin \0 −
Base = ,
%
7@A = B, C( )
%
7@A = B, , sin C( )
JV
7@A =
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER: RMS
Function,
= , sin \0 −
Base = ,
F JVW
6 ; = B, XEY ( )C( )
JV
6 ; = F
SQUARE WAVE: Average
Function,
]JV 0 − /2
= [
*JV /2 −
Base =Time period= ,
%
7@A = B, C( )
Average for full cycle is zero.
For half cycle,
7@A = ,
SQUARE WAVE: RMS
Function,
]JV 0 − /2
= [
*JV /2 −
Base =Time period= ,
F %
6 ; = B, C( )

6 ; = ,
SAWTOOTH WAVE: AVERAGE
Function,
J
= for 0-T
Base =Time period= ,
%
7@A = B, C( )
% J
7@A = B, C( )
J ZW
7@A = W [ ],
J
7@A =
TRIANGULAR WAVE: RMS
F %
6 ; = B, C( )

F % J
6 ; = B, ( ) C( )

F JW Z`
6 ; = ` [ $ ],

J
6 ; = F
$
Problem

Find
Vavg
Vrms
Form factor and Peak factor
Solution
Given RMS value is given as
F %
T = 0.3 sec 6 ; = B, C( )
30 , 0 < < 0.1
( )=[ =
F % ,.%
[B, 30 C
,.$
+ B,.% 0C ]
0, 0.1 < < 0.3 6 ; ,.$

F c,,
= [ ],.%
, = 300 = 17.32V
Average value is given as F
6 ; ,.$
%
7@A = B, C( )
,.% ,.$
Form factor
%
= [B, 30. C + B,.% 0. C ] %3.$
7@A ,.$ HI = = 1.732
$, %,
7@A = [ ],.%
, = 100 ∗ 0.1
,.$ Peak factor
7@A = 10Volts $,
HQ = = 1.732
%3.$
Problem

Find
Vavg
Vrms
Form factor and Peak factor
Solution
Given RMS value is given as
F %
T = 4 sec 6 ; = B, C( )
10 , 0 < < 2 =
( )=[
−20, 2 < < 4 F %
[B (10 ) C
&
+ B (−20) C( )]
& ,
Average value is given as
F %,, Z ` &,,
= B,
%
C( ) 6 ; = [ ], + [ ]&
7@A & $ &

= 266.66 = 16.32V
F
% &
= [B, 10 (C ) + B (−20)C( )] 6 ;
&
%, Z W ,
Form factor
7@A = [ ], − &
= 5 − 10 %e.$
& & HI = = 3.26
7@A = −5Volts 5

Peak factor
,
HQ = = 1.22
%e.$
Problem

Find
Vavg
Vrms
Form factor and Peak factor
Solution
Given RMS value is given as
F %
T = 5 sec 6 ; = B, C( )
= ,0 < < 5
F % 5
6 ; = [B, ( ) C
Average value is given as 5
%
7@A = B, C( ) F % Z` 5 F % 5
6 ; = [ ], =
% 5 5 $ 5∗$
7@A = B C
5 , = 8.33 = 2.88V
F
6 ;
% ZW 5
7@A = [ ],
5 Form factor
7@A = 2.5Volts HI =
.44
= 1.152
.5

Peak factor
5
HQ = = 1.733
.44
Problem

Find
Vavg
Vrms
Form factor and Peak factor
Solution
Average value for complete RMS value is given as
cycle is zero, for half cycle is F %
6 ; = B, C( )
given as
%
= B, C( ) F /
7@A
6 ; = B, C( )
Given F %
= [B (10 ) C
& ,
+ B% (−10 + 20) C( )]
10 , 0 < < 1
=[
v
−10 + 20, 1 < < 2 6 ; =
% % F %,, Z ` % % Z`
7@A = [B, 10 C + B% (−10 + [ ], + [100
$ $
− 400 + 400]&
20)C ]
= 33.33 = 5.773V
F
6 ;
7@A =
%, Z W % % ZW Form factor
[ ], + [−10 + 20 ]% 5.33$
HI = = 1.154
7@A = 5V 5

Peak factor
%,
HQ = = 1.732
5.33$
Problem

Find
Vavg
Vrms
Form factor and Peak factor
Solution
Given RMS value is given as
F %
T = 2 sec 6 ; = B, C( )
50 , 0 < < 1 =
( )=[
50, 1 < < 2 F % %
[B, (50 ) C + B% 50 C( )]
Average value is given as
F 5,, Z ` % 5,,
= B,
%
C( ) 6 ; = [ ], + [ ]%
7@A $

= 1664.64 = 40.8V
F
% %
= [B, 50 (C ) + B% 50C( )] 6 ;

5, Z W % 5,
Form factor
7@A = [ ], + % = 12.5 + &,.4
HI = = 1.088
25 $3.5

7@A = 37.5Volts Peak factor

5,
HQ = = 1.225
&,.4
Types of Power
Total/Apparent/Gross power
The total power sent from the source end is called apparent power, and
is denoted by S. It’s unit of measurement is Volt-Amp (VA).
Active/Real/Average/Net power
The fraction of total power which is received/utilized/dissipated by load
is called active power.
It is denoted by P, and it’s unit of measurement is Watts (W).
This power is responsible for the actual work done.
Reactive/Imaginary power
That fraction of total power which gets bounced back from the load end
towards source end.
Denoted by Q, and it’s unit of measurement is Volt-Amp-reactive
(VAr)
Types of Power
g = 6 ; ∗ D6 ; cos ∅
i = 6 ; ∗ D6 ; sin ∅
j = g + ki = 6 ; ∗ D6 ;