Chapter No- 4

Understanding Research Philosophies and Approaches

 Research Philosophies
1. Epistemology:

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies the nature, origin, scope, and validity of
knowledge. It explores how we come to know things, what counts as knowledge, and the
justification for our beliefs. In research, epistemology is critical as it influences the methods
used to investigate and understand the world.

Forms of Epistemology:

i. Positivism:
● Positivism in epistemology is a philosophical stance asserting that knowledge is derived
from observable and measurable facts.
● It is rooted in the belief that reality exists independently of human perception and can be
understood through empirical evidence and scientific methods.
● Positivism emphasizes objectivity, rationality, and the pursuit of universal laws.
Key Features of Positivism:

● Reality is external and exists independently of our perceptions i.e. Knowledge about the
world is based on what can be observed and measured.
● Knowledge is gained through sensory experience and empirical observation i.e. Relies on
data collection, experiments, and statistical analysis.
● Hypotheses are formulated and tested against observable data i.e. theories are developed to
explain phenomena and predict outcomes.
● Research is conducted without personal biases or values influencing outcomes i.e. the
researcher maintains a neutral and detached position.
● Seeks to discover general laws or principles that apply universally i.e. Focuses on cause-
and-effect relationships.

Examples:

● Testing the laws of motion or chemical reactions.

● The effect of study hours on student grades.
ii. Realism:
● The essence of realism is that what the senses show us as reality is the truth: that objects
have an existence independent of the human mind.
● The theory of realism is that there is a reality quite independent of the mind.
● Realism is a branch of epistemology which is similar to positivism in that it assumes a
scientific approach to the development of knowledge. This assumption underpins the
collection of data and the understanding of those data.

Types of Realism:

a) Direct Realism:Direct realism says that what you see is what you get: what we
experience through our senses portrays the world accurately.
b) Critical Realism: Critical realists argue that what we experience are sensations, the
images of the things in the real world, not the things directly.
 ● Critical realism claims that there are two steps to experiencing the world. First, there is
the thing itself and the sensations it conveys. Second, there is the mental processing that
goes on sometime after that sensation meets our senses.
● Direct realism says that the first step is enough.

Examples:
● To pursue our cricket, the umpire who is the critical realist would say about his umpiring
decisions: ‘I give them as I see them!’
● The umpire who is a direct realist would say ‘I give them as they are!’

iii. Interpretivism:
● Interpretivism is an epistemology that advocates that it is necessary for the researcher to
understand differences between humans in our role as social actors.
● This emphasises the difference between conducting research among people rather than
objects such as trucks and computers.
 ● The heritage of this strand of interpretivism comes from two intellectual traditions:
phenomenology and symbolic interactionism.
● Phenomenology refers to the way in which we as humans make sense of the world around
us.
● In symbolic interactionism we are in a continual process of interpreting the social world
around us in that we interpret the actions of others with whom we interact and this
interpretation leads to adjustment of our own meanings and actions.

2. Ontology:
● Ontology is a branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of being, existence, and
reality.
● In the context of research, ontology focuses on what constitutes reality and how
researchers perceive the world they are studying.
● It helps define what entities exist in the world, how they relate, and whether they exist
independently of human perception or are socially constructed.
Aspects of Ontology:

a) Subjectivism:
● Truth and reality are shaped by individual experiences, perceptions, and consciousness.
● Knowledge is constructed through personal or social viewpoints.
● What is considered "true" or "real" depends on the individual or the group, and different
people may experience or interpret the world in different ways.

Example:
● A researcher studying the concept of happiness might argue that happiness cannot be
universally defined; rather, it is experienced differently by different individuals based on
their personal values, backgrounds, and contexts.
b) Objectivism:
● Reality exists independently of human thoughts, perceptions, and beliefs. Truth is
objective and can be discovered through rational inquiry or empirical observation.
● There are universal truths or facts that exist regardless of an individual's experience or
interpretation.
● The world is seen as existing outside of human consciousness, and knowledge is obtained
by observing this objective reality.

Example:
● A researcher studying the impact of a specific medication on health will believe that the
effects of the medication are the same for all patients, regardless of their personal beliefs
or experiences.
3. Pragmatism:
● Pragmatism argues that the most important determinant of the research philosophy
adopted is the research question – one approach may be ‘better’ than the other for
answering particular questions.
● Moreover, if the research question does not suggest unambiguously that either a positivist
or interpretivist philosophy is adopted, this confirms the pragmatist’s view that it is
perfectly possible to work with both philosophies.
● This mirrors a theme which recurs in this book. This is that mixed methods, both
qualitative and quantitative, are possible, and possibly highly appropriate, within one
study.

Example:

The researcher doesn't start with a fixed theory about what will work best for students. Instead,
they experiment with different methods (e.g., interactive discussions, multimedia tools, peer
assessments) and assess their effectiveness in engaging students.
4. Axiology:
● Axiology is the branch of philosophy that deals with the study of values, including ethics
(moral values) and aesthetics (values related to beauty and art).
● In research, axiology refers to the role of values in the research process, examining how
researchers’ personal beliefs, ethics, and social values influence their studies, as well as
the values inherent in the subject being studied.

Examples:

A researcher studying educational inequality may be influenced by personal beliefs about social
justice, equality, and fairness. These values may guide the questions they ask, the methods they
use, and the way they interpret the results.
 Research Paradigms
● Paradigm is a way of examining social phenomena from which particular
understandings of these phenomena can be gained and explanations attempted.

Dimensions of Paradigm:

1. Radical Change
2. Regulation
3. Subjectivist
4. Objectivist
 Dimensions of Paradigm
1. Radical Change:
● Radical change relates to a judgement about the way organisational affairs should be
conducted.
● It suggests ways in which these affairs may be conducted in order to make fundamental
changes to the normal order of things.
● In short, the radical change dimension adopts a critical perspective on organisational life.
2. Regulation:
● The regulatory perspective is less judgemental and critical.
● Regulation seeks to explain the way in which organisational affairs are regulated and offer
suggestions as to how they may be improved within the framework of the way things are
done at present.
 ● In other words, the radical change dimension approaches organisational problems from the
viewpoint of overturning the existing state of affairs; the regulatory dimension seeks to
work within the existing state of affairs.
● Other two dimensions i.e. Subjectivist and Objectivist both are discussed earlier in
Ontology.

Types of Research Paradigms:

1. Functionalist

2. Interpretive

3. Radical Humanist

4. Radical Structuralist.
 Types of Research Paradigms
1. Functionalist Paradigm:
● In the bottom right corner of the quadrant is the functionalist paradigm.
● This is located on the objectivist and regulatory dimensions.
● Objectivism is the ontological position you are likely to adopt if you are operating with this
paradigm. It is regulatory in that you will probably be more concerned with a rational
explanation of why a particular organisational problem is occurring and developing a set of
recommendations set within the current structure of the organisation’s current management.
● This is the paradigm within which most business and management research operates.
● A typical example of a management research project operating within the functionalist
paradigm would be an evaluation study of a communication strategy to assess its
effectiveness and make recommendations as to the way in which it may be made more
2. Interpretive Paradigm:

● Contained in the bottom left corner of the quadrant is the interpretive paradigm.
● The philosophical position to which this refers is the way we as humans attempt to make sense
of the world around us.
● The concern to work with this paradigm would be to understand the fundamental meanings
attached to organisational life.
● The principal concern you have here is discovering irrationalities.
● Concern with studying an organisation’s communication strategy may soon turn to
understanding the ways in which the intentions of management become derailed for completely
unseen reasons, maybe reasons which are not apparent even to those involved with the strategy.
● This is likely to take you into the realm of organisation politics and the way in which power is
used.
3. Radical Humanist Paradigm:

● In the top left corner the radical humanist paradigm is located within the
subjectivist and radical change dimensions.
● The radical change dimension adopts a critical perspective on organisational life.
● To work within this paradigm you would be concerned with changing the status
quo, or in to articulate ways in which humans can transcend the spiritual bonds
and fetters which tie them into existing social patterns and thus realise their full
potential (Burrell & Morgan, 1979:32).
● The ontological perspective you would adopt here, as in the interpretivist
paradigm, would be subjectivist.
4. Radical Structuralist Paradigm:

● In the top right corner of the quadrant is the radical structuralist paradigm.
● Here your concern would be to approach your research with a view to achieving
fundamental change based upon an analysis of such organisational phenomena as
power relationships and patterns of conflict.
● The radical structuralist paradigm is involved with structural patterns with work
organisations such as hierarchies and reporting relationships and the extent to which
these may produce dysfunctionalities.
● It adopts an objectivist perspective because it is concerned with objective entities,
unlike the radical humanist paradigm which attempts to understand the meanings of
social phenomena from the subjective perspective of participating social actors.
 Purpose of Research Paradigms
Burrell and Morgan (1979) note that the purposes of the four paradigms are:

● To help researchers clarify their assumptions about their view of the nature of
science and society.
● To offer a useful way of understanding the way in which other researchers
approach their work.
● To help researchers plot their own route through their research; to understand
where it is possible to go and where they are going.
 Research Approaches
Deduction: Testing Theory

● It involves the development of a theory that is subjected to a rigorous test.

● As such, it is the dominant research approach in the natural sciences, where laws
present the basis of explanation, allow the anticipation of phenomena, predict their
occurrence and therefore permit them to be controlled (Collis and Hussey, 2003).
● It is Top-Down approach
● Robson (2002) lists five sequential stages through which deductive research will
progress:
1. Start with a Theory
2. Expressing the hypothesis in operational terms
3. Testing this operational hypothesis.

4. Examining the specific outcome of the inquiry.

5. If necessary, modifying the theory in the light of the findings.

Induction: Building Theory

● Inductive reasoning is essentially the opposite of deductive reasoning.

● Inductive reasoning begins with observations and seeks to build broader theories
or generalizations.
● It is a Bottom-up approach
Steps in Induction Approach:

● Observation:
● Data Collection:
● Pattern Recognition:
● Hypothesis Formation:
● Generalization:
● Theory Building: