PRODUCTION TEHNOLOGY

MEE 2165

Instructor: Dr. Gaudence

Lecture 2:

METAL CASTING
PROCESSES
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 METAL CASTING PROCESSES

Sand Casting
 Other Expendable Mold Casting Processes
 Permanent Mold Casting Processes
 Foundry Practice
Casting Quality
Metals for Casting
Product Design Considerations

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 Two Categories of Metal Casting
Processes
Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed to
remove part
o Advantage: more complex shapes are possible
o Disadvantage: production rates are often limited by
time to make mold rather than casting itself
 Permanent mold processes - mold is made of metal and
can be used to make many castings
oAdvantage: higher production rates.
oDisadvantage: geometries are limited by need to open
mold
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 Overview of Sand Casting
Also known as sand-mold casting
Most widely used casting process,
accounting for a significant
majority of total tonnage cast.
 Nearly all alloys can be sand
cast, including metals with high
melting temperatures, such as
steel, nickel, and titanium
 Parts ranging in size from small
to very large
 Production quantities from one
to millions

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 Overview of Sand Casting

Figure: A large sand casting

weighing over 680 kg (1500 lb)
\for an air compressor frame
(courtesy Elkhart Foundry,
photo by Paragon Inc , Elkhart,
Indiana)

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 Sand Mold Features

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 Steps in Sand Casting
1. Pour molten metal into sand mold
2. Allow metal to solidify
3. Break up the mold to remove casting
4. Clean and inspect casting
5. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required to improve metallurgical
properties

Making the Sand Mold

The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing sand around a pattern, then
separating the mold into two halves and removing the pattern.
The mold must also contain gating and riser system
 If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core must be included in mold
A new sand mold must be made for each part produced

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 Steps in the production sequence in sand casting

The steps include not only the casting operation but also pattern-
making and mold-making.

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 The Pattern
A full-sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to account for shrinkage and
machining allowances in the casting.
 Pattern materials:
o Wood - common material because it is easy to work, but it bends (warps)
o Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts much longer
oPlastic - compromise between wood and metal
The simplest pattern is made of one piece, called a solid pattern-same
geometry as the casting, adjusted in size for shrinkage and machining.
Although it is the easiest pattern to fabricate, it is not the easiest to use in
making the sand mold.
Determining the location of the parting line between the two halves of the
mold for a solid pattern can be a problem.
oThe parting line of the mold is predetermined by the two pattern halves,
rather than by operator judgement.
solid patterns are generally limited to very low production quantities.
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The Pattern - Types of patterns used in sand casting:

(a) solid pattern

(b) split pattern
(c) match-plate pattern
(d) cope and drag pattern
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 The Pattern

Split patterns consist of two pieces, dividing the part

along a plane coinciding with the parting line of the mold.
Split patterns are appropriate for complex part
geometries and moderate production quantities.
For higher production quantities, match-plate patterns or
cope-and-drag patterns are used.
Holes in the plate allow the top and bottom (cope and
drag) sections of the mold to be aligned accurately.
Patterns define the external shape of the cast part. If the
casting is to have internal surfaces, a core is required.

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 Core
Full-scale model of interior surfaces of part.
It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to pouring.
The molten metal flows and solidifies between the mold cavity and the
core to form the casting's external and internal surfaces.
 May require supports to hold it in position in the mold cavity during
pouring, called chaplets.
oChaplets are made of a metal with a higher melting temperature than
the casting metal.
oFor example, steel chaplets would be used for cast iron castings.
oIn pouring and solidification, the chaplets become bonded into the
casting.
 The core is usually made of sand, compacted into the desired shape.
As with the pattern, the actual size of core must include allowances for
shrinkage and machining.

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 Core held in place in the mold cavity by
chaplets

(b) possible chaplet design

(c) casting with internal cavity

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 Basic requirements for Sand Molding

The following requirements are basic to sand molding, and most of them
also apply for the construction of other types of molds:
oSand - To serve as the main structural material for the mold.
oA pattern - To form a properly shaped and sized cavity in the sand.
oA flask - To contain the sand around the pattern and to provide a
means of removing the pattern after the mold is made
o A ramming method - To compact the sand around the pattern for
accurate transfer of size and shape.
o A core - To form internal surfaces on the part (usually not required for
castings without cavities or holes).
o A mold gating system - To provide a means of filling the mold cavity
with metal at the proper rate and to supply liquid metal to the mold
cavity as the casting contracts during cooling and solidification.

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 Steps for sand casting - Figures

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 Steps for sand Mold Making
1. A pattern is made which is a replica of metal part to be cast.
2. Then the pattern is placed in Drag (open from both side)
3. A powder called parting powder is sprinkled onto the pattern (to
prevent sticking of pattern and sand).
4. Then a special type of sand (depending on use) is filled in and
rammed around the pattern so that there is no gap between pattern
and sand.
5. Drag is completely filled with sand and excess sand on top surface is
removed with a metal bar called a leveling bar.
6. The drag is then turned over to reveal the bottom of the pattern.

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 Steps for sand Mold Making
7.After that parting powder is sprinkled and cope is placed on top of drag.
8. The cope is filled with sand but before filled two tapered wooden bar are
placed in for sprues and riser.
9. Then pattern and wooden bar are removed and channel are cut in drag sand
to form way for the molten metal to flow in mold.

10. Now molten metal from furnace can be poured in the sprue and when the
metal is visible in riser the pouring can be ceased.
11. The mold is left to cool. After cooling the sand is broken from the newly
formed solid metal.
12. Sprue, runner and riser is removed from the solid metal and the finish
product is obtained (similar to the initial pattern)

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 Desirable Mold Properties and
Characteristics

Several indicators are used to determine the quality of the sand

mold:
oStrength - to maintain shape and resist erosion
oPermeability - to allow hot air and gases to pass through voids in
sand
oThermal stability - to resist cracking on contact with molten
metal
oCollapsibility- ability to give way and allow casting to shrink
without cracking the casting
oReusability - can sand from broken mold be reused to make other
molds?
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 The Casting Operation
After the core is positioned (if one is used) and the two halves of the mold are clamped
together, then casting is performed.
The gating and riser system in the mold must be designed to deliver liquid metal into the
cavity and provide for a sufficient reservoir of molten metal during solidification
shrinkage.
 Air and gases must be allowed to escape.
One of the hazards during pouring is that the buoyancy of the molten metal will displace
the core.
oBuoyancy results from the weight of the molten metal being displaced by the core,
according to Archimedes’ principle.
The force tending to lift the core is equal to the weight of the displaced liquid less the
weight of the core itself.
Expression:𝑭𝒃 = 𝑾𝒎 - 𝑾𝒄
Where Fb = buoyancy force, Wm = weight of molten metal displaced and Wc =
weight of the core.
oWeights are determined as the volume of the core multiplied by the respective
densities of the core material.
 The density of a sand core is approximately 1.6 g/cm3.
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 Densities of selected casting alloys - Table

Material Density ( g/cm3)

Aluminum (99%= pure) 2.7
Aluminum-silicon alloy 2.65
Aluminum-copper alloy (92%Al) 2.81
Brass 8.62
Cast iron, gray 7.16
Copper (99% =Pure) 8.73
Lead (Pure) 11.3
Steel 7.82

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 Example: buoyancy in sand casting
1. A sand core has a volume of 1875 cm3 and is located inside a sand
mold cavity. Determine the buoyancy force tending to lift the core
during pouring of molten lead into the mold.
Solution: Density of the sand core is 1.6 g/cm3.Weight of the core is
1875 (1.6) =3000 g= 3.0kg.Density of lead, based on the previous
Table, is 11.3g/cm3.The weight of lead displaced by the Core is
1875(11.3)=21.188g=21.19kg.
The difference =21.19-3.0=18.19kg.
Given that 1 kg = 9.81 N, the buoyancy force is therefore Fb =
9.81(18.19) = 178.4 N.

2. An 92% aluminum-8% copper alloy casting is made in a sand mold

using a sand core that weighs 20 kg. Determine the buoyancy force in
Newtons tending to lift the core during pouring.
3. A sand core located inside a mold cavity has a volume of 157.0 in3.
It is used in the casting of a cast iron pump housing. Determine the
buoyancy force that will tend to lift the core during pouring.

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 Other Expendable Mold Casting Processes

Shell Molding
Vacuum Molding
Expanded Polystyrene process
Investment casting
Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold casting

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 Permanent Mold Casting Processes

Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting: a new

mold is required for every casting
In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many times
The processes include:
o Basic permanent mold casting
oDie casting
oCentrifugal casting

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The Basic Permanent Mold Process

Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections designed for easy,

precise opening and closing

oMolds used for casting lower melting point alloys (Aluminium,

Zinc,..) are commonly made of steel or cast iron

oMolds used for casting steel must be made of refractory material,

due to the very high pouring temperatures

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 Steps in the basic permanent Mold casting

(1) mold is preheated and coated

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 Steps in the basic permanent Mold casting

(2) cores (if used) are inserted and mold is closed

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 Steps in the basic permanent Mold casting

(3) molten metal is poured into the mold, where it

solidifies

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 Steps in the basic permanent Mold casting

(4) mold is opened (5) Finished part

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 Permanent Molding Casting Process

Advantages:
oGood surface finish and close dimensional control.
oMore rapid solidification caused by the cold metal mold results in
a finer grain structure, so stronger castings are produced

Disadvantages:
oThe process is generally limited to metals of lower melting points.
oSimple part geometries compared to sand casting because of the
need to open the mold
oHigh cost of mold

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Applications of Permanent Mold Casting

Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high volume

production and can be automated accordingly.

Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and certain

castings for aircraft and missiles

Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium, copper-base

alloys, and cast iron

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 Permanent Mold Casting: Aluminum piston

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 Variations of Permanent Mold Casting
Severalcasting processes are quite similar to the basic permanent
mold method. These include: Slush casting, Low-pressure casting,
Vacuum Permanent Mold Casting
oSlush casting: is a permanent mold process in which a hollow
casting is formed by inverting the mold after partial freezing at the
surface to drain out the liquid metal in the center. Slush casting is
used to make hollow toys, statues
oLow-pressure casting: in the basic permanent mold casting process
and in slush casting, the flow of metal into the mold cavity is
caused by gravity. In low-pressure casting, the liquid metal is
forced into the cavity under low pressure—approximately 0.1 MPa
oVacuum Permanent Mold Casting: uses a vacuum to draw the
molten metal into the mold cavity.

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 Die Casting
A Permanent Mold Casting process in which the molten metal is injected into the
mold cavity under high pressure.
Typically, 7 – 350 MPa.
Molds in this casting operation are called dies.

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 Centrifugal Casting
Refers to several casting methods in which the mold is rotated at high speed so
that centrifugal force distributes the molten metal to the outer regions of the die
cavity.
The group includes (1) True centrifugal casting, semi-centrifugal casting, and
Centrifugal Casting
True Centrifugal Casting
Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce a tubular part.
Parts made: pipes and tubes

Set up for true centrifugal casting

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 Foundry Sands

Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals

oGood refractory properties - capacity to endure high temperatures
oSmall grain size yields better surface finish on the cast part
oLarge grain size is more permeable, to allow escape of gases during
pouring
oIrregulargrain shapes tend to strengthen molds due to interlocking,
compared to round grains
Disadvantage: interlocking tends to reduce permeability

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 Binders Used with Foundry Sands
Sand is held together by a mixture of water and bonding clay
o Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay
Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:
oOrganic resins (e g , phenolic resins)
o Inorganic binders (e g , sodium silicate and phosphate)
Additives are sometimes combined with the mixture to enhance strength
and/or permeability

Types of Sand Mold

Green-sand molds - mixture of sand, clay, and water;
Dry-sand mold – uses organic binders rather than clay, and mold is baked
in a large oven at temperatures ranging from 200oC to 300oC to improve
strength.
Skin-dried mold - drying mold cavity surface of a green-sand mold to a
depth of 10 to 25 mm, using torches or heating lamps.
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 Green-sand molds characteristics

“Green" means mold contains moisture at time of

pouring.
They possess sufficient strength for most applications,
good collapsibility, good permeability, good reusability,
and are the least expensive of the molds.
They are the most widely used mold type, but they do
have some issues
oMoisture in the sand can cause defects in some castings,
depending on the metal and geometry of the part.

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 Dry-sand mold characteristics

It provides better dimensional control in the cast product, compared to

green-sand molding.
However, dry-sand molding is more expensive, and production rate is
reduced because of drying time.
Applications are generally limited to medium and large castings in low to
medium production rates.

Dry-sand mold characteristics

Special bonding materials must be added to the sand mixture to

strengthen the cavity surface.

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 Furnaces for Casting Processes
Furnaces most commonly used in foundries:
o Cupolas
o Direct fuel-fired furnaces
o Crucible furnaces
o Electric-arc furnaces
o Induction furnaces

Cupolas
Vertical cylindrical furnace equipped with tapping spout near base
Used only for cast irons, and although other furnaces are also used,
largest tonnage of cast iron is melted in cupolas
The "charge," consisting of iron, coke, flux, and possible alloying
elements, is loaded through a charging door located less than halfway up
height of cupola

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 Cupolas

The iron is usually a mixture of pig iron and scrap (including risers,
runners, and sprues left over from previous castings)
Coke is the fuel used to heat the furnace.
Forced air is introduced through openings near the bottom of the shell
for combustion of coke.
The flux is a basic compound such as a limestone that reacts with coke
ash and other impurities to form slag.
The slag serves to cover the melt, protecting it from reaction with the
environment inside the cupola and reducing heat loss.
As the mixture is heated and melting of the iron occurs, the furnace is
periodically tapped to provide liquid metal for the pour.

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 Cupolas

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 Direct Fuel-Fired Furnaces
Small open-hearth in which charge is heated by natural gas fuel burners
located on side of furnace.
Furnace roof assists the heating action by reflecting flame down against
charge.
 At bottom of hearth is a tap hole to release molten metal.
Generally used for nonferrous metals such as copper-base alloys and
aluminum.
Crucible Furnaces
Metal is melted without direct contact with burning fuel mixture
Sometimes called indirect fuel-fired furnaces
 Container (crucible) is made of refractory material or high-temperature
steel alloy
Used for nonferrous metals such as bronze, brass, and alloys of zinc and
aluminum
Three types used in foundries: (a) lift-out type, (b) stationary, and (c) Tilting
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 Three types of crucible furnaces

Three types of crucible furnaces:

(a) Lift-out crucible,
(b) Stationary pot, from which molten metal must be
ladled, and
(c) Tilting-pot furnace

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 Electric-Arc Furnaces
Charge is
melted by heat
generated from
an electric arc
 High power
consumption,
but electric-arc
furnaces can be
designed for
high melting
capacity
Used primarily
for melting steel

Electric arc furnace for steelmaking

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 Induction Furnaces
Uses alternating current passing through a coil to develop magnetic field in
metal.
Induced current causes rapid heating and melting.
Electromagnetic force field also causes mixing action in liquid metal.
Since metal does not contact heating elements, the environment can be
closely controlled, which results in molten metals of high quality and purity.
Melting steel, cast iron, and aluminum alloys are common applications in
foundry work.

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 Ladles
Moving molten metal from melting furnace to mold is sometimes done
using crucibles
More often, transfer is accomplished by ladles
Two common types of ladles:
(a) Crane ladle (b) Two-man ladle

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 Additional Steps After casting is removed
Trimming
Removing the core
 Surface cleaning
 Inspection
 Repair, if required
 Heat treatment
Trimming

Removal of sprues, runners, risers, parting-line flash, fins, chaplets, and

any other excess metal from the cast part
For brittle casting alloys and when cross-sections are relatively small,
appendages can be broken off.
Otherwise, hammering, shearing, hack-sawing, abrasive wheel cutting, or
various torch cutting methods are used
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 Removing the Core
If cores have been used, they must be removed
Most cores are bonded, and they often fall out of casting as the binder
deteriorates
In some cases, they are removed by shaking casting, either manually or
mechanically
In rare cases, cores are removed by chemically dissolving bonding agent
Solid cores must be hammered
Surface Cleaning
or pressed out
Removal of sand from casting surface and otherwise enhancing appearance of
surface
Cleaning methods: Air-blasting with coarse sand grit or metal shot, wire
brushing, buffing (polishing), and chemical pickling (chemical treatment to
remove impurities)
Surface cleaning is most important for sand casting, whereas in many
permanent mold processes, this step can be avoided
Defects are possible in casting, and inspection is needed to detect their
presence
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 Heat Treatment

Castings are often heat treated to enhance properties

 Reasons for heat treating a casting:
o For subsequent processing operations such as machining
oTo bring out the desired properties for the application of the part
in service
Casting Quality

There are numerous opportunities for things to go wrong in a

casting operation, resulting in quality defects in the product
The defects can be classified as follows:
oCommon Defects to all casting processes
oDefects related to sand casting process
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 CASTING DEFECTS

Some common defects (a) Misrun

in castings:

 Casting that has solidified

oMisruns before completely filling
oCold shuts mold cavity
oCold shots
oShrinkage cavity
oMicroporosity
oHot tearing

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 (b) Cold Shut (C) Cold Shot
Two portions of metal flow  Metal splatters during pouring
together but there is a lack of and solid globules form and
fusion due to premature freezing become entrapped in casting

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 (d) Shrinkage Cavity (e) Microporosity
Depression in surface or  Consists of network of small voids
internal void caused by distributed throughout the casting
solidification shrinkage that caused by localized solidification
restricts amount of molten shrinkage of the final molten metal
metal available in last region to in the dendritic structure.
freeze  It is associated with alloys.

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 (f ) Hot tears

Also called hot cracking, occurs

when the casting is restrained from
contraction by an unyielding mold
during the final stages of
solidification or early stages of
cooling after solidification.

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 Common defects in sand castings

Sand blow Pin holes

Balloon-shaped gas cavity,  Formation of many small gas
caused by release of mold cavities at or slightly below
gases during pouring surface of casting

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 Penetration Mold shift
When fluidity of liquid metal
is high, it may penetrate into  A step in cast product at parting
sand mold or sand core, line caused by a sidewise
causing casting surface to displacement of the mold cope
consist of a mixture of sand relative to the drag
grains and metal

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 Foundry Inspection Methods
Visual inspection to detect obvious defects such
as misruns, cold shuts, and severe surface flaws.
Dimensional measurements to insure that
tolerances have been met.
Metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other tests
concerned with quality of cast metal.

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 Metals for Casting
Most commercial castings are made of alloys rather than pure
metals.
oAlloys are generally easier to cast, and properties of product are
better.
Casting alloys can be classified as Ferrous and Non-ferrous
Ferrous Casting Alloys: Cast Iron
Most important of all casting alloys
Tonnage of cast iron castings is several times that of all
other metals combined
Typical pouring temperatures  1400C (2500F),
depending on composition
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 Ferrous Casting Alloys: Steel

The mechanical properties of steel make it an attractive

engineering material
The capability to create complex geometries makes
casting an attractive shaping process
Difficulties faced by the foundry working with steel:
oPouring temperature of steel is higher than for most
other casting metals  1650C (3000F)
oAt these temperatures, steel readily oxidizes, so molten
metal must be isolated from air
Molten steel has relatively poor fluidity
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 Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Aluminum

Generally considered to be very castable

Pouring temperatures low – melting temperature of
aluminum Tm = 660C (1220F)
Properties:
oLight weight
oRange of strength properties by heat treatment
oEase of machining

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 Product Design Considerations

Although casting can be used to produce complex part

geometries, simplifying the part design will improve castability .
Avoiding unnecessary complexities (Simplifies mold-making,
Reduces the need for cores, Improves the strength of the
casting)
Sharp corners and angles should be avoided, since they are
sources of stress concentrations and may cause hot tearing and
cracks
 Almost all sand castings must be machined to achieve the
required dimensions and part features
oAdditional material,called the machining allowance, must be
left on the casting in those surfaces where machining is
necessary
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