Optical Fiber and Communication-Unit 5

OPTICAL NETWORKS: Topologies, SONET / SDH, High speed Lightwave links, optical add/drop
multiplexing

WDM: Concepts, components – optical couplers, isolators, circulators, WDM network

examples, DWDM

An optical network is a high-capacity communication network that uses light (photons)

transmitted through optical fibers to carry data. These networks are essential for modern
telecommunications as they enable the transfer of massive amounts of data with minimal
loss over long distances.

The core element of an optical network is the optical fiber, a thin, flexible medium made of
glass or plastic that guides light signals.

Topology : The topology is the logical manner in which nodes are linked together by
information transmitting channels to form a network.

The four common topologies used for fiber optic networks. These are the linear bus, ring, star,
and mesh configurations. Each has its own particular advantages and limitations in terms of
reliability, expandability, and performance characteristics.
Ring Topology

Structure: Nodes are connected in a closed-loop configuration, with each node

connected to exactly two other nodes, forming a circular pathway for data transmission.
Data Flow: Data travels in one or both directions around the ring until it reaches its
destination.
Key Features:
Each node regenerates and retransmits the signal, enabling long-distance
communication.
Failure of a single node can disrupt the network unless fault-tolerant mechanisms
(e.g., dual-ring architecture) are in place.
Advantages:
Simple and cost-effective for moderate-sized networks.
Easier to troubleshoot as faults are usually localized.
Disadvantages:
 A single point of failure can affect the entire network unless redundancy is
implemented.
Adding or removing nodes disrupts the network.

2. Bus Topology

Structure: All nodes are connected to a single backbone cable (the "bus") using optical
splitters or couplers.
Data Flow: Data is transmitted along the bus, and each node checks if the data is
intended for it.
Key Features:
Simple layout with minimal cabling.
Suitable for small networks with low traffic.
Advantages:
Cost-effective due to minimal cabling and components.
Easy to expand the network (up to a point).
Disadvantages:
Limited scalability as the backbone bandwidth is shared.
A failure in the backbone cable disrupts communication for all nodes.
High collision rates under heavy traffic.

3. Star Topology

Structure: All nodes are connected to a central node (e.g., an optical switch or hub) via
point-to-point links.
Data Flow: Data passes through the central node, which manages communication
between devices.
Key Features:
Centralized control simplifies network management.
Failure of an individual link affects only the connected node.
Advantages:
High reliability compared to bus and ring topologies.
Easy to troubleshoot and isolate faults.
Scalability: Adding or removing nodes is straightforward.
Disadvantages:
Failure of the central node disrupts the entire network.
Requires more cabling, increasing costs for large-scale networks.

4. Mesh Topology

Structure: Each node is connected to multiple or all other nodes, creating a web-like
structure of links.
Data Flow: Data can take multiple paths to reach its destination, ensuring high
redundancy.
Key Features:
Highly fault-tolerant due to multiple redundant paths.
Traffic can be rerouted dynamically in case of link/node failure.
Advantages:
 Excellent reliability and performance, especially in large and critical networks.
Scalability: Easily accommodates additional nodes without significant disruption.
Ideal for high-traffic and high-priority networks.
Disadvantages:
Expensive due to extensive cabling and hardware requirements.
Complex to install, configure, and maintain.

Comparison of Topologies

Feature Ring Bus Star Mesh

Cost Moderate Low Moderate High

Reliability Moderate Low High Very High

Scalability Limited Moderate High High

Fault Moderate (with Low Moderate Very High

Tolerance redundancy) (centralized)

Performance Moderate Moderate High Very High

Application in Optical Networks

1. Ring: Used in metropolitan area networks (MANs) and synchronous optical networks
(SONET) for their balance of cost and fault tolerance (with dual-ring).
2. Bus: Found in passive optical networks (PONs) where a splitter serves as the backbone.
3. Star: Common in local area networks (LANs) and point-to-multipoint communication
setups.
4. Mesh: Employed in backbone and core networks for maximum reliability and throughput.

SONET (Synchronous Optical Network) and SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) are
standardized protocols used in optical networks for the transmission of large amounts of
data over long distances. They play a critical role in telecommunications and data
communication networks. While SONET and SDH are closely related and interoperable, they
were developed in different regions and have slight differences.

1. Overview

SONET:
Developed in the United States by ANSI (American National Standards Institute).
Standard for North America.
SDH:
 Developed by ITU-T (International Telecommunication Union - Telecommunication
Standardization Sector).
Standard for the rest of the world.

Both SONET and SDH define a method to multiplex multiple digital bit streams over optical
fiber using lasers or light-emitting diodes (LEDs).

2. Key Features

1. Synchronous Transmission:
Data is transmitted in a synchronous manner, meaning all clocks in the network are
tightly synchronized, which reduces latency and ensures efficient data transport.
2. High Data Rates:
SONET supports rates starting from 51.84 Mbps (OC-1) and scales up.
SDH supports rates starting from 155.52 Mbps (STM-1) and scales up.
Both support high bandwidths suitable for video, voice, and data transmission.
3. Multiplexing:
SONET/SDH allows multiple lower-rate signals to be combined into a higher-rate
signal, optimizing the use of available bandwidth.
4. Fault Tolerance:
Provides mechanisms for automatic protection switching (APS), which reroutes data
in case of fiber failure.
5. Scalability:
Easy to scale the network by adding or upgrading channels.
6. Global Standardization:
Ensures interoperability across different vendors and networks.

3. SONET vs SDH
 Feature SONET SDH

Region North America International (except North

America)

Basic Unit OC-n (Optical Carrier) STM-n (Synchronous

Transport Module)

Base Rate OC-1 = 51.84 Mbps STM-1 = 155.52 Mbps

Multiples Multiples of OC-1 Multiples of STM-1

Hierarchy OC-1, OC-3, OC-12, OC-48, STM-1, STM-4, STM-16,

etc. STM-64, etc.

Clock Source Stratum-1 clock ITU-T defined clock

synchronization

4. SONET/SDH Frame Structure

Both SONET and SDH use a similar frame structure, but their terminology differs slightly.

SONET Frame

Frame Size: 810 bytes (for OC-1).

Frame Duration: 125 microseconds.
Composed of:
Section Overhead (SOH): Manages transport between physical layers.
Line Overhead (LOH): Ensures end-to-end signal integrity.
Synchronous Payload Envelope (SPE): Carries the actual user data.

SDH Frame

Frame Size: 2430 bytes (for STM-1).

Frame Duration: 125 microseconds.
Contains:
Regenerator Section Overhead (RSOH): Similar to SONET's SOH.
Multiplex Section Overhead (MSOH): Similar to SONET's LOH.
Payload: Holds the actual data.

5. Advantages

1. High Capacity: Enables transport of large amounts of data.

 2. Reliability: Built-in redundancy ensures high availability.
3. Flexibility: Compatible with various services (e.g., Ethernet, ATM, and legacy TDM).
4. Error Detection and Correction: Monitors network integrity and fixes minor errors.

6. Applications

Telecommunications:
Backhaul for mobile networks.
Inter-city and intra-city optical communication.
Enterprise Networks:
High-speed backbone for data centers and enterprises.
Internet Services:
Provides high-speed connections for ISPs.

7. Evolution

While SONET/SDH remains vital, newer technologies like DWDM (Dense Wavelength Division
Multiplexing) and packet-switched networks (e.g., MPLS, Ethernet) are increasingly being
used due to their efficiency in handling IP-based traffic. SONET/SDH continues to coexist,
often serving as a transport layer in modern networks.
High-Speed Lightwave Links

High-speed lightwave links form the backbone of modern optical communication systems,
supporting data rates ranging from gigabits per second (Gb/s) to terabits per second (Tb/s).
These links rely on advanced optical fibers and laser technologies to deliver high bandwidth
over long distances with minimal signal loss. As data traffic grows exponentially due to
streaming, cloud computing, and IoT, these links play a critical role in meeting the demands
for higher data rates. Key advancements include the development of multimode optical
fibers (e.g., OM1 to OM4) optimized for specific data rates and distances, as well as standards
like Ethernet for seamless integration across devices and networks.

Links Operating at 10 Gb/s: OM1, OM2, OM3, OM4 Fiber

Multimode fibers are categorized into OM grades (Optical Multimode) based on their
bandwidth and distance capabilities for 10 Gb/s links. OM1 fibers, with a 62.5 µm core
diameter, were widely used in legacy systems but support only up to 33 meters for 10 Gb/s
due to limited bandwidth. OM2 fibers, with a smaller 50 µm core diameter, extend this range
to 82 meters. OM3 and OM4 fibers, optimized for laser transmission, significantly improve
bandwidth and distance. OM3 supports up to 300 meters, while OM4 extends it to 400
meters for 10 Gb/s. These fibers are key to short-range high-speed communication in data
centers and enterprise networks, where cost-effective solutions are essential.

Links Operating at 40 Gb/s

Links operating at 40 Gb/s are designed to meet the requirements of high-speed networks like
data centers and carrier backbones. These links often use parallel optics, with multiple
optical fibers working together to achieve the desired bandwidth. For example, OM3 and OM4
fibers enable 40 Gb/s transmission over distances of 100 to 150 meters. Single-mode fibers
(SMFs) are also employed for longer distances, extending up to several kilometers. To achieve
40 Gb/s, advanced modulation formats and signal multiplexing techniques, such as
wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), are often used to optimize spectral efficiency and
enhance performance.

Standards for 40-Gigabit and 100-Gigabit Ethernet

Standards for 40-Gigabit Ethernet (40GbE) and 100-Gigabit Ethernet (100GbE) are defined
by the IEEE 802.3ba specification. These standards ensure interoperability across devices
and networks while meeting the growing demand for higher speeds. 40GbE primarily targets
short-range applications, such as intra-data center connections, using multimode fibers (e.g.,
OM3/OM4) with parallel optics. In contrast, 100GbE is aimed at long-haul and high-capacity
applications, utilizing single-mode fibers and technologies like coherent detection and dense
WDM. Both standards employ modular interfaces, simplifying upgrades and maintaining
backward compatibility with existing infrastructure.

OTDM Links Operating at 160 Gb/s

Optical Time-Division Multiplexing (OTDM) is a technique that combines multiple low-speed

optical signals into a single high-speed stream, enabling links operating at data rates as high
as 160 Gb/s. In OTDM, data streams are time-interleaved, with precise synchronization
between transmitter and receiver. This technique is particularly advantageous for high-
capacity backbone networks, as it allows efficient utilization of available bandwidth without
the need for WDM. However, OTDM systems require ultrafast optical switches, modulators,
and amplifiers to handle the high-speed signals, making them more complex and costly
compared to other technologies like WDM. Despite these challenges, OTDM remains a
valuable option for pushing the limits of optical network performance.

Optical Add/Drop Multiplexing:

Optical Add/Drop Multiplexing (OADM) is a technology used in wavelength-division

multiplexing (WDM) networks to selectively add or drop individual wavelengths of light (data
channels) without disrupting other wavelengths. It enhances the flexibility and efficiency of
optical networks by enabling intermediate nodes to handle specific data streams without
requiring optical-to-electrical-to-optical (OEO) conversion for the entire WDM signal. OADMs
are critical components of modern optical communication systems, particularly in metro and
long-haul networks.

1. How OADM Works

OADMs operate by using components like optical filters, wavelength-selective switches

(WSS), and multiplexers/demultiplexers. Here’s a step-by-step process:

1. Multiplexing:
The incoming WDM signal comprises multiple wavelengths (λ1, λ2, …, λn), each
carrying a separate data stream.
2. Dropping Wavelengths:
Specific wavelengths are dropped at the OADM node using wavelength-selective
filters or WSS. The dropped wavelength is directed to a local receiver for processing.
3. Adding Wavelengths:
New data streams are added to the WDM signal at the same or different wavelengths
using a laser source and a multiplexer.
 4. Pass-Through Wavelengths:
Unused wavelengths bypass the node and continue their journey through the optical
network.

This selective add/drop mechanism minimizes resource usage and allows for dynamic
reconfiguration of the network.

2. Types of OADM

1. Fixed OADM:
Configured to add/drop specific wavelengths at the time of installation.
Suitable for static networks with minimal changes in traffic demands.
Cost-effective but lacks flexibility.
2. Reconfigurable OADM (ROADM):
Dynamically adjusts which wavelengths are added, dropped, or passed through
without manual intervention.
Uses advanced technologies like WSS and tunable filters.
Ideal for dynamic networks with fluctuating traffic patterns.
Enables remote management and reduced downtime.

3. Advantages of OADM

1. Efficiency:
Reduces the need for full signal conversion, lowering energy consumption and
equipment costs.
2. Scalability:
Allows easy addition of new data streams without affecting existing channels.
3. Flexibility:
Reconfigurable OADMs enable dynamic adaptation to changing network demands.
4. Cost Savings:
By minimizing the use of electrical components and enabling wavelength reuse,
OADMs reduce overall operational costs.

4. Applications

Telecommunications:
Metro and long-haul networks use OADMs to manage high-bandwidth traffic
efficiently.
Data Centers:
Used to optimize interconnectivity between geographically distributed data centers.
Broadcast and Media:
Supports high-speed video transmission by managing bandwidth-intensive channels.
WDM:

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is a technology used in optical communication

networks to transmit multiple data streams simultaneously over a single optical fiber. Each
data stream is transmitted at a unique wavelength (color of light), allowing efficient utilization
of the fiber's bandwidth. WDM is fundamental in meeting the growing demand for high-
capacity data transmission in telecommunications and data networks.

The implementation of sophisticated WDM networks requires a variety of passive and

active devices to combine, distribute, isolate, and amplify optical power at different
wavelengths. Passive devices require no external control for their operation, so they are
somewhat limited in their application flexibility. These components are mainly used to
split and combine or tap off optical signals. The wavelength-dependent performance of
active devices can be controlled electronically or optically, thereby providing a large
degree of network flexibility. Active WDM components include tunable optical filters,
tunable sources, and optical amplifiers.
At the transmitting end there are several independently modulated light sources, each
emitting signals at a unique wavelength. Here a multiplexer is needed to combine these
optical outputs into a continuous spectrum of signals and couple them onto a single
fiber.
At the receiving end a demultiplexer is required to separate the optical signals into
appropriate detection channels for signal processing.

Types of WDM

1. CWDM (Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing):

Uses a smaller number of wavelengths spaced farther apart (e.g., 20 nm apart in the
range of 1270-1610 nm).
Supports up to 16 channels.
Cost-effective for short-range applications, such as metro and access networks.
2. DWDM (Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing):
Employs closely spaced wavelengths (e.g., 0.8 nm or 100 GHz apart) in the C-band
(1530-1565 nm) or L-band (1565-1625 nm).
Supports up to 80 or more channels on a single fiber.
Suitable for long-haul and high-capacity networks.

Key Features of WDM

Scalability:
Allows for easy addition of new channels without laying additional fibers.
High Bandwidth:
 Significantly increases the data-carrying capacity of existing optical fiber
infrastructure.
Transparency:
Supports multiple data formats (e.g., Ethernet, ATM, SONET/SDH) over the same fiber.
Dynamic Routing:
With technologies like Reconfigurable Optical Add-Drop Multiplexers (ROADMs),
wavelengths can be dynamically managed and rerouted.

4. Advantages of WDM

1. Efficient Use of Fiber:

Maximizes bandwidth by carrying multiple channels on a single fiber.
2. Cost Savings:
Reduces the need for additional fiber deployment and infrastructure.
3. Future-Ready:
Supports evolving data rate demands by simply adding more wavelengths.
4. Flexibility:
Enables simultaneous transport of various types of traffic, including voice, video, and
data.

5. Applications of WDM

Telecommunications:
Backbone networks leverage WDM to handle high-capacity, long-distance data
transmission.
Data Centers:
Provides high-speed interconnectivity between data centers, ensuring low latency
and high throughput.
Cable TV:
Used for transmitting multiple TV channels over a single optical fiber.
Enterprise Networks:
Supports private, high-bandwidth communication channels for bus

WDM Network Examples

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) networks are deployed in various scenarios to

handle high-bandwidth requirements and enable efficient optical communication. Here are a
few examples:

1. Metro Networks:
Use Case: Short to medium-distance communication in urban areas.
Example: A city-wide network interconnecting multiple offices, data centers, and
telecom exchanges.
Technology: Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing (CWDM) is often used due to its
lower cost and simpler deployment compared to DWDM.
2. Long-Haul Networks:
Use Case: High-speed data transmission across cities or continents.
 Example: Submarine cable systems like the SEA-ME-WE (South-East Asia - Middle East
- Western Europe) cables.
Technology: Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) with advanced
amplification (e.g., EDFA - Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers).
3. Enterprise Networks:
Use Case: Large corporations requiring private, high-speed connectivity between
offices and data centers.
Example: A global business linking its data centers in New York, London, and
Singapore using WDM.
Technology: DWDM for long-distance, secure, and high-bandwidth data transport.
4. Access Networks:
Use Case: Delivering high-speed internet and IPTV to residential users.
Example: Fiber-to-the-Home (FTTH) networks using CWDM for cost-effective
deployment.

Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM)

DWDM is a subtype of WDM that maximizes the capacity of optical fibers by packing multiple
wavelengths (channels) closely together. It is widely used in backbone and high-capacity
networks.

1. Characteristics of DWDM

Wavelength Spacing:
Channels are spaced very closely, typically 0.8 nm (100 GHz) or 0.4 nm (50 GHz).
Operates primarily in the C-band (1530-1565 nm) and sometimes the L-band (1565-
1625 nm).
High Channel Count:
Supports up to 80 or more channels per fiber, each capable of transmitting at speeds
like 10 Gb/s, 40 Gb/s, or even 400 Gb/s.
Scalability:
Provides an effective way to scale capacity by adding more wavelengths without
requiring new fibers.

2. How DWDM Works

1. Multiplexing:
Multiple data streams (e.g., Ethernet, SONET, video) are assigned to different
wavelengths.
2. Optical Amplification:
Signals are amplified without converting them to electrical signals using technologies
like EDFAs, which amplify all wavelengths simultaneously.
3. Demultiplexing:
At the receiving end, the wavelengths are separated and sent to corresponding
receivers.

3. Advantages of DWDM
 1. Massive Capacity:
Increases the fiber's bandwidth significantly, supporting terabits per second.
2. Transparency:
Supports various types of data protocols and formats.
3. Long-Haul Transmission:
Enables distances of hundreds of kilometers with minimal loss, using amplifiers.
4. Efficiency:
Optimizes the use of existing fiber infrastructure, reducing costs for new
deployments.

4. Applications of DWDM

1. Telecom Backbone Networks:

Carries vast amounts of data over long distances for ISPs and telecom providers.
2. Data Center Interconnects:
Links high-speed data centers across large geographical distances.
3. Submarine Cables:
Used in undersea cables to transmit international data traffic.
4. Cloud Networks:
Ensures high-speed, low-latency connectivity for cloud service providers.

5. Challenges of DWDM

1. Cost:
High initial investment due to the complexity of DWDM equipment.
2. Complexity:
Requires precise wavelength management and synchronization.
3. Signal Degradation:
Channel spacing demands stringent control to prevent interference, and advanced
dispersion management is necessary.

DWDM is a critical enabler of modern high-speed optical networks, providing the scalability
and flexibility needed for the exponential growth in data traffic. Let me know if you'd like to
explore DWDM components or its integration with technologies like optical amplifiers or
ROADMs!