• Recap: Lecture 26, 14th October 2024, 1035-1130 hrs.

– Brayton cycle
– Brayton cycle performance with pressure ratio and Tmax
– Brayton cycle
• Regeneration
• Intercooling
• Quiz # 3: 22-October-2024, during lecture hours
– Venue: LH 302
– Syllabus: Otto and Diesel cycles
– Open notes, open books
Actual/Real Brayton cycle

Pressure drop
T
3
qin

2a 4a
4s
2s
qout
1
s

Actual Brayton cycle T-s diagram

 Actual/Real Brayton cycle

• The deviation of actual compressors and turbines from

the isentropic versions can be accounted for by using
the isentropic efficiencies.
Isentropic work h2 s - h1
hC = @
Actual work h2 a - h1
Actual work h3 - h4 a
hT = @
Isentropic work h3 - h4 s
• Where, 2a and 4a are the actual states at the
compressor and turbine exit and 2s and 4s are the
corresponding isentropic states.
• Ideal Jet Propulsion cycles
– Slightly different from the ideal Brayton cycle
• Gases are not completely expanded in a turbine
• Partly in turbine and remainder in nozzle
• Net work output of the jet propulsion cycle is zero
– thrust developed in a turbojet engine is the
unbalanced force that is caused by the difference in
the momentum of the low-velocity air entering the
engine and the high-velocity exhaust gases leaving
the engine
 Gas turbine cycles

• Gas turbine engines operate on Brayton cycles.

• Ideal Brayton cycle is a closed cycle, whereas gas
turbines operate in the open cycle mode.
• Ideal cycle assumes that there are no irreversibilities
in the processes, air behaves like an ideal gas with
constant specific heats, and that there are no
frictional losses.
 Lect-6

Actual/Real Brayton cycle

• As a result of non-isentropic compression and expansion, the

compressor needs more work than the ideal cycle and turbine
generates less work.
• Isentropic efficiencies reflect the amount of deviation of the
actual compression/expansion processes from the ideal.
• Total pressure losses in the heat addition/rejection processes
also need to be considered.

7
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-6

Actual/Real Brayton cycle

• Other differences between ideal and actual Brayton cycles

– Change of specific heats with temperature
– Heat exchanger effectiveness (in case of regenerative cycles)
– Mass flow rate of fuel
– Combustion efficiency
• These parameters are often used in actual cycle analysis.

8
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-7
Gas Turbine Cycles

• Gas turbine engines operate on Brayton cycles.

• Ideal Brayton cycle is a closed cycle, whereas gas
turbines operate in the open cycle mode.
• Ideal cycle assumes that there are no irreversibilities in
the processes, air behaves like an ideal gas with
constant specific heats, and that there are no frictional
losses.

9
Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
 Lect-7
Ideal cycle for jet engines

• All air-breathing jet engines operate on the Brayton cycle

(open cycle mode).
• The most basic form of a jet engine is a turbojet engine.
• Some of the parameters of a jet engine cycle are usually
design parameters and hence often fixed a priori: eg.
compressor pressure ratio, turbine inlet temperature etc.
• Cycle analysis involves determining the performance
parameters of the cycle with the known design
parameters.

10
 Lect-7
Ideal cycle for jet engines
Combustion chamber/burner
Diffuser Compressor Turbine Nozzle

a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Afterburner

Schematic of a turbojet engine and

station numbering scheme 11
 Lect-7
Ideal cycle for jet engines

• The different processes in a turbojet cycle are the following:

• a-1: Air from far upstream is brought to the air intake (diffuser)
with some acceleration/deceleration
• 1-2: Air is decelerated as is passes through the diffuser
• 2-3: Air is compressed in a compressor (axial or centrifugal)
• 3-4 The air is heated using a combustion chamber/burner
• 4-5: The air is expanded in a turbine to obtain power to drive the
compressor
• 5-6: The air may or may not be further heated in an afterburner
by adding further fuel
• 6-7: The air is accelerated and exhausted through the nozzle.
12
 Lect-7
Ideal cycle for jet engines

4
T

5
3
7

2
a

Ideal turbojet cycle (without afterburning) on a T-s diagram

13
 Lect-7
Ideal cycle for jet engines

• Afterburning: used when the aircraft needs a substantial

increment in thrust. For eg. to accelerate to and cruise at
supersonic speeds.
• Since the air-fuel ratio in gas turbine engines are much greater
than the stoichiometric values, there is sufficient amount of air
available for combustion at the turbine exit.
• There are no rotating components like a turbine in the
afterburner, the temperatures can be taken to much higher
values than that at turbine entry.

14
 Lect-7
Ideal cycle for jet engines

6a
T

7a
5, 6

2
a

s
Ideal turbojet cycle with afterburning on a T-s diagram

15
 Thrust and efficiency

• We will now derive expressions for thrust and efficiency of

air-breathing engines from the momentum and energy
equations.
• We shall consider a generalized thrust producing device
with a single inlet and single exhaust.
• We assume that the thrust and conditions at all points
within the control volume do not change with time.

16
 The thrust equation Derivation: Optional

m f
Control surface Á (Reaction)
u
Ai Ae
ue
u, Pa m a
m e
Ae, Pe
Engine u

y
1 2
m s

x
17
 The thrust equation Derivation: Optional

• The reaction to the thrust, Á, is transmitted to the

support. The engine thrust is thus the vector summation
of all forces on the internal and external surfaces of the
engine.
• Therefore,  
å F = ò u r (u.n)dA
CS
• Considering the components of force and the
momentum flux in the x-direction only,

å Fx = ò ux r (u.n)dA
CS
18
 The thrust equation Derivation: Optional

• The pressure and velocity can be assumed to be

constant over the entire control surface, except over
the exhaust area, Ae.
• The net pressure force acting on this control volume
is (Pa–Pe)Ae.
• The only other force acting on the control volume is
the reaction to the thrust,Á .
• Adding up the forces in the x-direction,

åF x = ( Pa - Pe ) Ae + Á
19
 The thrust equation Derivation: Optional

• The mass flow that enters the capture area,

Ai, is m a = ruAi
• Similarly, the mass flow crossing the exhaust
area Ae, is, m e = reue Ae
• Also, m e = m a + m f
Or, m f = r eue Ae - ruAi
• Continuity equation for the CV gives,
r eue Ae + ru ( A - Ae ) + m s - m f - ruA = 0
Rearranging, m s = m f + ruAe - r eue Ae
Which is, m s = ru ( Ae - Ai )
20
 The thrust equation Derivation: Optional

• From the momentum balance across the CV,


ò ux r (u.n)dA = m eue + m su + ru( A - Ae )u - m au - ru( A - Ai )u
CS

• This is the net outward flux of x-momentum.

• This equation reduces to

ò ux r (u.n)dA = m eue - m au
CS

• From the force balance equation, we have,

Á = m eue - m au + ( Pe - Pa ) Ae

21
 The thrust equation

• If we define fuel-air ratio,

Á = m a [(1 + f )ue - u ] + ( Pe - Pa ) Ae
• This is the generalised thrust equation for air-breathing
engines.
• The term (Pe–Pa)Ae is not zero only if the exhaust jet is
supersonic and the nozzle does not expand the exhaust
jet to ambient pressure.
• However if Pa « Pe, it can be substantial contribution.

22
 Engine performance parameters

• Propulsion efficiency: The ratio of thrust power to the

rate of production of propellant kinetic energy.
Áu
hP =
[ ]
m a (1 + f )(ue2 / 2) - u 2 / 2
• If we assume that f«1 and the pressure thrust term is
negligible,

(ue - u )u 2u / ue
hP = 2 =
ue / 2 - u / 2 1 + u / ue
2

23
 Engine performance parameters

• Thermal efficiency: The ratio of the rate of production of

propellant kinetic energy to the total energy consumption
rate

hth =
[ ] [
m a (1 + f )(ue2 / 2) - u 2 / 2
=
(1 + f )(ue2 / 2) - u 2 / 2 ]
m f QR fQR
where, QR , is the heat of reaction of the fuel.

• For a turboprop or turboshaft engine, the output is largely

shaft power. In this case,
Ps
hth = where, Ps , is the shaft power output of the engine.
m f QR
24
 Engine performance parameters
• Overall efficiency: The product of thermal
efficiency and propulsion efficiency.
ho = h phth

• In the case of aircraft that generate thrust

using propellers,
ho = h prhth
Where,h pr is the propeller efficiency.

25
 Engine performance parameters

• Thrust specific fuel consumption, TSFC

m f m f
TSFC = »
Á m a [(1 + f )ue - u ]
• For turbine engines that produce shaft power, brake
specific fuel consumption, BSFC
m f
BSFC =
Ps
• For engine (like turboprop) that produce both,
equivalent brake specific fuel consumption,
m f m f
EBSFC = =
Pes Ps + Áu 26