Research Philosophies

Purpose of Philosophy in Research

Understanding philosophical issues is crucial for researchers for several

reasons:

1. Clarifies the Role of the Researcher: Researchers need to be aware

of their own philosophical assumptions, especially regarding
epistemology (how we know what we know). This helps them
understand their role in the research process and encourages creative
thinking.

2. Clarifies Research Design: Philosophy helps define what kind of

evidence is needed, how to gather it, and how it will answer the
research questions. This clarity shapes effective research methods.

3. Identifies Effective Designs: Knowledge of philosophy helps

researchers avoid ineffective methods and identify the strengths and
limitations of different approaches.

4. Encourages New Approaches: It helps researchers think outside

their previous experiences and try new research designs that they may
not have considered before.

Ontology: What is the nature of reality?

Ontology is concerned with what reality is and how it exists.

 Realism: Reality exists independently of our perceptions, and things

remain the same regardless of whether we observe them.

o Example: A tree exists in a forest, regardless of whether anyone

sees it.

 Internal Realism: Reality exists, but we can't directly access it. We

only know about it through our experiences and the tools we use to
observe it.

o Example: Scientists can't see atoms directly but infer their

existence through experiments and tools.

 Relativism: Reality is subjective and differs for each person. What one
person sees as real might not be the same for someone else.
 o Example: Two people might view the same event, like a
wedding, very differently based on their cultural perspectives.

 Nominalism: Reality is shaped by the labels and concepts we give to

things. These labels only have meaning because we agree on them.

o Example: Money only has value because we collectively agree it

does, not because the paper itself is valuable.

Epistemology: How do we know what we know?

Epistemology is the study of how we gain knowledge and understand the

world.

 Positivism: Knowledge comes from observable, measurable facts. If

something can't be measured, it's not considered real knowledge.

o Example: A researcher measures the height of a building using a

tape measure to gather factual, verifiable data.

 Social Constructionism: Knowledge is created by people through

their interactions and the meanings they attach to things. It’s about
understanding people's perspectives rather than proving facts.

o Example: Studying how different cultures interpret the concept

of success.

Research Design and Methodology

 Realism and Positivism: These views emphasize objectivity and

measurable data. Research methods in this tradition focus on
gathering quantitative data that can be used to prove or disprove
hypotheses. They provide a broad view of the situation, but they can
miss the deeper meanings and processes that people experience.

o Strength: Can cover a wide range of situations quickly and

economically; good for large-scale data collection.

o Weakness: Often too rigid, artificial, and not effective for

understanding processes or the meaning people attach to their
actions.
  Social Constructionism and Qualitative Methods: In contrast,
social constructionism emphasizes understanding people's lived
experiences, meanings, and perspectives. This approach is often more
flexible, as it adapts to new issues and contributes to theory
generation.

o Strength: Good for understanding change processes over time

and gathering rich data that reflects real-world complexity.

o Weakness: Can be time-consuming and resource-intensive. It

also often faces credibility issues, especially with policy-makers,
because it relies on "subjective" data.

 Engaged vs. Detached Research:

o Detached Research: The researcher remains separate and

objective from the study subjects, often seen in positivist
approaches.

o Engaged Research: The researcher becomes involved with the

subjects and context, which is particularly useful when studying
complex social systems, power dynamics, or cultural differences.
This "engaged" style is recognized for its value in exploring
deeper, more nuanced insights into real-world issues.

Alternative Paradigms and Research Approaches (Not very

important)

Research in management and business can also be framed through

alternative paradigms that go beyond traditional positivist or constructionist
methods. Some examples include:

 Critical Realism: Focuses on understanding underlying social

mechanisms. It assumes that reality exists but acknowledges that we
can’t always directly observe it. This approach encourages a mix of
quantitative and qualitative methods to explore both observable and
hidden aspects of phenomena.

o Example: Studying organizational behavior by combining

statistical data with in-depth interviews to understand the hidden
factors influencing employee actions.
  Critical Theory: Aims to critique and challenge societal structures,
often focusing on issues of power, inequality, and injustice. It has an
emancipatory agenda, aiming to bring about change by raising
awareness of hidden social structures.

o Example: Researching how corporate policies affect employees'

well-being, with the goal of advocating for change.

 Feminist Theory: Examines how gender inequality is built into

societal and organizational structures, often challenging traditional
scientific methods that overlook women's experiences and
perspectives.

o Example: Studying workplace dynamics to reveal gender bias in

hiring or promotion practices.

 Hermeneutics: Focuses on the interpretation of texts and meanings

within specific social or cultural contexts. It’s valuable when studying
historical or cultural phenomena.

o Example: Analyzing corporate annual reports to understand how

companies present their environmental impact over time.

 Pragmatism: Combines elements of both positivism and social

constructionism, aiming to find practical solutions by balancing theory
with real-world experience. It’s especially useful in studies of learning
and knowledge management.

o Example: Using case studies and qualitative interviews to

explore how organizations can improve their knowledge-sharing
practices.

 Postmodernism: Rejects the idea of universal truths and emphasizes

the fragmented and constructed nature of knowledge. It focuses on
power dynamics and the role of language in shaping reality.

o Example: Analyzing how corporate narratives are constructed

and how they shape public perception.

Conclusion

 Philosophical Awareness: Understanding the philosophical

assumptions behind research methods helps researchers clarify their
approach and produce more meaningful results.
 Realism vs. Nominalism: These represent different views of reality—
whether it’s something objective and independent or constructed
through language and social agreements.

 Positivism vs. Constructionism: These approaches reflect different

ways of acquiring knowledge—through measurable facts or through
understanding people's subjective experiences.
Study Notes: Causes-of-Effects vs. Effects-of-Causes and Causal
Models

1. Causes-of-Effects vs. Effects-of-Causes

Main Concepts:

 Causes-of-Effects:

o What it is: Start with an outcome (Y) and trace it backward to

identify its causes (Xs).

o Example: Studying global warming by first identifying

temperature changes (Y) and then working backward to find the
causes (X), like carbon emissions, deforestation, etc.

o Key: Often requires a multivariate explanation, where many

factors combine to produce the outcome.

o Used in Qualitative research, which focuses on individual

cases and their specific historical contexts.

 Effects-of-Causes:

o What it is: Start with a potential cause (X) and explore its
impact on an outcome (Y).

o Example: Studying the impact of carbon emissions on

global temperatures by focusing on emissions (X) and how
they affect global warming (Y).

o Key: Often looks at average effects across populations,

measuring how typical causes affect typical outcomes.

o Used in Quantitative research, which focuses on general

trends and averages within large samples or populations.

Methodological Differences:

 Quantitative Approach:

o Quantitative scholars generally adopt the effects-of-causes

approach, estimating the average effect of specific variables in
populations. This is typically done through experiments or
statistical models.
 o Quantitative research seeks to answer the question, "What is
the effect of X on Y?" often focusing on one independent
variable at a time. Even when multiple variables are included,
they are usually seen as control variables to account for
confounding factors, not because they are of primary interest.

 Qualitative Approach:

o Qualitative researchers often focus on causes-of-effects,

exploring specific events and working backward to uncover their
causes. This approach typically requires looking at multiple
causes that work together to explain an outcome.

o For example, when a researcher explores a historical event like

the collapse of the Soviet Union, they may look at multiple
factors (e.g., economic collapse, political corruption, etc.) that
contributed to the outcome in that specific context.

 General vs. Specific Focus:

o Quantitative research is concerned with populations and

averages, focusing on generalizable trends.

o Qualitative research is concerned with explaining outcomes in

individual cases and exploring how specific factors led to
specific results.

2. Causal Models in Quantitative and Qualitative

Research
Additive Linear Models (Quantitative):

 What it is: These models assume that outcomes (Y) are the result of a
sum of individual factors (X1, X2, etc.). The effect of each variable is
considered separately.

o Example: A regression model like Y = β0 + β1X1 + β2X2 + ε,

where the coefficients (β1, β2) represent the effect of X1 and X2
on Y.

o Key: Focus on individual variables and their effects on the

outcome. Control variables are often included to account for
confounding, but they aren’t of primary interest in the analysis.
Set-Theoretic Models (Qualitative):

 What it is: These models focus on combinations of factors that,

when present together, lead to an outcome. Instead of looking at
individual variables, qualitative models consider how factors work
together as a package.

o Example: A causal model like (A AND B AND NOT C) → Y,

where the outcome Y occurs only if conditions A, B, and NOT C
are present simultaneously.

o Key: Focus on combinations of causes and their sufficiency for

the outcome. Researchers often explore necessary and
sufficient conditions.

Key Differences:

 Quantitative Models:

o Additive and Linear: Focus on the contribution of individual

causes and how they affect the outcome independently.

o Focus on Populations: These models look at general patterns

across a large number of cases.

o Control Variables: In quantitative research, control variables

are used to account for potential confounding factors, but their
effects aren’t always the focus.

 Qualitative Models:

o Set-Theoretic and Complex: Focus on the relationships

between multiple factors and how they work together to produce
an outcome.

o Focus on Specific Cases: These models are more concerned

with explaining specific outcomes in individual cases or small
groups.

o Sufficiency Combinations: Look for specific combinations of

conditions that are necessary and sufficient for the outcome to
occur.

3. Causal Complexity and Equifinality

Causal Complexity:

 Quantitative Perspective:

o Complexity is understood as the presence of many potential

causes for a given outcome. In linear models, this is represented
by including multiple independent variables (e.g., X1, X2, X3)
and their effects on the outcome.

o The focus is on estimating the average effect of one or more

key variables, controlling for other factors that might influence
the outcome.

 Qualitative Perspective:

o Complexity is seen in terms of combinations of causes that

work together to produce the outcome. Researchers focus on
identifying the causal recipes or conjunctions of factors that
are sufficient to explain a specific outcome.

o For example, a researcher studying social revolutions may find

that the combination of military collapse, peasant revolt, and
state breakdown is sufficient to trigger a revolution in certain
historical contexts.

Equifinality:

 What it is: The idea that there are multiple paths to the same
outcome. In set-theoretic models, this is represented by the logical OR
(A OR B).

o Example: The outcome Y can occur if either condition A or

condition B is present, not necessarily both.

o Quantitative Models: Implicitly assume there are many

possible paths to an outcome (i.e., many combinations of
independent variables can affect the dependent variable), but
they focus on the overall average effect.

o Qualitative Models: Explicitly recognize equifinality, where a

few distinct causal paths lead to the same outcome. Each path
can be linked to specific configurations of conditions in different
cases.
4. Symmetry and Asymmetry in Causal
Relationships
Symmetric Causal Models (Quantitative):

 What it is: In symmetric models, the same factors that cause the
presence of an outcome (Y = 1) also explain its absence (Y = 0). The
causal relationship works the same way in both directions.

o Example: In OLS regression or logistic regression, the effect

of an increase in X1 on Y is assumed to be the same whether Y
is present or absent.

o Key: The causal effect is symmetric, meaning the model used

to explain the occurrence of Y is the same as the model
explaining the non-occurrence of Y.

Asymmetric Causal Models (Qualitative):

 What it is: In asymmetric models, the causes of success (Y = 1) are

different from the causes of failure (Y = 0). The model for explaining
success is different from the model for explaining failure.

o Example: In a study of graduate admissions, a high GRE

score is a necessary condition for admission (Y = 1), but it is
not a sufficient condition. On the other hand, a low GRE score (X
= 0) alone is enough to explain rejection (Y = 0).

o Key: The explanation for failure is often simpler (e.g., low GRE
score is enough to reject), while the explanation for success is
more complex, involving multiple factors (e.g., high GRE score,
good GPA, strong recommendations).

5. Complementarity Between Quantitative and

Qualitative Approaches
 Mixed-Method Research:

o How they complement each other: Quantitative research

focuses on averages and general trends in populations, while
qualitative research provides a deeper understanding of
specific cases and the combinations of factors that explain
those outcomes.
 o Example: A quantitative study may show that carbon
emissions are associated with global warming across
countries. A qualitative study could then explore specific
countries, looking at the historical, political, or economic
contexts that influence how carbon emissions impact global
temperatures in those cases.

Key Takeaways:

 Quantitative research: Focuses on estimating the average effects

of variables in populations and uses linear models to explain general
trends.

 Qualitative research: Focuses on explaining individual cases and

looks at combinations of causes that lead to specific outcomes.

 Causal complexity: Quantitative models assume many causes and

focus on the average effects, while qualitative models look for specific
causal combinations.

 Equifinality: In qualitative research, multiple causal paths can lead to

the same outcome, whereas quantitative research focuses on the
overall

Study Notes on Chapter 3: Reviewing the

Literature

Purpose and Importance of Literature Review

1. Establishing Theoretical Roots:

o A literature review helps clarify and focus your research problem

before you even start. It provides a theoretical foundation that
guides the development of your research methodology.
 o Early in the research process, it assists in refining ideas, framing
research questions, and identifying gaps in existing knowledge.

2. Enhancing and Integrating Knowledge:

o Later, the literature review serves to consolidate your knowledge

base and contextualize your findings.

o As you write your research report, it helps you integrate your

findings with existing research, either supporting or contradicting
previous studies.

o It shows how your research contributes to the broader field by

linking your findings to the existing body of knowledge.

3. Functions of the Literature Review:

o Clarity and Focus: Helps refine the research problem by

offering insight into what has been studied and where gaps exist.

o Improves Methodology: Guides the choice of research

methods based on the approaches used in similar studies.

o Broadens Knowledge: Provides a comprehensive overview of

the subject area, enabling you to understand key concepts,
theories, and debates.

o Contextualizes Findings: Once you’ve analyzed your data, the

literature review allows you to position your findings in relation to
previous work, contributing to the ongoing scholarly
conversation.

Steps in Conducting a Literature Review

1. Searching for Existing Literature:

o Identify the key sources: books, journals, and reputable online

databases.

o Develop a systematic search strategy using relevant keywords.

o Utilize databases like Google Scholar, JSTOR, PubMed, and

academic library resources to find peer-reviewed articles and
books.

2. Reviewing the Selected Literature:

 o Critically assess the relevance and quality of the sources you’ve
found.

o Identify key themes, debates, and methodologies that are

pertinent to your research.

o Look for gaps in the literature where your research can make a
contribution.

3. Developing a Theoretical Framework:

o Theoretical frameworks explain the relationships between key

variables or concepts.

o This framework sets the stage for your research and helps guide
the interpretation of your findings.

4. Developing a Conceptual Framework:

o The conceptual framework narrows down the broader theoretical

framework to focus on the specific variables or concepts you will
study.

o It serves as a visual or narrative representation of how different

aspects of the research are interrelated and guides the
investigation.

Writing the Literature Review

1. Structure:

o Introduction: Define the scope of the review, outline the

research questions, and explain the purpose of the literature
review.

o Body: Organize the review thematically, chronologically, or

methodologically to highlight key trends and developments in
the literature.

o Conclusion: Summarize the major insights gained from the

review and identify any gaps your research will address.

2. Critical Engagement:

o Go beyond summarizing the sources. Engage with the literature

by comparing and contrasting different studies.
 o Provide evidence from your sources to support your arguments
and critically analyze methodologies and findings.

3. Referencing and Academic Style:

o Use appropriate citations and referencing styles (e.g., APA, MLA,

Chicago) to give credit to the original authors and maintain
academic integrity.

o Ensure that your writing follows a logical progression and that

themes are clearly identified and substantiated with direct
references.

Benefits of a Literature Review

 Clarity in Research Problem: Reviewing existing literature helps

refine and focus your research problem, ensuring it is both relevant
and grounded in the field.

 Improved Methodology: It provides insights into effective

methodologies, saving time and effort by learning from previous
research.

 Knowledge Base: A well-conducted review deepens your

understanding of the field, identifying foundational theories and
methodologies.

 Contextualization of Findings: By comparing your results with

existing studies, the literature review allows you to demonstrate how
your findings support or challenge current understanding in the field.

Ongoing Process

 The literature review is not a one-time task but a continuous process. It

starts early, guiding your research design, and continues throughout
the study, refining your approach and integrating new findings as they
emerge.

 Paradox of Literature Review: While you need a research problem

to begin the review, the process of reviewing the literature itself often
helps shape and refine the research question.
Challenges and Solutions

 Reading Quality Literature: Books often provide comprehensive,

well-integrated knowledge but may be outdated. Journals offer up-to-
date findings, though there is a delay of a few years.

o Solution: Read widely and build a flexible framework to organize

the literature, allowing for continuous updating.

 Developing a Framework: It can be challenging to organize the

literature without a clear framework. Begin by developing a loose
framework and refine it as you read more.