Chapter 4- Part II

Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC)

,TRICKLING FILTERS and Waste
Stabilization Ponds

Eyosias B.
Secondary treatment
Trickling filters
• Trickling filters enable organic material in the wastewater to be adsorbed
by a population of microorganisms (aerobic, anaerobic, and facultative
bacteria; fungi; algae; and protozoa) attached to the medium as a
biological film or slime layer.
• The sewage slowly moves through the porous bed and the effluent is
collected at the bottom.
• As the sewage drains through the porous bed, this microbial community
absorbs and breaks down dissolved organic nutrients in the sewage; this
reduces the BOD.
Secondary treatment

Trickling filters
• The organic material is then degraded by the aerobic
microorganisms in the outer part of the slime layer.
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Trickling filters
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• Influent pipe
• Rotary distribution
• Filter bed
• Underdrain system
• Effluent pipe

Downstream a sedimentation
tank is provided to remove
microbial growth that sloughs
from the medium

Figure of Typical section of a conventional circular trickling filter 6

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Figure of Photographic view of trickling filter with its rotary distributors

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Principles of operation
✓ WW is allowed to sprinkle or trickle down over tanks of coarser filtering media,
by means of distributors.
✓ Aerobic bacteria form a bacterial film around the particles of the filtering
media.
→ sufficient quantity of oxygen is supplied by providing suitable ventilation
facilities in the body of the filter or through natural draft
✓ Organic material from the liquid is adsorbed onto the biological film or slime
layer and get degraded by aerobic microorganisms
✓ As the microorganisms grow and the slime layer thickness increases, oxygen is
consumed and the substrate in the wastewater is used before it can penetrate
the inner depths of the biofilm.
✓ Bacteria in the slime layer enter an endogenous respiration state and lose their
ability to cling to the packing surface.
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✓ The liquid then washes the slime off the packing, and a new slime layer
starts to grow. The phenomenon of losing the slime layer is called
sloughing
✓ The percolating sewage is collected at the bottom of the tank through a
well designed under-drainage system.
✓ The effluent must be taken to the secondary sedimentation tank for
settling out the solids generated as a result of WW treatment.
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Types of Trickling Filters
(1) Conventional trickling filters /standard
rate /low rate trickling filters
• wastewater is applied intermittently
with rest periods
• 80% to 90% BOD reduction
(2) High rate trickling filters
• Usually characterized by higher
hydraulic and organic loadings than
low-rate filters Advantages of recirculation:
• same construction details, but the 1-Return oxygen with wastewater.
2- Return active bacteria to increase reaction
recirculation of effluent is provided
rate which decrease the required area for the
• Thus the incoming wastewater is increase of the allowable load.
diluted and TSS concentrations are 3- Decrease the concentration of BOD on filter.
reduced. 4- Achieve the plant working day by night.
5- Prevent the growth of fly around the filter.
• 65 to 85% BOD reduction
6- Make the gravel wet at any time.
wastewater treatment processes involving trickling filters (TF), secondary settling tanks (SST), and 11
primary settling tanks (PST).
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Design of Trickling Filters

involves the design of :
▪ the diameter of the circular filter tank and its depth
▪ Filter media
▪ the distributors and
▪ under-drainage system
▪ Efficiency
Filter size
✓ the filter diameter and depth is designed for average value of sewage flow.
✓ Is based upon the values of the filter-loadings adopted for the design.
✓ This loading on a filter can be expressed in two ways:

i) Hydraulic-loading rate:
✓ The quantity of sewage applied per unit of surface area of the filter per day
▪ For conventional filters ……………………..…. 22 to 44 ML/ha/day
▪ For the high rate trickling filters ………….. 110 to 330 ML/ha/day
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ii) Organic loading rate
✓ Is the mass of BOD per unit volume of filtering media per day
▪ For conventional filters ……………………….. 900 - 2200 kg BOD/ha-m/d
▪ For the high rate trickling filters ………….. 6000 – 18,000 kg BOD/ha-m/d

Total flow

✓ Knowing the area and volume, depth & diameter can be easily determined
✓ The depth of the rock packing ranges from 0.9 to 2.5 m (rock fill)
✓ Moreover, since the rotary distributors are available indigenously only up
to 60m in length, it is desirable to keep the diameter of the filter tank up
to a maximum of 60m.
✓ If the required filter diameter is more than 60m, then it is better to use
more units of lesser diameter.
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Filtering medias (stone used)

✓ consists of coarser materials like cubically broken stones, plastic
packing, slag …
✓ should not be easily affected by acidic WW, and should be sufficiently
hard.
✓ Its resistance to freezing and thawing is another important property,
✓ A material with a specific surface area between
45 and 60 m2/m3 for rocks and
90 and 150 m2/m3 for plastic packing is normally used
✓Generally may range b/n 25-75mm
✓ The filtering material may be placed in layers; with coarsest stone
used near the bottom, and. finer material towards the top.
✓ should be washed before it is placed in position to free from dust
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Sewage distributors over filters: are two types

- Rotary distributor:
- Spray nozzles:
• The rotary distributor consists of a hollow vertical central column
carrying two or more radial pipes or arms, each of which contains a
number of nozzles or orifices for discharging the waste water onto the
filter media.
• All of these nozzles point in the same direction at right angles to the
arms.
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• The force of the water causes the spray heads to rotate (jet action)
above the media, acting like a sprinkler and evenly distributing waste water
across the media. (can also be driven by electric motor)
• The rotary reaction is furnished by a head of 45 to 60cm.

- Spray nozzles:
• Stationary /Fixed/ Individual Spray Heads work best
for smaller areas
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Under drains
✓ Vitrified clay blocks are generally used as under-drains.
✓ Ensures satisfactory drainage ……. Manning formula
✓ The blocks are laid directly on the filter floor, which is sloped toward the
collection channel at 1 to 5% gradient.
✓ The effluent channels are sized to produce a minimum velocity of 0.9 m/s
✓ also ensure satisfactory ventilation and aeration of the filter bed
→ To allow air circulation, the under-drainage system should be
designed to flow half full

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Efficiency:
This NRC (National Research Council) design model describes the calculation of the
BOD removal efficiency for a single-stage rock filter, incorporating recirculation
effects.
For a single stage or 1st stage rock filter
BOD Removal Efficiency (E1​):

Recirculation Factor (F):

The factor R/10 accounts for diminishing benefits of recirculation as the number
of passes increases.
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BOD Removal Efficiency for the Second Stage (E2​) for two stage rock
filter:
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design standards for trickling filters:

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Example
Sewage flows from primary settling rank to a standard rate trickling
filter at an average rate of 5million liters per day having a BOD of
150mg/l. Determine

a. The depth and volume of the filter, assuming suitable design data

b. Also design distribution and under drainage system

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40m(diam. of filter)

A3
A2
A1
7.5m 6m 6m

Arm length

Diam.=0.19m
Plan of filter tank
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• As the area covered by each segment varies, the flow in the arms
has to be adjusted proportional to the area covered by each length
of arms
• A1, A2 and A3 are areas of the circular filter covered by each length
of arms, allowing for Central column diameter: 0.19m → radius
=0.095m.
• at the center to be used for central column;
A1 = π(r22-r12) = (6.0952-0.0952) = 116.6m2
A2 = π(r22-r12) = (12.0952-6.0952) = 342.7m2
A3 = π(r22-r12) = (19.5952-12.0952) = 734m2

Total area = 1193.3m2

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• Percentage areas served by each segment

1st A1/A = 116.6/1193.3 * 100 = 9.8%
2nd A2/A = 342.7/1193.3 * 100 = 28.7%
3rd A3/A = 734/1193.3 * 100 = 61.5%

• Full discharge will flow through the first arm, i.e., 0.016m3/s and
this will go on reducing through the second and third sections
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Number of orifices through each segment

1st segment = 9.8/100 * 58 ≈ 6
2nd segment = 28.7/100 * 58 ≈ 17
3rd segment = 61.5/100 * 58 ≈ 35

Spacing of orifices
In the 1st segment 6 orifices in 6m length = 6/6 = 1m
In the2nd segment 17 orifices in 6m length = 6/17 = 0.353m
In the 3rd segment 35 orifices in 7.4m length = 7.4/35 = 0.211m
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The liquid flow in under-drains and collection channels should not be more
than half full for adequate air flows
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Exercise
• Design a one stage high-rate trickling filter to produce a BOD effluent of
50mg/l.
Given the following data:
– Influent Bod=400mg/l
– Primary sedimentation tanks with 33% efficiency will be used before
the trickling filter.
– Maximum rotating arm may range up to 35m.
 4.3.3.Rotating Biological Contactors
INFLUENT
Primary
Treatment

Pretreatment

Rotating Biological Contactors

Disinfection

Secondary
Clarifiers
Solids Handling
EFFLUENT
 Secondary treatment
Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC)

• (RBC) is a fixed-film biological treatment process widely used in

wastewater treatment for the removal of organic matter and nutrients.
• Microorganisms grow on the surface of the discs where biological
degradation of the wastewater pollutants takes place.
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Rotating biological contactors (RBCs)

• Series of closely spaced circular disks made of polystyrene or polyvinyl
chloride attached to a horizontal shaft (where, Corrugation patterns
increase surface area and structural integrity)
• Are provided at standard unit sizes of approx. 3.5 m in diameter and 7.62
m in length
• The RBC unit is partially submerged (typically 40% of the diameter) in a
tank containing the wastewater
• Disc rotation slow (1-1.6 rpm)
• While the lower half is in contact with the waste water (utilization phase)
the other half will access the ambient air (aeration phase)
• Under these conditions aerobic bacteria will soon develop a microbial
film which will carry out the biological degradation of organic pollutants.
• The rotation also helps to slough off excess solids.
• Can achieve BOD reductions of 80 to 90 %
 Rotating biological contactors (RBCs)

Contactors
Primary Secondary
Treatment Clarifier

Influent Effluent

Solids Removal
Advantages
• High contact surface and high effluent quality (both BOD and nutrients)
• High process stability, resistant to shock hydraulic or organic loading
• Short contact periods are required because of the large active surface
• Low space requirement
• Process is relatively silent compared to dosing pumps for aeration
• Low sludge production

Disadvantages
• Continuous electricity supply required (but uses less energy than activated
sludge processes for comparable degradation rates)
• Contact media not available at local market /high investment costs
• Must be protected against sunlight, wind and rain (especially against
freezing in cold climates)
• Requires permanent skilled technical labor for operation and maintenance
 Process arrangements
RBC system is divided into a series of
Baffles independent stages or compartments by
baffles in a single basin or separate basins
arranged in series

Each Zone of Treatment is

Called a “Stage”

✓ The disc system can be staged in

series to obtain nearly any
detention time or degree of
removal required.
Discs
✓ The culture of the later stages can
be acclimated to the slowly
degraded materials.

Shaft
Individual Disc
 Influent
2 Trains
5 Stages

1st Stage

Effluent
When a System Has More Than One Train, Each Zone in the System That Receives the Same
Loading is Considered One “Stage”
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1. RBC Sizing :
✓ RBC surface area: are usually designed on the basis of hydraulic and
organic loadings derived from pilot plants and other full-scale installation
Flow Rate, m3/d
Hydraulic Loading, m3/d/m2 =
Media Surface Area, m2
Soluble BOD Applied/Day
Organic Loading, Sol. BOD/Day/m2 =
Media Surface Area in m2
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• Empirical design approaches have also been developed for RBC systems
based on pilot-plant and full-scale plant data
• In order to predict the BOD5 removal efficiency, a second-order model
proposed by Brenner - Opatken (US EPA 1985) & modified by Grady et al
(1999)
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✓ Tankage:
• Volume has been optimized at 0.0049 m3/m2 of disk area.
• A typical side water depth is 1.5m to accommodate a 40% submergence
of the disks.
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2. Other facilities for RBC process

✓ principal elements of an RBC system design are the shafts and disk
materials
Shafts: Maximum shaft length is presently limited to 8.23m with 7.62m
occupied by disks
Disk material: The type of RBC disks, classified based on the total area of disks
on the shaft, are commonly termed
✓ Low (standard) density: with a surface area of 9300m2 per 8.23 m shaft.
normally used in the lead stage of an RBC process flow diagram
• Medium density, and Medium- and high-density Disk assemblies have
• high-density. surface area of 11,000 to 16,700m2 per 8.23-m
shaft.
And are used typically in the middle and final
stages of an RBC system where thinner
biological growths occur.
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Example on RBCs
• Given the following design conditions, develop a process design for a
staged RBC system.
Example on RBCs
Example on RBCs
Example on RBCs

calculating the soluble BOD (sBOD) concentration in each stages using the
shaft area and flow to each train. using an equation and parameters.
Example on RBCs
Example on RBCs

Since the goal for S3 was 10 g/m³, the proposed design is considered satisfactory.
Example on RBCs
Waste Stabilization Ponds
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Waste Stabilization Pond

• Is large shallow basins enclosed by earthen embankments in which

wastewater is biologically treated by natural processes involving pond algae
and bacteria. (TSS and BOD removal)

• Pond system requires some preliminary treatment of municipal WW.

• Usually coarse screening and grit chamber is applied

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✓ Advantages include:
▪ simplicity,
▪ low cost,
▪ low maintenance,
▪ low energy consumption,
▪ robustness, and sustainability.
✓ However, large surface areas and expert design are required.

✓Types of Pond
» Anaerobic Ponds: reduces the organic load in the wastewater,
remove up to 60% of the BOD
» Facultative: where further BOD is removed further 15% removed
» Maturation/aerobic pond: designed for pathogen removal

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• Anaerobic and facultative ponds are generally designed for removal of

BOD, and
• maturation ponds for pathogen removal,
• However, some BOD removal also occurs in maturation ponds and some
pathogen removal in anaerobic and facultative ponds
Waste Stabilization Pond (WSP) commonly comprise a single series of these
anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds or several of such series in
parallel.
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I. Anaerobic Ponds
✓ Anaerobic ponds receive such a heavy organic loading and biodegradation in
the absence of oxygen dominate.

✓ Pond depth is usually between 3 to 5 meters and

✓ In cold climates, anaerobic ponds mainly act as settling ponds, whereas higher
sewage temperatures enhance the anaerobic degradation process.

✓ At higher temperatures BOD is therefore more effectively removed.

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Treatment Mechanisms
• BOD removal is the combined effect of sedimentation and biological
degradation.
• Biological degradation is due to the anaerobic degradation of complex organic
material.
• Biochemical reactions in an anaerobic pond produce hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
and other odorous compounds.
• To reduce odors, the common practice is to recirculate water from a
downstream facultative or aerated pond. This provides a thin aerobic layer at
the surface of the anaerobic pond, which prevents odors from escaping into
the air.
• A cover may also be used to contain odors
• The effluent from anaerobic ponds usually requires further treatment prior to
discharge
• Typical TSS removal percentages range between 50 and 70%.

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II. Facultative Ponds

• Are the second treatment step in a pond system.
• In facultative ponds the anaerobic pond effluent is further treated, aimed at
further BOD, nutrient and pathogen removal.
• Facultative ponds are usually 1.5 - 2.5m deep.

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Processes In facultative ponds

• the top layer of facultative ponds is aerobic due to oxygen production by algae
and surface re-aeration; the bottom layer is anaerobic due to the absence of
oxygen.
• The three main mechanisms for BOD removal are aerobic digestion,
sedimentation and anaerobic digestion.
• Sedimentation results only in temporary storage of BOD in the sludge layer.
• This BOD (in sludge) is removed while the pond is desludged. Part of the sludge
BOD is however anaerobically transformed into methane gas.

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SECONDARY CLARIFIER:
 SECONDARY CLARIFIER:

• The secondary clarifier in wastewater treatment serves two main

purposes:
1. Solids Separation:
• The clarifier separates the biological solids (e.g., activated sludge) from the
treated effluent.
• This process ensures that clarified water, with minimal suspended solids, is
discharged or further treated, while the solids settle at the bottom.
2. Sludge Recycling:
• A portion of the settled solids (activated sludge) is returned to the aeration
tank to maintain a sufficient microbial population for the treatment
process.
• The remaining sludge, called waste activated sludge (WAS), is removed
for further treatment or disposal.
 SECONDARY CLARIFIER:

• Settling phenomenon of mixed liquor in activated sludge is described as

shown
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• The area needed for clarification is (from clarification point of view)

Where :

• A value of vs is determined from batch settling column test data.

• That is, by computing the slope of the hindered settling portion of the
interface height versus time curve.
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• The slope of the line in the hindered settling phase (A-B) is steeper,
indicating faster sedimentation.
• During compression (C-D), the curve flattens, showing slower settling as
particles reach the compaction limit.
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• For the area needed for thickening,

Hu can be calculated from the

desired underflow /solids conc.
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✓ The critical concentration (C2) is determined by

▪ extending the tangent from the hindered and compression settling
lines to their point of intersection and
▪ bisecting the angle formed. The bisector intersects the subsidence
curve at C2 which is the critical concentration.

✓ The critical concentration controls the sludge-handling capacity of the tank

at a height of H2
✓ The intersection of the tangent with depth Hu will yield the required
retention time.

*The larger of the two calculated areas is the controlling factor for design
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• Design parameters for conventional secondary clarifiers from experience

• – instead of performing column test

Overflow rate (m3/m2/d) Depth (m)

Average Peak
15-35 40-50 3.5-4.5

Weir loading rate

Avoid high velocities of water at outlet which can cause carry over of solids
at outlet

Small WWTP (Q < 0.04 m3/s), weir loading < 120 m3/m•d
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Example 1.
Design a conventional activated sludge plant to treat
domestic sewage with diffused aeration system given
the following data
• Population = 35,000
• Average sewage flow = 180l/c/d
• BOD of sewage = 220mg/l
• BOD removed in primary treatment = 30%
• Overall BOD reduction = 85%

Solution:
Requirements: dimension of
aeration tank, dimension of
secondary clarifier.

Daily Sewage flow,

Q= 180*35,000 = 6300m3/d
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Characteristics and design parameters of different
Example 1.
activated sludge systems
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• BOD of sewage coming to aeration tank

So = 0.7 *220mg/l = 154mg/l
• BOD removed in activated plant
0.85 *154 = 130.9mg/l
From table, for conventional activated sludge,
Food to Micro-organism ratio (F/M )= 0.4 - 0.3 &overall solid conc.in the
system MLSS = 1500 – 3000,
So, let’s adopt F/M = 0.3 and MLSS (X) = 3000mg/l

Using
Calculate volume of aeration tank
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From table of Characteristics and design parameters of different

activated sludge systems
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check for sludge age Өc
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Continuous Aeration channel With Three Aeration

chambers
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3
𝑚𝑔 6300𝑚
= 100kg/m3 * 130.9 ∗
𝑙 𝑑
130.9∗10− 𝑘𝑔∗6300𝑚3/𝑑
6
3
= 100m /𝑘𝑔 ∗ _ = 57m3/min
10∗ 3 𝑚3∗24∗60 𝑚𝑖𝑛
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(Overflow rate (m3/m2/d) range 15 to 35)
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• Assume SLR (surface loading rate) of 20 m3/d/m2 at average
flow of 6300 m3/d.

• Adopting solids loading [range 100 to 150 kg/d/m2] of 125 kg/d/m2 for
MLSS of 3000 mg/l.= 3kg/m3
• Solids loading rate = Total solids applied/ Surface area of tank kg
SS/m2/d
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Excess Sludge Volume

Constructed Wetlands
 Secondary treatment

Constructed Wetlands
Engineered wetlands use plants, soil, and associated microbial activity to treat
wastewater.
• Plants in constructed wetlands are primarily chosen for their ability to
uptake nutrients (e.g., nitrogen and phosphorus) and sometimes even
metals and other pollutants.
• Plants treating industrial effluents are especially unsafe to consume due to
high contaminant loads.
• Constructed wetlands treating relatively clean greywater (e.g., from
kitchens or bathrooms) might support edible plants safely.
• plants from constructed wetlands are often safer for non-food uses, such
as livestock feed, biogas production, or composting.
• Plants like cattails, reeds, and bulrushes release oxygen through their
roots, enhancing decomposition.
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❖ Phytodegradation: plants directly

uptake contaminants into their
root structures and degrade
within its tissue
❖ Phytovolatization: contaminants
entered the plant biomass and
transpired through the plant
leaves
❖ Rhizodegradation: Plants secret
substances that adds to biological
degradation associations between
plants and microbes to degrade
contaminants
❖ Suspended solids are retained
predominantly by filtration and
sedimentation
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Addition
▪ The major benefit of plants is the transferring of oxygen to the root zone.
→ the stalks, roots, and rhizomes penetrate the soil or support
medium, and transport oxygen deeper than it would naturally travel by
diffusion alone.
▪Vegetation
→ Floating,
→ submerged and
→ emerging

▪The emergent plants most frequently

found in WW wetlands include
→ cattails, reeds, rushes, bulrushes
and sedges.
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Types of Constructed Wetlands

❖ Free Water Surface (FWS) system and
❖ Subsurface Flow (SSF) systems.
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Free Water Surface (FWS) Systems

✓ contain areas of open water with

• → floating, submerged, or emergent plants
✓ consist of basins or channels, with;
▪ subsurface barrier to prevent seepage,
▪ soil or another suitable medium to support the emergent vegetation,
and
▪ water at a relatively shallow depth.
✓ The shallow water depth, low flow velocity, and presence of the plant
stalks and litter regulate water flow and, especially in long, narrow
channels minimize short circuiting (better efficiency).
✓ The most common application for FWS CWs is for tertiary treatment of
municipal wastewater and also for storm water runoff and mine drainage
waters
B i o l o g i c a l Wa s t e wa t e r Tre a t m e n t
B i o l o g i c a l Wa s t e wa t e r Tre a t m e n t

SSF systems
✓ These systems are essentially
similar to trickling filters when
they use rock media.
✓ water flows though a porous
media such as gravels or
aggregates, in which the plants are
rooted. Figure of Emergent macrophyte treatment
✓ With an added component of system with horizontal SSF
emergent plants with extensive
root systems within the media.
✓ There are 2 types of SSF systems:
• horizontal SSF (HSSF) and
• vertical SSF (VSSF).
• The system is particularly useful for treating septic tank effluent or grey water, landfill
leachate and other wastes that require removal of high concentrations organic materials,
suspended solids, nitrate, pathogens and other pollutants.
• The environment within the SSF bed is mostly either anoxic or anaerobic. Oxygen is supplied
by the roots of the emergent plants and is used up in the Biofilm growing directly on the
roots and rhizomes, being unlikely to penetrate very far into the water column itself. SSF
systems are good for nitrate removal (denitrification), but not for ammonia oxidation
(nitrification), since oxygen availability is the limiting step in nitrification
• The most common problem with hSSF is blockage, particularly around the inlet zone, leading
either to short circuiting, surface flow or both. This occurs because of poor hydraulic design,
insufficient flow distribution at the inlet, and inappropriate choice of porous media for the
inlet zone. Properly-designed SSF systems are very reliable
• FWS systems are very appropriate for polishing secondary and tertiary effluents, and for
providing habitat. The environment in the FWS systems is generally aerobic at, and near, the
surface, tending toward anoxic conditions near the bottom sediment. The microbial film
grows on all available plant surfaces, and is the main mechanism of pollutant removal. FWS
usually exhibits more biodiversity than does SSF systems.
Vegetation type and water column contact in constructed wetlands
 Free-water surface constructed subsurface systems
wetland

Wastewater flow above ground exposed to the atmosphere and though a porous media in which plants are
to direct sunlight rooted

Sites for removing remaining solids and filter media plant roots and stem
bacteria growth/attachment

Vegetation type Can be emergent, submerged or floating plants Emergent plants are used where roots play an
important role in maintaining the permeability
of the filter

Pathogen removal UV radiation in addition to natural decay, Mainly natural die off, predation from higher
predation from higher organisms and organisms and sedimentation
sedimentation

Surface area required for same degree requires more surface Less surface area is required because porous
of treatment subsurface filter medium provides a greater
contact area for treatment activities.
B i o l o g i c a l Wa s t e wa t e r Tre a t m e n t

Site Selection for CW

• Topography:
– Because grading and excavating represent a major cost factor,
topography is an important consideration to select an appropriate site.
Flat topography
• Soil Permeability:
– In selecting a site for FWS wetland the underlying soil permeability
must be considered.
– The most desirable soil permeability is 10-6 to 10-7 m/s.
– Highly permeable soils needs to be lined (with clay or artificial liners).
– Sandy clays and silty clay loams can be suitable when compacted.
– Sandy soils are too permeable to support wetland vegetation.
• Hydrological Factors
✓ Hydrological factors which can affect removal of pollutants include
precipitation, infiltration, evapo transpiration (ET) by;

▪ Altering detention time

▪ Concentrating or diluting the wastewater
• For CW, the water balance can be expressed as;

• Qi+P-ET-Qo=[dV/dt]

✓ Ground-water inflow and infiltration are excluded from the above

equation because of the impermeable barrier
✓ if the system operates at a relatively constant water depth (dV/dt = 0), the
effluent flow rate can be estimated using the above equation.
B i o l o g i c a l Wa s t e wa t e r Tre a t m e n t

• Hydrological Factors
✓ Hydrological factors which can affect removal of pollutants include
precipitation, infiltration, evapo transpiration (ET) by;

▪ Altering detention time

▪ Concentrating or diluting the wastewater
• For CW, the water balance can be expressed as;

• Qi+P-ET-Qo=[dV/dt]
✓ Ground-water inflow and infiltration are excluded from the above
equation because of the impermeable barrier
✓ if the system operates at a relatively constant water depth (dV/dt = 0), the
effluent flow rate can be estimated using the above equation.
B i o l o g i c a l Wa s t e wa t e r Tre a t m e n t

Design Approaches for Constructed Wetlands

Reed’s method ;
• first-order kinetics model is used for those pollutants that are removed
primarily by biological processes, including

→ BOD, NH4 and NO3

• separate equations for total suspended solids (TSS) and total phosphorus
(TP).

• For the removal of pathogenic organisms in constructed wetlands, he

suggests the same approach as that used for waste stabilization ponds
B i o l o g i c a l Wa s t e wa t e r Tre a t m e n t

• For removal of BOD in constructed wetlands:

typically 0.75