different types of sedimentation

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There are various different types of sedimentation:

 granular particles will each settle separately and will each be subject to a
constant settling speed;
 particles that are more or less flocculated will be of different sizes and,
therefore, subject to variable sedimentation rates. At low concentration levels,
the settling speed increases as the floc increases in size through collision with
other particles; this is termed flocculant settling.

At higher concentration levels, the abundance of floc and its interactions will lead to an
overall sedimentation which is most frequently characterised by a clearly defined
interface between the sludge mass and the supernatant liquid: this is hindered
settling where the rate will be optimum within a certain area of concentration, above
which, we talk of hindered settling.

granular particle sedimentation

This is the simplest case and the only one that can be easily described by equations.

theory: fluid at rest

When a granular particle remains in a liquid at rest, it will be affected by a driving force
FM (gravity minus the Archimedes thrust) and a resisting force FT (fluid drag) created by
viscosity and inertia forces:

hydraulic conditions

The value of C, the drag coefficient, is defined by the disturbance which is in turn
based on the settling speed. This disturbance is characterised by the Reynolds grain
number established by:
Re = adimensional.
where μ = dynamic viscosity.

When Re is low, the viscosity forces are far greater than the inertia forces. When Re is
high, the viscosity forces are negligible.

The drag coefficient is provided by:

Table 9 provides the various values for a, n and C according to the Reynolds number.

Table 9. Hydraulic conditions

These formulas constitute the basis used for calculating grain movement in a fluid and
are used for sedimentation (granular solids in a liquid, water drops in air), in upward
motion (air bubbles in water, oil drops in water), for centrifugation, and for fluidisation.

Under laminar conditions, the Stokes law applied to a spherical particle will give:

The aggregation phenomena that cause growth will, therefore, very rapidly increase the
sedimentation rate.

Under transitory conditions, the Allen law also gives a rising rate based on particle size;
however, this rate rises far more slowly because:

sphericity factor

This factor Ψ is provided by:

In the preceding operations, we then need to replace C by C' = ΨC and the Stokes law
will be written:

et le tableau 10 illustrates the considerable effect this factor has on “flat” materials.
Table 10. The considerable effect this factor has on “flat” materials

recovery conditions

Let us consider a rectangular sedimentation tank that has a length L, a vertical section
S = H·ℓ (where H is the water depth and ℓthe width) and a horizontal section S H = L· ℓ,
evenly crossed by a throughput Q that either ascends vertically or travels horizontally;
the following conditions will apply if the tank is to screen out a granular particle settling
at a rate Vo in still water:

vertical upflow sedimentation

Particles having a sedimentation rate that is greater than the liquid’s upwards velocity
will be screened out. This phenomenon is written:

Q = liquid flow rate.

SH = settling tank free surface area.

horizontal flow sedimentation (figure 11)

Figure 11. Schematic diagram of a horizontal flow sedimentation application
(granular particles)
The velocity of a particle entering into the tank through the top will have two
components:

V1: fluid horizontal velocity equal to Q/S.

V0: vertical settling speed provided by Stokes law.

VH:Hazen velocity (or hydraulic loading on the surface) similar to Vasc in the preceding
example and expressed in m3 · (h·m2)–1 or m · h–1.

It should be noted that VH is independent of tank depth.

All particles having sedimentation rates above VH will, theoretically, be eliminated.

However, if the water infeed is distributed over the entire depth of the tank, some of the
particles that have a sedimentation rate V below the Hazen velocity will also be retained
within the V/VH ratio whereas these particles would not have been retained in a upward
flow sedimentation tank.

In theory, for identical horizontal surface areas, a horizontal flow sedimentation tank can
thus be used to separate a greater number of particles (figure 12).

Figure 12. Effectiveness comparison between horizontal and upward flow

sedimentation (granular particles)
In practice, this difference will be attenuated and even reversed for the following
reasons associated with horizontal flow sedimentation :

 hydraulic distribution problems in the vertical plane both at the inlet and at the
outlet of a structure;
 sludge accumulation and collection, reducing the available section;
 in a circular, horizontal flow sedimentation tank, the horizontal component of the
particle velocity (V1) decreases from the centre outwards and the particle will
adopt a curvilinear trajectory

flocculant settling of flocculated particles

During sedimentation, flocculation will continue to take place and particle sedimentation
rate Vo will rise (figure 13).

Figure 13. Schematic diagram of a horizontal flow sedimentation application

(flocculated particles)
This process takes place as soon as flocculated matter concentration rises above
approximately 50 mg · L–1.

Flocculant sedimentation effectiveness does not depend only on the hydraulic loading at
the surface but also on contact time. There are no mathematical formulae available for
calculating the sedimentation rate.

Only laboratory tests and graph methods can be used to ascertain this rate. Figure 14
provides the results of one such test.

Figure 14. Eliminating flocculated particles by the flocculent sedimentation

method: relationship between time, effective depth and sedimentation
performance
hindered settling of flocculated particles

When the flocculated particle concentration increases, the interaction between particles
can no longer be ignored; they undergo "hindered" settling. Initially, this may cause
flocculation and sedimentation to improve (see sludge contact clarification) and then
hindered beyond a certain critical concentration; we then talk of "hindered settling".

This is a phenomenon that is characteristic of activated sludge and flocculated

suspensions when their concentration rises above approximately 500 mg · L–1.

visual observation

When hindered settling is carried out in a tube of adequate height and diameter (at least
a 1-litre test tube), we normally see the appearance of four zones (figure 15).

Figure 15. Hindered settling: Kynch curve

After a certain state, zones b and c disappear; this is the critical point. The change in
the a-b interface height as a function of time constitutes the Kynch curve.

kynch curve (figure 16)

Kynch’s fundamental hypothesis is that the rate at which a particle falls depends
exclusively on local particle concentration C Courbe de Kynch (figure 16).

Figure 16. Kynch curve

The separation surface between A and B is more or less clear-cut: this is the flake
coalescence phase. This phase does not always exist.

From B to C, a rectilinear part identifies a constant settling speed V (straight line

slope). In the case of a tube of specific dimensions, V depends on the initial suspended
solids concentration and on the suspension’s flocculation properties. When the initial
concentration C increases, the mass’s sedimentation rate V decreases: e.g. in activated
urban sludge where the suspended solids concentration goes from 1 to 4 g · L–1,
Vdecreases from 6 to 1.8 m · h–1.
The CD section which is concave at the top, refers to a gradual decrease in the settling
speed of the deposit’s top layer.

From D, the flakes come into contact with each other and exert a compression effect on
the lower layers.

Kynch’s theory applies to section BC and CD that cover the main flocculated sludge
sedimentation area.

interpretation

Let us consider a suspension where its clarification does not include a coalescence
phase (figure 17), calculations show that:

 in the BOC triangle, concentration and settling speed remain constant and equal
to the initial values found in B;
 in the COD triangle, the equal concentration curves are straight lines that cross
through the origin; this means that, as soon as sedimentation commences, the
layers that are the closest to the base of the tank will have to transit through
every concentration from initial concentration to that applicable at point D, the
start of compression.

Figure 17. Interpretation

Consequently, the sludge medium that has a height eb at point in time t 1 will have three
separate zones:

 an upper zone bc where settling speed and concentration remain uniform and will
have retained their initial values V0 and C;
 an intermediate zone cd where concentration increases gradually from c to d and
the settling speed drops accordingly;
 a lower zone where sludge flakes are subject to compression.

In the medium considered at a point in time t2, the upper zone disappears and, at point
in time t4, only the lower zone remains.

With regard to point M in section CD, there are two concentration levels:

CMi concentration at the interface,

CM mean concentration.
According to the Kynch hypothesis:

Furthermore:

The three sections BC, CD and DE on the Kynch curve (figure 16) are used to
dimension hindered settling tanks. The BC phase refers to the solids contact
clarification area. The CD phase applies to structures where sludge concentration is
targeted (units used for thickened sludge recirculation). The DE phase is used for
sludge thickening.

mohlman Index (Sludge Volume Index: SVI)

One specific point needs to be considered on the Kynch curve, that of the 30 minute
abscissa: the Mohlman index IM is widely used to define that clarification capacity
of biological sludge and, therefore, for dimensioning its clarifier and even for initiating
remedial action should bulking occur, see section biomass used in wastewater
purification and chapter biological processes).

V: volume of sludge after 30 minute settling time (cm3),

M: suspended solids present in this volume (g).

The drawback of the Mohlman index is that it is heavily dependent on sludge initial
concentration. Therefore, methods have been put forward for establishing an
independent index for this concentration and which is, therefore, exclusively
characteristic of the state of the sludge in the plant concerned. This is:

sludge index (IB) or diluted Mohlman index (DSVI).

The Kynch curve is plotted from dilutions used to achieve a volume of sludge equal to
approximately 200-250 mL per L after 30 minutes of settling time. The sludge index
IB used in France applies when this volume is between 100 and 300 mL; the DSVI used
by the Anglo-Saxons applies when the volume is equal to between 150 and 250 mL. In
both cases, it can be said that activated sludge has very good settling properties when
its sludge index or its DSVI is between 50 and 100 cm3·g–1, normal settling properties
between 100 and 200 and poor settling properties above 250.


case studyAs Samra wastewater treatment plant (Jordan)



case studyLa Farfana wastewater treatment plant (Chile)

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