Course Manual

Vibration Analysis Level – 1

Center for Vibration analysis & Condition Monitoring

Directorate of Nuclear Power Engineering Reactor

PAKISTAN ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION

 Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION TO VIBRATION TECHNOLOGY ......................................... 3
1.1 A COMPARISON OF MAINTENANCE PHILOSOPHIES ...................................... 3
1.1.1 Breakdown Maintenance .............................................................................................. 3
1.1.2 Scheduled or Preventive Maintenance ......................................................................... 3
1.1.3 Predictive Maintenance ................................................................................................ 4
1.2 VIBRATION AS A PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE TOOL .................................... 4
2 CHARACTERISTICS OF VIBRATION ................................................................ 5
2.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF VIBRATION .................................................................... 5
2.1.1 Vibration Frequency ..................................................................................................... 6
2.1.2 Significance of Vibration Frequency ........................................................................... 6
2.1.3 Vibration Amplitude..................................................................................................... 9
2.1.4 Displacement .............................................................................................................. 10
2.1.5 Vibration Velocity ...................................................................................................... 10
2.1.6 Vibration Acceleration ............................................................................................... 10
2.1.7 Conversion of Measurement Parameters .................................................................... 10
2.1.8 Phase ........................................................................................................................... 11
3 INSTRUMENTS FOR VIBRATION DETECTION AND ANALYSIS ............. 13
3.1 Vibration Analyzer ..................................................................................................... 13
3.2 THE VIBRATION TRANSDUCER.......................................................................... 13
3.3 WHERE TO TAKE THE READINGS ...................................................................... 14
3.4 VIBRATION FREQUENCY ANALYZERS ............................................................ 15
3.5 WHAT IS FFT? .......................................................................................................... 15
3.6 SELECTING FMAX .................................................................................................. 16
3.7 SELECTING THE NUMBER OF LINES OF RESOLUTION ................................. 16
3.8 SELECTING THE NUMBER OF SPECTRAL AVERAGES .................................. 17
4 VIBRATION ANALYSIS ........................................................................................ 18
4.1 DEFINE THE PROBLEM ......................................................................................... 18
4.2 DETERMINE THE MACHINE HISTORY .............................................................. 19
4.3 DETERMINE MACHINE DETAILS ........................................................................ 19
4.4 VISUAL INSPECTION ............................................................................................. 21
4.5 OBTAIN HORIZONTAL, VERTICAL AND AXIAL SPECTRUMS (FFTs) AT
EACH BEARING OF THE MACHINE TRAIN....................................................... 21
4.6 USE THE SAME AMPLITUDE RANGE (SCALE) FOR ALL FFTS ..................... 21
4.7 DEFINE SPECTRAL PARAMETERS THAT WILL COVER ALL IMPORTANT
VIBRATION FREQUENCIES .................................................................................. 21
4.8 INTERPRETING THE DATA .................................................................................. 23
4.9 IDENTIFYING THE PROBLEM COMPONENT BASED ON FREQUENCY ...... 23
4.10 IDENTIFYING THE PROBLEM COMPONENT BASED ON AMPLITUDE ....... 23
4.11 REDUCING THE LIST OF POSSIBLE PROBLEMS BASED ON FREQUENCY 24
4.12 VIBRATION FREQUENCIES AND THE LIKELY CAUSES ................................ 26
4.13 COMPARING TRI-AXIAL (HORIZONTAL, VERTICAL AND AXIAL) DATA 27
4.14 COMPARING HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL READINGS.............................. 27
4.15 COMPARING RADIAL (HORIZONTAL & VERTICAL) DATA TO AXIAL
DATA ......................................................................................................................... 27
4.16 SIDE-BAND FREQUENCIES .................................................................................. 28
5 VIBRATION DIAGNOSTICS ................................................................................ 30

1
5.1 IDENTIFYING THE MOST COMMON MACHINERY PROBLEMS ................... 30
5.2 VIBRATION DUE TO UNBALANCE ..................................................................... 30
5.3 BENT SHAFT PROBLEMS ...................................................................................... 31
5.4 IDENTIFYING A SHAFT WITH A KINK OR BEND CLOSE TO THE BEARING
.................................................................................................................................... 32
5.5 IDENTIFYING A SIMPLE SHAFT BOW ............................................................... 33
5.6 VIBRATION DUE TO MISALIGNMENT ............................................................... 34
5.7 VIBRATION DUE TO LOOSENESS ....................................................................... 37
5.8 LOOSENESS OF THE ROTATING SYSTEM ........................................................ 38
5.9 LOOSENESS OF THE SUPPORTING SYSTEM .................................................... 40
5.10 MECHANICAL LOOSENESS AND SUB HARMONIC FREQUENCIES ............ 41
5.11 VIBRATION DUE TO ECCENTRICITY................................................................. 41
5.12 VIBRATION DUE TO RESONANCE ..................................................................... 43
5.13 IDENTIFYING RESONANCE ................................................................................. 44
5.14 VERIFYING RESONANCE PROBLEMS ............................................................... 45
5.15 VIBRATION DUE TO DEFECTIVE ROLLING-ELEMENT BEARINGS ............ 46
5.15.1 Stage One-There's a Visible Flaw .............................................................................. 47
5.15.2 Stage Two-It's Getting Worse .................................................................................... 47
5.15.3 Stage Three - It’s Really Bad ..................................................................................... 48
5.15.4 Stage Four-The Last Hurrah ....................................................................................... 50
5.16 VIBRATION DUE TO AERODYNAMIC HYDRAULIC PROBLEMS ................. 51
5.17 VIBRATION DUE TO INDUCTION MOTOR PROBLEMS .................................. 53
5.18 TEST FOR ELECTRICAL PROBLEMS UNDER LOAD ....................................... 54
5.19 TEST FOR ELECTRICAL PROBLEMS AT NORMAL OPERATING
TEMPERATURE ....................................................................................................... 54
5.20 DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL
VIBRATION .............................................................................................................. 54
5.21 VIBRATION DUE TO FIELD (STATOR) PROBLEMS ......................................... 55
5.22 VIBRATION DUE TO ARMATURE PROBLEMS ................................................. 58
5.23 VIBRATION DUE TO GEAR PROBLEMS ............................................................ 60
6 Time waveform ......................................................................................................... 63
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 63
6.2 When to Use Time Waveform.................................................................................... 64
6.3 When NOT to Use Time Waveform .......................................................................... 65
6.4 Instrument Setup for Time Waveform ....................................................................... 65
6.5 Units of Measurement ................................................................................................ 65
6.6 Time Period Sampled ................................................................................................. 67
6.7 Resolution ................................................................................................................... 68
6.8 Averaging ................................................................................................................... 68
6.9 Windows ..................................................................................................................... 68
6.10 Interpretation of Waveform Data ............................................................................... 68
6.10.1 Unbalance ................................................................................................................... 68
6.11 Misalignment .............................................................................................................. 69
6.12 Amplitude Symmetry ................................................................................................. 70
6.13 Symmetry of the Time Axis ....................................................................................... 71

2
1 INTRODUCTION TO VIBRATION TECHNOLOGY

1.1 A COMPARISON OF MAINTENANCE PHILOSOPHIES

In general, there are three ways to maintain machinery:

 Breakdown maintenance

 Scheduled or "preventive" maintenance

 Predictive maintenance

1.1.1 Breakdown Maintenance

Breakdown maintenance is essentially no maintenance at all. The machine is simply allowed

to run until complete failure, inefficiency or product spoilage forces a shutdown.
Although many machines are maintained this way, breakdown maintenance has several
disadvantages. First, failures can be most untimely and, there is little one can do beforehand
to anticipate the tools, personnel and replacement parts that will be needed to return the
machine to service. Secondly, machines allowed to run to failure generally require more
extensive repair than would have been necessary if the problem had been detected and
corrected early. Some failures can be catastrophic, requiring total replacement of the
machine. It is estimated that, on the average, it costs approximately three times more to repair
or replace a machine that has been allowed to run to total failure compared to the cost to
repair a machine before failure. Catastrophic machine failure can also pose a safety problem
for plant personnel. And, the added cost of lost production while the machine is out of service
can be staggering.

1.1.2 Scheduled or Preventive Maintenance

Compared to breakdown maintenance, a program of periodic disassembly, inspection and

replacement of worn parts has the distinct advantage of lessening the frequency of breakdown
repairs and also, permits scheduled shutdown. Under this program, each critical machine is
shut down after a specified period of operation and partially or completely dismantled for a
thorough inspection and replacement of worn parts, if any. This approach to machinery
maintenance, too, has disadvantages. First, to periodically dismantle every critical piece of
equipment in the plant can be expensive and time consuming. Second, the interval between
periodic inspections is difficult to predict. If the program is so successful that no machinery,
failures occur, it may be that the interval is too short and money and production is being
wasted. If the interval is too long, costly failures may still occur.

3
1.1.3 Predictive Maintenance

Predictive maintenance involves the trending and analysis of machinery performance

parameters to detect and identify developing problems before failure and extensive damage
can occur. On-line detection and diagnosis of problems is obviously the most desirable way
to maintain machinery. If problems can be detected early, when defects are minor and do not
affect performance, and if the nature of the problem can be identified while the machine runs:

1. Shut down for repairs can be scheduled for a convenient time.

2. A work schedule, together with the requirements for personnel, tools and replacement
parts can be prepared before the shutdown.
3. Extensive damage to the machine resulting from forced failure can be avoided.

4. Repair time can be kept to a minimum, resulting in reduced machinery downtime.

5. Costly trial-and-error approaches to solve a problem can be avoided since analysis
identifies the nature of the problem.
6. Machines in good operating condition can continue to run as long as no problems
develop. Time and money are not wasted dismantling machines that are already
operating properly.

1.2 VIBRATION AS A PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE TOOL

There are many machinery parameters that can be measured and trended to detect the onset of
problems. Some of these include:
1. Machinery vibration

2. Lube oil analysis including wear particle analysis

3. Ultrasonic (thickness) testing

4. Motor current analysis

5. Infrared thermography

6. Bearing temperature

4
2 CHARACTERISTICS OF VIBRATION

2.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF VIBRATION

The characteristics needed to define the vibration include:

 Frequency

 Displacement

 Velocity

 Acceleration

 Phase

Figure2 -1: Vibration of a simple spring mass system plotted as a function of time

5
2.1.1 Vibration Frequency

Vibration frequency is simply a measure of the number of complete cycles that occur in a
specified period of time such as "cycles-per-second" (CPS) or "cycles per-minute" (CPM).
Frequency is related to the period of vibration by this simple formula:

Frequency = 1 / Period
In other words, the frequency of a vibration is simply the "inverse" of the period of the
vibration. Thus, if the time required to complete one cycle is 1/60th of a second, then the
frequency of the vibration would be 60 cycles-per second or 60 CPS.

Figure 2 -2: The period of vibration is the time required to complete one full cycle

Although vibration frequency may be expressed in cycles-per-second or CPS, the common

practice is to use the term Hertz (abbreviated Hz) in lieu of CPS. Thus, a vibration with a
frequency of 60 CPS would actually be expressed as 60 Hz.

2.1.2 Significance of Vibration Frequency

To illustrate the importance of vibration frequency, assume that a machine, consisting of a

fan operating at 2400 RPM and belt driven by a motor operating at 3600 RPM, is vibrating
excessively at a measured frequency of 2400 CPM (1 x fan RPM), this clearly indicates that
the fan is the source of the vibration and not the motor or belts. Knowing this simple fact has
eliminated literally hundreds of other possible causes of vibration.

Figure 2-3 is a chart that lists the most common vibration frequencies as they relate to
rotating speed (RPM), along with the common causes for each frequency.

6
 Vibration Frequencies and the Likely Causes

FrequencyIn Termsof
Most LikelyCauses Other Possible Causes &Remarks-
RPM

1) Eccentric Journals, gears or pulleys

2) Misalignment or bent shaft if high axial
vibration

1 x RPM Unbalance 3) Bad belts if RPM of belt

4) Resonance
5) Reciprocating forces

6) Electrical problems

1) Misalignment if high axial vibration

Mechanical 2) Reciprocating forces

2 x RPM
Looseness 3) Resonance

4) Bad belts if 2 x RPM of belt

Usually a combination of misalignment and

3 x RPM Misalignment
excessive axial clearances (looseness).

1) Bad drive belts

Less than Oil Whirl (Less 2) Background vibration

1 x RPM than 1/2 RPM) 3) Sub-harmonic resonance

4) "Beat" Vibration

Synchronous Common electrical problems include broken

Electrical
(A.C. Line rotor bars,eccentric, rotor,unbalanced,
Problems phasesinpoly-phasesystems, unequal Airgap.
Frequency)

2 x Synch. Rare as a problem unless resonance is

Torque Pulses
Frequency excited

Many Times Bad Gears Gear teeth times RPM of bad gear
RPM Aerodynamic Forces Number of fan blades times RPM

7
(Harmonically Hydraulic Forces Number of impeller vanes times RPM

Related Freq.) Mechanical May occur at 2, 3, 4 and sometimes higher

harmonics
Looseness
If severe looseness
Reciprocating
Forces

1) Bearing vibration may be unsteady -

amplitude and

Frequency
2) Cavitations, recirculation and flow
High Frequency turbulence cause
Bad Anti-Friction
(Not Harmonically random, High frequency vibration
Bearings
Related)
3) Improper lubrication of journal bearings
(Friction excited vibration)

4) Rubbing

Figure 2-3: Vibration frequencies and the likely causes

Several terms are used to describe various frequencies of vibration, and it is important for the
vibration technician to understand these terms in order to communicate effectively with
others in the field of machinery vibration. Some of the more common terms describing
vibration frequencies are listed below along with their definitions.
Predominant Frequency: Predominant frequency is the frequency of vibration -having the
highest amplitude or magnitude.
Synchronous Frequency: Synchronous frequency is the vibration frequency that occurs at 1
x RPM.
Sub synchronous Frequency: Sub synchronous frequency is vibration occurring at a
frequency below 1 x RPM. A vibration that occurs at 1/2 x RPM would be called a sub
synchronous frequency.
Fundamental Frequency: Fundamental frequency is the lowest or first frequency normally
associated with a particular problem or cause. For example, the product of the number of
teeth on a gear times the RPM of the gear would be the fundamental gear-mesh frequency.
On the other hand, coupling misalignment can generate vibration at frequencies of 1x, 2x and

8
sometimes 3 x RPM. In this case, 1 x RPM would be called the fundamental frequency.
Harmonic Frequency: A harmonic is a frequency that is an exact, whole number multiple of
a fundamental frequency. For example, a vibration that occurs at a frequency of two times the
fundamental gear mesh frequency would be called the second harmonic of gear mesh
frequency. A vibration at 2 x RPM due to, say, misalignment, would be referred to as the
second harmonic of the running speed frequency (1 x RPM).

Order Frequency: An order frequency is the same as a harmonic frequency.

Sub harmonic Frequency: A sub harmonic frequency is an exact submultiples (1/2, 1/3, 1/4,
etc.) of a fundamental frequency. For example, a vibration with a frequency of exactly 1/2 the
fundamental gear-mesh frequency would be called a sub harmonic of the gear mesh
frequency. Vibration at frequencies of exactly 1/2, 1/3 or 1/4 of the rotating speed (1 x RPM)
frequency would also be called sub harmonic frequencies; and these can also be called sub
synchronous frequencies. However, not all subsynchronous frequencies are sub harmonics.
For example, a vibration with a frequency of 43% of the running speed (1 x RPM) frequency
is a sub synchronous frequency but it is not a sub harmonic.

2.1.3 Vibration Amplitude

As mentioned earlier, vibration frequency is a diagnostic tool, needed to help identify or

pinpoint specific mechanical or operational problems. Whether or not a vibration frequency
analysis is necessary, depends on how "rough" the machine is shaking. If the machine is
operating smoothly, knowing the frequency or frequencies of vibration present is not
important. The magnitude of vibration or how rough or smooth the machine vibration is, is
expressed by its vibration amplitude. Vibration amplitude can be measured and expressed as:

 Displacement

 Velocity

 Acceleration

9
2.1.4 Displacement

Displacement is a frequency dependant parameter. It is good unit of choice for up to 600

CPM. After that range the displacement amplitude does not give a real picture of the
problem. Displacement is used for slow speed machines and for balancing purposes. High
amplitudes of vibration displacement may cause mounting bolts to snap, welds to give way or
concrete bases and foundations to crack-not because of fatigue, but simply because they were
deflected beyond their yield points. Unit of displacement are microns, mm, mils.

2.1.5 Vibration Velocity

Velocity is nearly not so frequency dependant in the range of 10Hz-2kHz (600-120000cpm).

It is a direct fatigue indicator.

Fatigue = Displacement x Frequency

Velocity = Displacement x Frequency

Thus, Velocity = Fatigue

Most of the problems generated by machines lie in this frequency range. Therefore velocity is
the most appropriate & commonly used parameter for machines problem diagnosis. Velocity
is expressed in mm/s, in/s.

2.1.6 Vibration Acceleration

Acceleration is most widely used parameter for identification of high-frequency vibration

problems (gear problems, bar pass frequencies, turbine blades etc.). It is also suitable for
acoustic analysis. Acceleration has low sensitivity at lower frequencies i.e. < 10 Hz. It is not
suitable for very low-frequency problems. Unite used for vibration acceleration are mm/s2,
in/s2, G's. (1G’s = 9.8mm/s2)

2.1.7 Conversion of Measurement Parameters

For simple vibration, consisting of only one frequency, the values of displacement, velocity
and acceleration are all mathematically related as shown by the following conversion
formulas. For example, if the displacement and frequency of a vibration are known, the
vibration velocity or vibration acceleration can simply be calculated using the appropriate
formula.

10
These conversion formulas do not apply to complex vibration.

METRIC UNITS

V = DF/19,100 D = 19,100V/F
V = 93,640 A/F A = VF/93,640

A = DF2/1,790,000,000 D = 1,790,000,000A/F2
Where,

D = Peak-To-Peak Displacement (Mils Pk-Pk)

V = Peak Velocity (In/Sec-Pk)

A = Peak Acceleration (G’s-Pk)

F = Frequency (CPM)

2.1.8 Phase

In addition to frequency (Hz or CPM) and amplitude (displacement, velocity, acceleration),

the third and final characteristic needed to describe a machine's vibration behavior is phase.
Phase, with regards to machinery vibration, is-often defined as "the position of a vibrating
part at a given instant with reference to a fixed point or another vibrating part'. Another
definition of phase is: "that part of a vibration cycle through which one part or object has
moved relative to another part". Following figures show how phase is changing relative to
one part of the machine with other.

Weights Vibrating 180 degrees out of phase

11
 Weights vibrating 90 degrees out of phase

Weights vibrating 0 degrees out-of-phase or "in-phase."

12
3 INSTRUMENTS FOR VIBRATION DETECTION AND ANALYSIS

3.1 VIBRATION ANALYZER

Instruments for measuring and analyzing machinery vibration are available in a wide array of
features and capabilities, but are generally categorized as:
1. Vibration meters

2. Vibration frequency analyzers

Due to the large number of vibration frequency analyzers on the market today, it would be
impossible to cover the detailed features, setup and operation of every individual instrument
and predictive maintenance computer software program currently available. However, all
vibration frequency analyzers and predictive maintenance data collectors have certain things
in common in terms of how vibration data is obtained, processed and displayed; and it is most
important that the vibration technician understands these concepts.

Figure : This digital vibration meter has only one button making it extremely simple to use.

3.2 THE VIBRATION TRANSDUCER

Regardless of the vibration instrument being used, the "heart" of every instrument is the
vibration transducer. This is the device that is held or attached to the machine to convert the
machine's mechanical vibration into an electrical signal that can be processed by the
associated instrument into measurable characteristics of vibration amplitude, frequency and
phase. Many different varieties of vibration transducers have been used over the years.
However, with few exceptions, the transducer provided as standard with nearly all present-
day vibration meters, analyzers and data collectors is the vibration accelerometer.
An accelerometer is a self-generating device that produces a voltage output proportional to
13
vibration acceleration (G's). The amount of voltage generated per unit of vibration
acceleration (G) is called the sensitivity of the accelerometer and is normally expressed in
millivolts-per-G where 1 millivolt equals one-thousandth of a volt (1 mv = 0.001 volt).
Accelerometers are available with sensitivities ranging from less than 1 mv/Gto 10,000
mv/G; however, most accelerometers for general-purpose vibration detection and analysis
applications will have sensitivities ranging from 10 to 100 mv/G. “General purpose"
accelerometers will normally accommodate vibration frequencies ranging from 120 CPM (2
Hz) to 600,000 CPM (10K Hz). Of course, these specifications are "typical" and will vary
depending on the specific accelerometer manufacturer and model number. Unless specified
otherwise, most portable vibration meters, data collectors and analyzers are supplied with
general-purpose accelerometers, which will, in fact, cover the vast majority of vibration
detection and analysis requirements.

3.3 WHERE TO TAKE THE READINGS

Since vibratory forces generated by the rotating components of a machine are passed through
the bearings, vibration readings for both detection and analysis should be taken directly on
the bearings whenever possible.

Following figure shows the layout of a typical machine and illustrates where vibration
readings should be taken and where readings should not be taken. Ideally, vibration readings
taken in the horizontal and vertical directions should be taken directly on or as close as
possible to the bearings with the accelerometer pointing toward the centerline of the shaft.
Axial vibration readings should be taken on the bearing as close to the shaft as possible, but
without compromising personal safety

Figure: Good and poor locations for taking vibration measurements

14
Vibration measurements should not be taken on thin structural members such as fan
housings, ductwork or thin steel panels to evaluate machinery condition. These components,
because of their flexibility, may reveal very high amplitudes of vibration, even though the
machine itself is in satisfactory operating condition.

3.4 VIBRATION FREQUENCY ANALYZERS

Vibration frequency analyzers are available in a wide range of features and capabilities, and
no attempt is made here to cover all available instruments. However, all frequency analyzers
have certain common features and characteristics in terms of how the data is processed and
presented, and it is most important for vibration technicians to know and understand the
basics of how their instruments work as well as their limitations. Many vibration problems
have been incorrectly diagnosed or missed completely, simply because the vibration analyst
didn't understand the workings of the vibration frequency analyzer.

3.5 WHAT IS FFT?

The term “FFT” stands for “Fast Fourier Transform”. Nearly 200 years ago, French
mathematician, Baron Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier established that any periodic function
(which includes machinery vibration signals) can be represented mathematically as a series of
Sine and Cosine. In other words, it is possible to take a vibration time wave form, whether
the simple or complex, and mathematically calculate the vibration frequencies present along
with their amplitudes. The process is called “Fourier Transform”.

Figure: Transformation of Time waveform - FFT

15
3.6 SELECTING FMAX

The first and perhaps most important decision that must be made in obtaining an FFT is the
Fmax or maximum range of frequencies that will be analyzed and displayed. Of course, the
selected Fmax must be high enough to include all significant, problem-related frequencies;
however, the higher the Fmax, the lower the accuracy of measuredfrequencies. Therefore, the
Fmax selected should be no higher than needed to detect problem related vibration frequencies.
Selected Fmax must be high enough to include all significant, problem-related frequencies,
however, the higher the Fmax, the lower the accuracy of measured frequencies. For this it is
very important to know all the details about the machine to be analyzed e.g. RPM, bearing
types and numbers, number of teeth of gears, number of vanes of impeller etc. For antifriction
bearing machines general rule is to select Fmax equals to at least 2 kHz. For sleeve bearing
machines general rule is to select Fmax equals to 10xRPM. For fans and impeller type
machines at least Fmax = 3 x Vane pass frequency (No. of vanes x RPM). For gear boxes at
least Fmax = 3x Gear mesh frequency

3.7 SELECTING THE NUMBER OF LINES OF RESOLUTION

The next important decision that must be made when taking an FFT is selecting the number
of lines of resolution. The decision will not only determine the accuracy of frequency data
presented, but will also determine the amount of time required to perform the analysis as well
as the amount of instrument and computer storage required to store the data. FFT frequency
analyzers and data collectors offer a much larger choice of lines of resolution. Typical FFT
analyzers may offer 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, 3200 and 6400 lines of resolution.
The lowest frequency that can be resolved is determined by the Lines Of Resolution (LOR).
Along with Fmax, LOR determines the accuracy of frequency data i.e. (Hz/Line or
CPM/Line). LOR will also determine the amount of time required to perform the analysis

Spectrum Resolution = Frequency Range/Lines of Resolution. Time required for 1 average =

Lines of Resolution/Frequency Range.

For example,
Fmax = 1 kHz

LOR = 400
Spectrum Resolution= 1000/400 = 2.5 Hz or 150 CPM

Time taken for analysis = LOR/Fmax = 400/1000=0.4 sec

16
3.8 SELECTING THE NUMBER OF SPECTRAL AVERAGES

To remove data from transient sources more than one data sample is usually collected for
predictive maintenance. Increasing number of averages will also increase data collection time
Time= (Lines of Resolution x No. of Averages)/Frequency Range. General rule is to take 2-4
averages for each spectrum in a routine checkup. For trouble shooting purposes the number
of averages may increased to 8-10. Also for machines which have higher frequencies, 4-8
averages should be taken.

17
4 VIBRATION ANALYSIS

4.1 DEFINE THE PROBLEM

The first step in solving a vibration problem, or any problem for that matter, is to define the
problem. In other words, "Why is a vibration analysis needed?" It's difficult to solve a
problem when one doesn't even know what the problem is or what the desired outcome
should be.
The following lists some of the reasons for performing a vibration analysis:

1. Establish "baseline data" for future analysis needs. At the beginning of a

predictive maintenance program, even machines in good operating condition should
be thoroughly analyzed to establish their normal vibration characteristics. Later, when
problems do develop, this baseline information can be extremely useful in performing
a follow-up analysis to show precisely the vibration characteristics that have changed.
2. Identify the cause of excessive vibration. Referring to the vibration severity
guidelines presented in Chapter 2 of this text, machines in service that have vibration
levels in the "rough" regions or greater should be thoroughly analyzed to identify
existing problems for immediate correction. Once corrections have been made, a
follow-up analysis should be performed to insure that problems have been solved and
the machine returned to satisfactory condition. If all significant problems have been
solved, the follow-up analysis data will serve as the baseline data for future analysis
as outlined in (1) above.
3. Identify the cause of a significant vibration increase. Once a developing problem
has been detected by routine, periodic checks, the obvious next step is to perform a
detailed vibration analysis to identify the problem for correction. Here also, a follow-
up analysis will verify that the problems have been corrected and provide a baseline
for future comparisons.
4. Identify the cause of frequent component failures.Such as bearings, couplings,
seals, shafts, etc.
5. Identify the cause of structural failures. Such as the structure or foundation, piping,
etc.

6. Identify the source of a noise problem.

7. Identify why a machine tool fails to produce a quality part. In terms of surface
finish requirements or maintaining dimensional tolerances.

8. Identify why a machine fails to meet an established performance standard. In

18
 addition to setting up a vibration predictive maintenance program, another important
factor in improving the performance and reliability of machinery is to establish
vibration acceptance standards for new and rebuiltmachines. Many such standards
exist such as those from the International Standards Organization (ISO), American
Petroleum Institute (API), Hydraulics Institute (pumps), National Electrical
Manufactures Association (NEMA), etc.

4.2 DETERMINE THE MACHINE HISTORY

Whenever a machine has excessive vibration or a history of premature failures, the obvious
questions that need to be answered are:
1. When did the problem start?

And
2. Were any changes made to the machine before the problem occurred?

In many cases, the answers to these questions can provide valuable insight into the possible
cause of the problem. In fact, in some cases, the answers to these questions may identify a
cause that is so obvious that a detailed vibration analysis totally unnecessary.

4.3 DETERMINE MACHINE DETAILS

For the majority of machinery vibration problems, it will be necessary to obtain vibration
amplitude-versus-frequency spectrums or FFTs to determine the detail of machine’s vibration
characteristics. However, this data is of absolutely no value to the vibration analyst unless
some specific details about the machine are known. As already pointed out in chapters II and
III, specific machinery problems are identified by relating their vibration frequencies to the
rotating speed (RPM) of the machine components, along with other machine features such as
the number of teeth on gears, the number of blades on a fan, etc. Without this detailed
information, pinpointing a specific problem with a high degree of confidence is virtually
impossible.
Some of the important detailed features of the machine that need to be known for accurate
analysis include:
1. The rotating speed (RPM) of each machine component: Of course, direct-coupled
machines have only one rotating speed (RPM) that needs to be known. However,
machines that include gear drives will have more than one speed. For single gear
increasers or reducers, both the input and output speeds are needed. For multiple gear
increasers or reducers, the rotating speeds of the various intermediate gears must be
known along with the input and output speeds. For belt-driven machines, the rotating

19
 speed of both the driver and driven units must be known, along with the rotating
speed of any idler pulleys. In addition, the actual RPM of the drive belts must be
known.
2. Types of bearings: Of course worn or defective sleeve or plain bearings will have
different vibration characteristics than defective rolling-element bearings. Therefore,
it is most important to know whether the machine has plain or rolling element
bearings.If the machine has rolling-element bearings, it is also beneficial to know the
number of rolling elements and other details of bearing geometry. With this
information, the vibration analyst can actually calculate the frequencies ofvibration
caused by specific bearing defects such as flaws on the outer and inner raceways,
rolling elements, etc
3. Number of fan blades: Knowing the machine RPM and number of blades on a fan
will enable the analyst to easily calculate the "blade-passing" frequency. This is
simply the product of the number of fan blades times fan RPM. This frequency of
vibration is also called the "aerodynamic pulsation" frequency.
4. Number of impeller vanes: Similar to fans and blowers, knowing the number of
vanes on a pump impeller allows the analyst to calculate the vane passing frequency,
also called the "hydraulic-pulsation" frequency.

5. Number of gear teeth: The rotating speed and number of teeth on each gear must be
known in order to determine the possible "gear-mesh" frequencies.

6. Type of coupling: Gear and other lubricated types of couplings can generate some
unique vibration characteristics whenever their lubrication breaks down or if
lubrication is inadequate.
7. Machine critical speeds: Some machines such as high speed, multi-stage centrifugal
pumps, compressors and turbines are designed to operate at speeds above the natural
or "resonant" frequency of the shaft. The resonant frequency of the shaft or rotor is
called its "critical" speed and operating at or near this speed can result in extremely
high vibration amplitudes. Therefore, knowing the rotor critical speed relative to
machine RPM and other potential exciting force frequencies are very important.
8. Background vibration sources: Many times the vibration being measured on a
machine is actually coming from another machine in the immediate area. This is
particularly true for machines mounted on the same foundation or that are
interconnected by piping or other structural means. Therefore, it is important to be
aware of potential "background" contributions. This is, especially true with machine
tools, due to the low levels of vibration required. If possible, the machine under

20
 analysis should be shut down and readings taken to directly determine the amount and
significance of background vibration.

4.4 VISUAL INSPECTION

Before collecting data, the vibration analyst should first make a visual check of the machine
to determine if there are any obvious faults or defects that could contribute to the machines
condition. Some obvious things to look for include:

1. Loose or missing mounting bolts

2. Cracks in the base, foundation or structural welds

3. Leaking seals.
4. Worn or broken parts.

5. Wear, corrosion or build-up of deposits on rotating elements such as fans.

4.5 OBTAIN HORIZONTAL, VERTICAL AND AXIAL SPECTRUMS (FFTS) AT

EACH BEARING OF THE MACHINE TRAIN

In many cases, the analysis steps carried out thus far may be sufficient to pinpoint the specific
problem causing excessive vibration. If not, the next step is to obtain a complete set of
amplitude-versus-frequency spectrums or FFTs at each bearing of the machine train. For a
proper analysis, the machine should be operating under normal conditions of load, speed,
temperature, etc.

In order to insure that the analysis data taken includes all the problem-related vibration
characteristics and, yet, is easy to evaluate and interpret, the following recommendations are
offered:

4.6 USE THE SAME AMPLITUDE RANGE (SCALE) FOR ALL FFTS

Since the machine's vibration amplitude-versus-frequency characteristics will be presented in

the form of graphic plots or FFTs, it is most important to use the same amplitude range for
each FFT to simplify the comparison of data obtained at each bearing and measurement
direction. If the data is presented with different amplitude scales, the interpretation and
evaluation of the data becomes an extremely tedious, time consuming and confusing task.

4.7 DEFINE SPECTRAL PARAMETERS THAT WILL COVER ALL

IMPORTANT VIBRATION FREQUENCIES

It was discussed that frequency accuracy and the ability to separate potentially close
frequencies of vibration with an FFT is determined by the choices of Fmax (frequency range)
21
and lines of resolution. These decisions must be made with great care to insure that all
important vibration frequencies are detected.

In many cases, it will actually be necessary to take FFTs with different Fmaxs and lines of
resolution in order to reveal all important vibration characteristics. For example, consider a
3550-RPM motor with rolling-element bearings driving a pump. Since the motor has rolling-
element bearings, a relatively high Fmax, typically 0 to 120,000 CPM will be needed to reveal
the "ringing" resonant frequencies of the bearing components that may be present as the
result of bearing deterioration. Remember from Chapter 3 that these bearing frequencies
generally occur within a range from roughly 30,000 CPM to 120,000 CPM. Normally, 400
lines of resolution would be used for this "big picture" analysis, resulting in a frequency
resolution of 300 CPM.

Frequency Resolution = Fmax

Lines of Resolution

= 120,000 CPM
400 Lines

= 300 CPM

Of course, the motor could have electrical problems in addition to mechanical problems, and
the vibration frequencies from these two different problems are very close together. Electrical
problems such as cracked or broken rotor bars open or shorted windings, unequal air gap,
etc., will occur at frequencies, which are exactly related to AC line frequency (typically 50Hz
or 3600 CPM). With this 2-pole motor, some electrical problems will have a vibration
frequency at the actual rotating speed of the magnetic field, which will be exactly 3600 CPM.
This is only 50 CPM different than the actual rotating speed (1 x RPM) frequency (3600
CPM - 3550 CPM = 50 CPM) and could not be separated or distinguished from the 1 x RPM
vibration with a 300 CPM resolution FFT. Because of the need to separate and distinguish
between mechanical and electrical frequencies on induction motors, the recommended
practice is to take at least one additional horizontal and one vertical FFT on the motor using
an Fmax of 0 to 12,000 CPM with 3200 lines of resolution. This will provide a frequency
resolution slightly less than 4 CPM, making it possible to separate and distinguish between
mechanical and electrical problem frequencies.

22
4.8 INTERPRETING THE DATA

Once horizontal, vertical and axial FFTs have been obtained for each bearing of the machine
train, the obvious next question is: "What is this data telling me?" Essentially, amplitude-
versus-frequency spectrums or FFTs serve two very important purposes in vibration analysis:

1. Identify the machine component (motor, pump, gear box, etc.) of the machine train
that has the problem.

2. Reduce the number of possible problems from several hundred to only a limited few.

4.9 IDENTIFYING THE PROBLEM COMPONENT BASED ON FREQUENCY

Following figure shows a fan operating at 2200 RPM, belt driven by an 1800-RPM motor.
The rotating speed of the belts is 500 RPM. Assume that a vibration analysis was performed
on this machine and the only significant vibration detected had a frequency of 2200 CPM or
1 x RPM of the fan. Since the vibration frequency is exactly related to fan speed, this clearly
indicates that the fan is the component with the problem. This simple fact eliminates the drive
motor, belts and possible background sources as possible causes.

Most problems generate vibration with frequencies that are exactly related to the rotating
speed of the part in trouble. These frequencies may be exactly 1 x RPM or multiples
(harmonics) of 1 x RPM such as 2x, 3x, 4x, etc. In addition, some problems may cause
vibration frequencies that are exact sub harmonics of 1 x RPM such as 1/2x, 1/3x or 1/4 x
RPM. In any event, the FFT analysis data can identify the machine component with the
problem based on the direct relationship between the measured vibration frequency and the
rotating speed of the various machine elements.

Figure: Different component generate different vibration frequencies

4.10 IDENTIFYING THE PROBLEM COMPONENT BASED ON AMPLITUDE

Identifying the fan as the source of vibration based on vibration frequency was quite easy in
the above example because of the notable differences in the rotating speeds of the various
machine components. The obvious question, of course is: "What about direct-coupled

23
machines that are operating at exactly the same speed?" In this case, the component with the
problem is normally identified as the one with the highest amplitude. For example, consider a
motor direct coupled to a pump. Examining the analysis data, it is noted that the highest
vibration amplitude on the motor is 1.0 in/sec compared to 0.12 in/sec on the pump. In this
case, the motor is clearly the problem component since its vibration amplitude is nearly 8
times higher than that measured on the pump.

In general, the machine component that has the problem is usually the one with the highest
amplitude of vibration. The forces that cause vibration tend to dissipate in strength at
increased distances from the source.

4.11 REDUCING THE LIST OF POSSIBLE PROBLEMS BASED ON FREQUENCY

In addition to identifying the problem machine component based on frequency and/or

amplitude characteristics, the second purpose of FFT analysis data is to limit or reduce the
list of possible problems based on the measured vibration frequencies. As stated earlier, each
mechanical and operational problem generates its own unique vibration frequency
characteristics. Therefore, by knowing the vibration frequency, a list of the problems that
cause or generate that particular frequency can be made, which greatly reduces the long list of
possibilities.
The chart on next page is the lists of most common vibration frequencies as they, .relate to
machine rotating speed (RPM), along with the common causes for each frequency. To
illustrate how to use the chart, assume that the belt-driven fan pictured in Figure 4-2 has
excessive vibration at 2200 CPM which is 1 x RPM of the fan. Of course, this clearly
indicates that the fan is the component with the problem and not the drive motor or belts. In
addition, since the vibration frequency is 1 x RPM of the fan, the possible causes listed on the
chart would be:

1. Unbalance
2. Eccentric pulley

3. Misalignment this could be misalignment of the fan bearings or misalignment of the

fan and motor pulleys.

4. Bent shaft
5. Looseness

6. Distortion- from soft foot or piping strain conditions

7. Bad belts-if belt RPM

8. Resonance

24
 9. Reciprocating forces
10. Electrical problems

Using this simple chart, along with the fact that the vibration frequency is 1 x RPM of the fan
has reduced the number of possible causes from literally hundreds to only ten (10) likely
causes.
A little common sense can reduce this list even further. First, since the vibration frequency is
not related to the rotating speed (RPM) of the drive belts, possible belt problems can be
eliminated as a possible cause. Secondly, since this is not a reciprocating machine such as a
reciprocating compressor or engine, the possibility of reciprocating forces can be eliminated
from the remaining list. Finally, since the frequency is not related to the drive motor or AC
line frequency in any way, the possibility of electrical problems can be eliminated. Now, the
number of possible causes of excessive vibration has been reduced to only seven (7) by
simply knowing that the vibration frequency in this case is 1 x RPM of the fan.

25
4.12 VIBRATION FREQUENCIES AND THE LIKELY CAUSES

Frequency In Terms Other Possible Causes

Most LikelyCauses
of RPM &Remarks-
1) Eccentric Journals, gears or
pulleys
2) Misalignment or bent shaft - if
high axialvibration
1 x RPM Unbalance
3) Bad belts if RPM of belt
4) Resonance
5) Reciprocating forces
6) Electrical problems
1) Misalignment if high axial
vibration
Mechanical
2 x RPM 2) Reciprocating forces
Looseness
3) Resonance
4) Bad belts if 2 x RPM of belt
Usually a combination of
3 x RPM Misalignment misalignment and excessiveaxial
clearances (looseness).
Common electrical problems
Synchronous(A.C. Electrical include broken rotor bars,eccentric
LineFrequency) Problems Rotor, unbalancedphasesinpoly-
phasesystems, unequal Air gap.
2 x Synchronous. Rare as a problem unless resonance
Torque Pulses
Frequency is excited
Gear teeth times RPM of bad gear
Bad GearsAerodynamic
Number of fan blades times RPM
Many Forces
Number of impeller vanes times
TimesRPM(Harmonical Hydraulic
RPM
ly ForcesMechanical
May occur at 2, 3, 4 and sometimes
Related Freq.) LoosenessReciprocating
higher harmonics
Forces
Ifsevere looseness
1) Bearing vibration may be
unsteady - amplitude andFrequency
2) Cavitations, recirculation and
High Frequency flow turbulence causerandom, High
Bad Anti-Friction
(Not Harmonically frequency vibration
Bearings
Related) 3) Improper lubrication of journal
bearings
(Friction excited vibration)
4) Rubbing
Figure: Vibration frequencies and their likely causes.

26
4.13 COMPARING TRI-AXIAL (HORIZONTAL, VERTICAL AND AXIAL) DATA

Once the list of possible problems has been narrowed down to a limited few, as in the case of
the fan described above, the remaining list can usually be reduced even further by comparing
the vibration characteristics measured in the horizontal, vertical and axial directions.

Not only can specific vibration problems be recognized by their specific frequency
characteristics, but also in many cases by the direction in which the vibration occurs. This is
why it is necessary to take analysis data in the horizontal, vertical and axial directions for
further process of elimination.

There are basically two comparisons that need to be made. First, how do the horizontal and
vertical readings compare; and secondly, how do the radial readings (horizontal and vertical)
compare to the axial readings.

4.14 COMPARING HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL READINGS

When comparing the horizontal and vertical data, it is important to take note of how and
where the machine is mounted and also, how the bearings are mounted to the machine.
Basically, the vibration analyst needs to develop a "feel" for the relative stiffness between the
horizontal and vertical directions in order to see whether the comparative horizontal and
vertical readings indicate a normal or abnormal situation. Machines mounted on a solid or
rigid base may be evaluated differently than machines mounted on elevated structures or
resilient vibration isolators such as rubber pads or springs.
Another factor that needs to be considered is the "ratio" between the horizontal and vertical
amplitudes. As explained, it is not unusual for rigidly mounted machines to have higher
amplitudes of vibration in the horizontal directions, compared to the vertical direction.
However, the ratio between the horizontal and vertical amplitudes should be checked to see if
it is normal or indicative of some unusual problem. As a normal unbalance response, it is not
unusual for machines to exhibit ratios between the horizontal and vertical amplitudes of 1:1,
2:1, 3:1 or 4:1, depending on the particular installation.

4.15 COMPARING RADIAL (HORIZONTAL & VERTICAL) DATA TO AXIAL

DATA

The second important comparison that needs to be made to tri-axial analysis data is how the
radial (horizontal and vertical) readings compare to the axial readings. Relatively high
amplitudes of axial vibration are normally the result of:
1. Misalignment of couplings

2. Misalignment of bearings

27
 3. Misalignment of pulleys or sheaves on belt drives
4. Bent shafts

5. Unbalance of "overhung" rotors such as the fan in Figure 4-2

As a general rule, any time the amplitude of axial vibration exceeds 50% of the highest radial
(horizontal or vertical) amplitude, the possibility of a misalignment or bent shaft condition
should be considered. Of course, extremely high amplitudes of axial vibration may also be
due to resonance or unbalance of an overhung rotor. Verifying the cause of a high axial
vibration using "phase analysis" techniques will be covered in the sections to follow.

Examining the axial vibration in the examples given in Figures 4-1 and 4-4, it can be seen
that in neither instance is the amplitude of axial vibration greater than 50% of the highest
radial amplitude. As a result, misalignment or bent shaft conditions are not indicated in either
of these examples.

4.16 SIDE-BAND FREQUENCIES

"Side-band" frequencies are additional vibration frequencies that often appear in FFT data
that can be confusing to the beginning vibration analyst. Side band vibration frequencies are
the result of a variation in the amplitude of a given vibration frequency signal as a function of
time. This variation in amplitude with time is also called "amplitude modulation". For
example, consider a rolling element bearing with a significant flaw or defect on the rotating
inner raceway. As the inner raceway rotates, spike pulses will be generated each time a
rolling element impacts the flaw. However, the amplitude or intensity of the pulses generated
will vary as the defect rotates into and out of the load zone of the bearing. This is shown in
the following figure. Impacts that occur when the defect is within the load zone will
obviously be more intense than those that occur out of the load zone. The result is a
modulation of the fundamental bearing defect frequency. The fundamental bearing defect
frequency in this case is the frequency at which rolling elements impact the inner raceway
flaw and is called the "ball passing frequency of the inner raceway" or simply BPFI. When
discussing side-band frequencies, the fundamental bearing frequency in this case would be
called the "carrier" frequency. The frequency at which the amplitude of the carrier frequency
varies is called the "modulating" frequency. The modulating frequency in the case of a defect
on the inner raceway will be 1 x RPM, since the defect is rotating into and out of the bearing
load zone at the rotating speed of the shaft.

28
Figure: The amplitude of spike-pulses generated by an inner raceway defect is"modulated' at the rotating
speed (1xRPM) frequency as the defect rotates into and out of the bearing load zones

The end result of amplitude modulation will be "side-band" frequencies above and below the
fundamental carrier frequency and spaced at the modulating frequency. The above figure
shows an FFT taken on a bearing with an inner raceway defect. The fundamental bearing
defect frequency (BPFI) is clearly shown along with the side-band frequencies spaced at plus
and minus the 1 x RPM modulating frequency. Since the bearing defect generates vibration in
the form of a spike-pulse, harmonics of the fundamental bearing frequency are also evident,
with plus and minus 1 x RPM side bands around each one.

29
5 VIBRATION DIAGNOSTICS

5.1 IDENTIFYING THE MOST COMMON MACHINERY PROBLEMS

It is beyond the scope of this text to describe the detailed vibration characteristics associated
with every conceivable vibration problem that could ever be encountered. This text was
written for those individuals who have little or no experience in the use of vibration detection
and analysis techniques for predictive maintenance. The preceding portion of last chapter on
vibration analysis outlines a logical common sense approached for obtaining and evaluating
the vibration data needed to recognize and identifies specific problems. The proceeding
section of this chapter describe more detailed information for the most common day to day
problems you will encounter including:
1. Unbalance

2. Bent shaft
3. Misalignment

4. Looseness
5. Eccentricity problems

6. Resonance
7. Defective rolling- element bearings

8. Sleeve or plain bearing problems

9. Aerodynamic/hydraulic problems

10. Electric (induction) motor problems

11. Gear problems
12. Belt-drive problems

Vibration analysis, like medicine, is not an exact science. However, with the information
provided in this chapter, combined with a little common sense, you should be able to pinpoint
the majority of problems with confidence.

5.2 VIBRATION DUE TO UNBALANCE

Unbalance of rotating machine components is, perhaps, the easiest problem to pinpoint with
confidence. Simple unbalance, uncomplicated by other problems, can be readily identified by
the following characteristics:
1. The vibration occurs at a frequency of 1 x RPM of the unbalanced component. The

30
 presence of multiple, harmonic frequencies (i.e. 2x, 3x, 4x, times RPM) usually
indicate additional problems such as looseness, rubbing, etc.

2. The radial vibration is reasonably uniform and not highly directional. A comparison
of horizontal and vertical phase readings will normally show a difference between 60
degrees and 120 degrees. If comparative horizontal and vertical phase readings cannot
be taken, multiple radial amplitude readings should not show a discrepancy in excess
of 5:1.
3. If a specific machine component such as a motor or fan is the source of unbalance,
that component will have significantly higher amplitudes of vibration at the 1 x RPM
frequency. Unbalance of couplings will likely reveal comparable amplitudes on both
the driver and driven machine components.
Unbalance conditions can often be affected by other operating conditions such as load or
temperature. For example, machines operating at elevated temperatures can physically distort
or change shape due to thermal changes, resulting in a change rotor balance. Large, fabricated
boiler draft fans must often be balanced at operating temperature due to thermal distortion.
They may run smoothly when cold but vibrate excessively when hot.

In addition, due to minor variations in the track and pitch-angle of the fan blades, large
fabricated fans may show significant changes in the unbalance vibration characteristics with
changes in flow conditions. In other words, a change in the damper setting may result in a
significant change in the unbalance amplitude and phase characteristics. Such affects are
referred to as "aerodynamic unbalance", and point out the importance of balancing a rotor
under its normal operating conditions of temperature and flow conditions.

5.3 BENT SHAFT PROBLEMS

Bent shafts are a common problem encountered on machinery, and are often the result of
manufacturing errors or mishandling and damage during transportation or machine
installation. In addition, a rotor may "bow" as the result of thermal distortion at elevated
temperatures or due to excessive unbalance forces.
Regardless of the cause, bent shafts will usually generate a predominant vibration at 1 x
RPM, very similar to simple unbalance. And, like unbalance, the radial vibration caused by a
bent shaft will be fairly uniform and not highly directional. However, unlike unbalance, bent
shaft conditions will normally cause a relatively significant vibration in the axial direction as
well. As stated earlier, any time the amplitude of vibration measured in the axial direction
exceeds 1/2 (50%) of the highest measured radial vibration, a bent shaft is a very possible
cause.

31
Because bent shafts cause significant vibration in the axial direction, a bent shaft problem can
normally be verified using a phase analysis of the axial vibration. However, there are actually
two different types of bent shaft conditions:
1. Rotors that have a simple "bow"

And
2. Shafts that have a bend or "kink", but only near a particular bearing.

Each type of bend will result in significant axial vibration, but each type will cause the
various bearings, of the machine to vibrate in the axial direction in a noticeably different
manner. Therefore, an axial phase analysis cannot only verify a bent shaft condition, but can
also help in identifying the nature and location of the bend as well.

5.4 IDENTIFYING A SHAFT WITH A KINK OR BEND CLOSE TO THE

BEARING

The axial vibration caused by a bent shaft can actually occur in two different ways. Normally,
if the bend is fairly close to a particular bearing, such as a. "kink" in the stub shaft of a motor
of pump caused by bumping the shaft during transportation or installation, the bearing will
tend to vibrate axially in a "twisting" motion. Taking comparative axial phase measurements
at multiple axial positions as shown in Figure 5-1 can easily recognize this twisting motion.
Four axial phase readings at each bearing of the machine are recommended; however,
physical constraints may make it impossible to take all the readings desired. In any case,
more than one axial phase reading is needed; so try to take as many as possible.

If the bearing is, in fact, "twisting" due to a kink in the shaft that is very close or actually
through the bearing itself, the result will be a drastic difference in the phase readings obtained
at the four axial positions, as shown in Figure 5-2. In Figure 5-2, it can be seen that the upper
and lower measurement points (1 and 3) are actually 180 degrees out-of-phase, as are the
measurement points on opposite sides of the shaft (2 and 4). This clearly indicates that the
bearing is vibrating axially in a twisting fashion. Further verification of a bend or "kink" in
the shaft can be carried out using a dial indicator.
Bearings that are "cocked" in the machine housing may also cause significant vibration
amplitudes in the axial direction, and may reveal the same "twisting" action as that caused by
a kinked shaft. However, a cocked or misaligned bearing can usually be distinguished from a
kinked shaft by comparing the amplitudes of vibration measured at the four axial positions.
Normally, if a bearing is cocked in the housing, it will be cocked in a specific direction and
show a significant difference in the amplitudes measured at the four axial positions. On the
other hand, a shaft that has a simple bend or "kink" will reveal fairly uniform amplitudes in

32
the four axial positions.

Figure 5-1:Four axial phase readings at each bearing are needed to see how each bearing is vibrating
axially.

Figure 5-2:These axial phase readings show a “twisting” axial motion

Figure 5-3:Shaft with a simple bow

Figure 5-4: Axial phase measurements showing planer motion

5.5 IDENTIFYING A SIMPLE SHAFT BOW

A shaft that has a simple bow, such as that shown in Figure 5-3, may not cause the supporting
bearings to vibrate axially in a "twisting" type of motion. Instead, a simple bow may cause
the supporting bearings to vibrate axially in a "planer", fashion as shown in Figure 5-4. In this

33
case, the axial amplitude and phase readings taken at the four positions around the shaft will
be nearly the same, indicating a planer type of axial vibration.

In order to identify a simple bow as the cause of high axial vibration, it will be necessary to
compare the "relative" axial motion of the support bearings. If the shaft is simply bowed, the
supporting bearings of the rotor will reveal a substantial "out-of-phase" condition as
illustrated in Figure 5-3. Although a pronounced bow may reveal as much as a 180 degrees
difference in the axial phase of the rotor supporting bearings, an out-of-phase condition of
only 90 degrees or more is significant enough to indicate a possible bow in the shaft. Run out
checks with a dial indicator should be performed to verify the bent shaft condition-especially
if the amplitudes of axial vibration far exceed 50% of the highest radial amplitudes.

When comparing the axial phase readings at the supporting bearings of a rotor, it is most
important to keep in mind the direction of the transducer. To illustrate, when taking axial
phase readings on the left side bearing of the rotor in Figure 5-3, the vibration transducer may
have been pointing to the right. However, when axial phase readings were taken on the right
side bearing, it may have been necessary to point the vibration transducer to the left. If this
was the case, it will be necessary to correct the phase readings for one of the bearings by 180
degrees to compensate for the necessary 180-degree change in transducer direction. Of
course, if the direction of the pickup axis can be kept the same at all bearing locations, then
no correction factor is necessary.

5.6 VIBRATION DUE TO MISALIGNMENT

Surveys have shown that at the beginning stages of most predictive maintenance programs,
misalignment of direct-coupled machines is by far the most common cause of machinery
vibration. In spite of self-aligning bearings and flexible couplings, it is difficult to align two
shafts and their bearings so that no forces exist which will cause vibration. Although
machines may be well aligned initially, several factors can affect alignment, including:
1. Operating temperature: Machines aligned when cold may "grow" out of alignment
due to variations in thermal conditions.
2. Settling of the base or foundation.

3. Deterioration or shrinkage of grouting

Figure 5-5 illustrates the three types of coupling misalignment: offset, angular and a
combination of angular and offset misalignment. The vibration characteristics caused by
coupling misalignment depends on the type of misalignment as well as the extent or degree of
misalignment. The following are general characteristics to look for:

34
 Figure 5-5: Three types of misalignment.

1. The forces resulting from coupling misalignment are usually "shared" by the coupled
machine components. As a result, the amplitudes of vibration measured on the driver
and driven units will be reasonably the same. Of course, differences in the mass and
stiffness characteristics may result in slightly different amplitudes. However, the
vibration is not typically localized to just one component.

2. The radial vibration caused by coupling misalignment is typically highly directional

on both the driver and driven units. Misalignment occurs in a certain direction and, as
a result, the radial forces are not uniformly applied in all radial directions like that
from unbalance.
3. The vibration frequencies due to misalignment are usually 1x, 2x and 3x RPM, and
may appear in any combination depending on the type and extent of misalignment.
Angular misalignment normally causes vibration at 1 x RPM, whereas offset or
parallel misalignment causes vibration predominantly at 2 x RPM. In fact, offset
misalignment is probably the most likely cause of a predominate 2 x RPM vibration.
Combinations of angular and offset misalignment may show combinations of 1 x and
2 x RPM and in some cases even 1 x, 2x and 3 x RPM.
4. Whenever misalignment is suspected, an axial phase analysis comparing the relative
axial motion of the driver and driven units can be most helpful. As stated earlier, "for
every action there is an equal but opposite reaction". As a result, misalignment
problems will normally reveal a significant phase difference up to 180 degrees.
However, phase differences as little as 60 degrees in relative axial motion are
sufficient to suggest misalignment. Remember, when taking comparative axial phase
measurements, it will be necessary to correct your phase readings by 180 degrees
whenever it is necessary to reverse the direction of the vibration transducer from the
first or original axial measurements.

5. An offset or parallel misalignment may not always show high amplitudes of axial
vibration, especially on close-coupled machines. However, the fact that misalignment
is the problem is fairly easy to recognize since first, the vibration is shared between
35
 the driver and driven units, and secondly, the radial vibration is generally highly
directional. In addition, there are very few additional problems besides offset
misalignment that cause vibration predominantly at 2 x RPM.
Of course other conditions of misalignment can exist that do not involve a coupling. One
example is a rolling element bearing that is "cocked" in the housing due to distortion or errors
in manufacturing or assembly. In this case, comparative axial amplitude readings taken at the
four positions around the shaft will usually identify the problem because of the large
discrepancy in amplitudes.

If a rolling element bearing is actually "cocked" on the shaft, as shown in Figure 5-6, the
comparative amplitudes may be reasonably the same. However, the comparative phase
readings will likely reveal a "twisting" type of axial motion, very similar to a shaft that is
kinked or bent very close to the bearing.

Figure 5-7 shows a misaligned plain or sleeve-type bearing. Unlike rolling element bearings,
misaligned sleeve bearings will rarely result in significant vibration unless there is an
unbalance condition as well. An unbalance causes significant radial forces which, in turn,
force the misalignment to create axial vibration. In fact, there have been many reported cases
where high amplitudes of axial vibration caused by misaligned sleeve bearings have been
significantly reduced by simply balancing the machine to much finer tolerances. However,
the real cause of the high axial vibration is bearing misalignment, which should be corrected.
If the bearing is truly misaligned, rapid wear of the bearing will most likely occur, even
though the amplitude of vibration might be improved by balancing.
Another condition of misalignment that produces high axial vibration is the misalignment of
pulleys and sprockets used in "V" belts and chain drives. Figure 5-8 illustrates several
examples of belt and pulley misalignment. These conditions not only result in destructive
vibration, but cause accelerated wear of pulleys, sprockets, chains and belt drives.

Figure 5-6: Misaligned rolling-element bearing and shaft.

36
 Figure 5-7: Misaligned sleeve bearing and shaft.

MISALIGNED SHEAVES

OFF SET PIDGEON-TOE ANGLE

SHEAVE WOBBLE ECCENTRICITY

Figure 5-8. Examples of Misaligned pulleys

5.7 VIBRATION DUE TO LOOSENESS

Perhaps the first important thing to understand about vibration problems due to looseness is
that looseness is NOT an exciting force. In other words, excessive vibration may exist due to
looseness conditions; however, looseness is not the actual cause of the vibration. Some other
exciting force such as unbalance or misalignment must be present to actually cause the
vibration.
37
Looseness is simply a loss or reduction in the normal stiffness of the machine or system,
perhaps due to loose mounting bolts, cracks in the base or foundation, deterioration in
grouting, cracked welds, loose lags or anchors or rotors loose on the shaft. Looseness
conditions simply allow whatever exciting forces exist in the machine to exhibit or generate
higher amplitudes of vibration than they would if no looseness problems existed. If the
predominate exciting force is an unbalance at 1 x RPM, then predominate vibration due to
looseness would be 1 x RPM in this case. However, if the predominate exciting force is
occurring at 2 x RPM due to an offset misalignment, then the looseness would occur at a
frequency of 2 x RPM. Looseness does not have to occur at a frequency of 2 x RPM as many
published vibration diagnostic charts would lead one to believe.

The term looseness is a very broad term and covers a wide range of possibilities. For our
purposes here, two general types of looseness and their identifying vibration characteristics
will be discussed. These include:
1. Looseness associated with the rotating system, including rotors loose on the shaft,
bearings loose on the shaft or in the machine housing and excessive sleeve bearing
clearance.
2. Looseness of the support system of a machine such as loose mounting bolts, grouting
deterioration or cracks in the structure.

5.8 LOOSENESS OF THE ROTATING SYSTEM

Looseness associated with the rotating system, such as a rotor loose on the shaft, will usually
result in a "rattling" condition or a series of "impacts" between various machine components
such as the rotor rattling on the shaft. Or, in the case of a bearing loose on the shaft, perhaps
due to a loose locking collar, rattling between the shafts and bearing. As discussed earlier,
whenever impacts or spike-pulses occur, for whatever reason, the result, in terms of FFT
frequency characteristics, will be multiple harmonic frequencies.
The fan analysis data in Figure 5-9 revealed a predominate vibration at 2200 CPM or 1 x
RPM of the fan. However, multiple harmonically related frequencies are also present at 2 X
RPM (4400 CPM), 3 x RPM (6600 CPM) and 4 x RPM (8800 CPM). These multiple
frequencies were only evident at the drive end bearing "C" and were significant in all
measurement directions. Ultimately it was discovered that the set screws securing the "V"
belt pulley to the shaft had worked loose. Tightening the setscrews eliminated the looseness
and the multiple harmonically related frequencies at 2x, 3x and 4 x RPM.

38
 Figure 5-9: Typical tri-axial data taken on a belt-driven fan

Figure 5-10 shows a history of FFTs taken on a centrifugal pump. Note that the FFT dated 8-
3-88 shows very little significant vibration. However, the FFT dated 10-6-88 shows a definite
increase in the amplitudes and number of harmonically related vibration frequencies. The
FFT dated 2-1-89 shows an even greater increase in the amplitudes of multiple frequencies.
At this point, the pump was shut down, removed from service and disassembled for
inspection. As a result, it was found that the shaft had been turning in the bearing raceway
and, as a result, the diameter of the shaft had actually worn down nearly 1/4 inch creating an
obvious looseness condition. After building up the shaft and replacing the bearing, a follow-
up FFT, dated 3-21-89, reveals that the looseness condition has been corrected.

Figure 5-10: The multiple harmonic frequencies are the result of a shaft loose in the bearing raceway

39
5.9 LOOSENESS OF THE SUPPORTING SYSTEM

Unlike looseness associated with the rotating system, looseness of the machine support
system may not reveal multiple, harmonically related vibration frequencies. Whether or not
multiple harmonic frequencies are generated, depends on not only the severity of the
looseness condition, but the intensity of the machine's inherent exciting forces as well.
For example, a motor that has been well balanced may operate quite smoothly simply sitting,
unbolted, to the shop floor or test bed. However, by adding a little unbalance, the motor may
vibrate significantly and actually "walk" around the foundation if unrestrained. Looseness
conditions of the machine supporting system such as loose mounting bolts, deterioration of
grouting or cracks in the structure or foundation can usually be identified by the following
vibration characteristics:
1. Structural looseness accompanied by only moderate exciting forces such slight
unbalance or misalignment, may reveal only predominate exciting force frequency
with no apparent harmonics. However, because there is looseness, the radial vibration
will typically be highly directional, and may show unusually high vertical amplitude.
Normally, for rigidly mounted machines, vertical amplitude that is equal or greater
than the horizontal amplitude is a good indication of structural looseness or weakness.

2. If structural looseness exists, combined with a significant exciting force such as

unbalance, the combination of the two conditions may result in a "bouncing"
condition. To explain, Figure 5-11 shows a bearing with loose mounting bolts
together with a significant unbalance. When the unbalance force is directed
downward, the bearing is forced downward against the base. However, when the
unbalance force has rotated to the upward direction, the force of unbalance actually
lifts the bearing up to the extent of looseness. The bearing is held in this position until
the unbalance force has rotated to a position where its upward lifting force can no
longer hold the bearing up. At this point, the bearing will drop and bounce against the
base. The net result is a "distortion" of the unbalance sine wave as shown. As
discussed earlier, any time a vibration signal deviates from a sinusoidal or "sine"
waveform, multiple harmonic vibration frequencies will be evident in the resultant
FFT.

Here also, additional evidence of a structural looseness condition will be indicated by its
highly directional nature along with abnormally high amplitude of vertical vibration
compared to the horizontal vibration.

40
 Figure 5-11. Mechanical Looseness combined with a significant exciting force can result in bouncing

5.10 MECHANICAL LOOSENESS AND SUB HARMONIC FREQUENCIES

On occasion, certain looseness conditions can also result in "sub harmonic" frequencies of
vibration (i.e. 1/2, 1/3, or 1/4 x RPM) with frequencies at 1/2 x RPM being the most
common. For example, there have been many reported cases of excessive wear andclearance
in sleeve bearings of large motors that have resulted in vibration frequencies of 1/2x, 1x, 1-
1/2x, 2x, 2-1/2x, 3x, 3-1/2x and higher orders of 1/2 x RPM. Why and how vibration
frequencies at multiples of half-order (1/2 x RPM) are generated has never been fully
explained. However, when detected, possible looseness conditions, including bearing
clearance problems, should be suspected.

5.11 VIBRATION DUE TO ECCENTRICITY

Of course, no rotor or shaft can be made perfectly round. Some eccentricity or "out of
roundness" will be present on nearly every rotating assembly. Eccentricity is a common cause
of unbalance, and for common machines such as fans, blowers, pumps, etc., normal balancing
procedures can be carried out to minimize the effects of eccentricity. However, in certain
situations, eccentricity can result in "reaction" forces that cannot be totally compensated by

41
simply balancing the rotor. Probably the most common examples are eccentric belt pulleys
and chain sprockets, eccentric gears and eccentric motor armatures. Figure 5-12 illustrates
these common sources of eccentricity along with eccentric bearings. Eccentric bearings are
rarely a cause of excessive vibration because of the precision with which bearings are
normally manufactured. However, in the case of machine tools, where extremely low
vibration tolerances are needed, simply changing a bearing may result in a significant
vibration increase because of variations in bearing tolerances.

Figure 5-12. Sources of eccentricity

In the case of an eccentric belt pulley or chain sprocket, each revolution of the eccentric
pulley or sprocket will cause a variation in belt or chain tension. The result will be a vibration
frequency at 1 x RPM of the eccentric element, with a directional force on a line between the
centers of the driver and driven pulleys or sprockets. Although this could be easily mistaken
as an unbalance problem, a simple test for the directionality of the radial vibration by taking

42
comparative horizontal and vertical phase readings or by taking multiple radial amplitude
readings will quickly reveal the highly directional nature of the vibration. Slow motion
studies with a stroboscopic light or run out checks with a dial indicator will confirm the
eccentricity problem.

Eccentric gears will cause highly directional vibration at 1 x RPM of the eccentric gear in a
manner similar to that of eccentric belt pulleys and chain sprockets, and can be identified by
taking comparative horizontal and vertical phase readings or by taking multiple radial
amplitude readings. If balancing is attempted on machines with eccentric gears, pulleys or
sprockets, the results will be less than satisfactory. In many cases, balancing a rotor in the
horizontal direction will only cause the vibration to increase in the vertical direction and vice
versa. Therefore, the recommended procedure for in-place balancing of belt, chain or gear
driven machines, where eccentricity may be a problem, is to perform the balance calculations
with data taken from BOTH the horizontal and vertical directions. If the vibration problem is
truly unbalanced, the computed solution for the balance correction should be the same for the
horizontal and vertical directions. If the calculated answers are significantly different,
unbalance is probably not the problem.

Eccentricity of induction motor armatures is another case where balancing will not solve the
eccentricity problem. An eccentric armature of an induction motor will result in a variation of
the rotating air gap between the motor armature and magnetic field (stator). Although the
motor armature can be successfully balanced to compensate for the unequal distribution of
rotor weight, balancing will NOT solve the problem of a variable rotating air gap. As the air
gap between the armature and stator varies with rotation of the eccentric armature, the
magnetic forces between the armature and stator also vary with rotation, causing an
unbalance in the magnetic forces. These forces cannot be compensated by balancing the
rotor. Additional information on identifying induction motor problems, including armature
eccentricity, is presented later under "Induction Motor Problems".

5.12 VIBRATION DUE TO RESONANCE

Every object, which includes every element or part of a machine, has a "natural frequency" or
a frequency at which "it likes to vibrate". Striking a bell or guitar string causes it to vibrate at
its natural frequency. The natural frequency of every object is determined by its mass
(weight) and stiffness characteristics. Increasing the mass or weight of an object reduces or
lowers its natural frequency. Increasing the stiffness of an object, such as tightening a guitar
string, increases or raises its natural frequency.
The fact that every part or element of a machine has a "natural frequency", based on its mass
and stiffness characteristics, is not a problem in itself. However, a problem of excessive

43
vibration can result if a machine component has a natural frequency that just happens to be
the same as or close to some exciting force frequency inherent to the machine. When this
happens, the problem is called "resonance". From a vibration standpoint, resonance acts as a
mechanical amplifier. Even minor or normal exciting forces such as unbalance,
misalignment, aerodynamic/hydraulic forces, electrical forces in motors etc. that would
normally result in little or no significant vibration may result in extremely high vibration
amplitudes if they excite a resonance condition.
Resonance is a very common cause of excessive vibration on machines because:

1. Machines consist of many individual elements or components such as suction and

discharge piping, bearing pedestals, bases, and accessory items such as exciters and
lube oil pumps, etc. Of course, each component has its own mass and stiffness
characteristics and, hence, its own unique natural frequency.

2. The stiffness of each machine component is different in different directions. As a

result, each machine component will likely have several different natural frequencies.
For example, consider a fan bearing. Most likely, the stiffness of the bearing will be
different in the horizontal, vertical and axial directions. As a result, the natural
frequencies of this particular machine component will also be different in the
horizontal, vertical and axial directions.

When one considers all of the various machine components, along with the multiple natural
frequencies possible for each component, the reason that resonance is such a common
problem is quite understandable. All that is required is that the natural frequency of one
machine component, in one of its directions of vibration, be the same as one exciting force
frequency inherent to the machine. When this happens, resonance and high levels of vibration
will result. Although machines that are installed and brought into service may not exhibit
resonance problems initially, resonance may become a problem in the future if changes in
machine stiffness occur as the result of bearing wear, grouting deterioration, loosening of
mounting bolts or other problems.

5.13 IDENTIFYING RESONANCE

Since the natural or resonant frequency of a machine component is dependent on its stiffness,
and since the stiffness of machine components generally differs in the various directions of
vibration measurement, resonance problems will usually cause highly directional vibration.
For example, the tri-axial vibration data taken on the outboard bearing of the motor driven
fan in Figure 4-1 revealed a vibration amplitude at 1 x RPM in the horizontal direction that
was almost ten (10) times higher than that measured in either the vertical or axial directions.
This was, in fact, the result of a resonance condition where the bearing had a natural

44
frequency in the horizontal direction equal to the unbalance frequency of 1 x RPM.

5.14 VERIFYING RESONANCE PROBLEMS

Whenever a resonance problem is suspected, there are several simple checks that can be
performed to prove that the problem is, in fact, a resonance condition. These additional
checks include:
1. Change the exciting force frequency. The amplitude of resonance problems depends
on the exciting force frequency being close to the component natural frequency. In
other words, the amplitude of resonance vibration is "frequency dependent", and
small changes in the exciting force frequency will normally result in significant
changes in the vibration amplitude. Therefore, if possible, change the RPM of the
machine and note the effect on the amplitude of vibration. If relatively small changes
in machine speed cause large changes in vibration amplitude, the problem is very
likely a resonance.
2. Change the mass or stiffness of the suspected resonant machine component.
Making changes in the mass or stiffness of a machine, structure or other system
component to test for and possibly correct a resonance problem is a rather
straightforward procedure. Temporary mass changes can be made by simply adding
sand bags, concrete blocks or other suitable weights to a suspected resonant machine
component, to verify the results before an expensive, permanent solution is carried
out. In one instance, a forklift truck was driven onto a resonate equipment floor to test
the effect of a mass change. The added mass of the truck drastically reduced the
amplitude of floor vibration and plant engineering refused to allow the truck to be
moved until a permanent solution could be made. Similarly, temporarychangesin
stiffness can be made by adding wood or metal braces, jacks, etc. Once the solution is
proven to work, more permanent braces can be fabricated and bolted or welded in
place.

3. Perform a bump test on the suspected component. Perhaps of the easiest and least
expensive ways to verify a resonance problem is with a bump or impact test. Any
object which is struck or bumped will vibrate at its natural frequency. Good examples
would be a bell, tuning fork or guitar string. Of course, the natural frequency excited
by the impact will eventually decay or die away due to damping. Repeated impacts,
however, can sustain the natural frequencies for whatever time is needed to perform a
frequency analysis (FFT) to identify the system's most significant natural frequencies.
To perform a bump test, simply shut down the machine being analyzed and apply the
vibration transducer to the location and direction of the suspected resonance. With the

45
vibration transducer in place, bump in the machine with the force sufficient to cause it to
vibrate at a level above the level of any background vibration. Devices suitable for bumping
the machine include rubber, rawhide or plastic mallets or a large piece of lumber. DO NOT
use metallic objects such as a sledge hammer as these tend to excite only localized natural
frequencies and not the system natural frequencies. In addition, striking the machine with
metallic objects may results in extensive damage to the machine.

When the machine is bumped, the system natural frequencies will be excited. However,
because of damping, the resonant vibration will quickly die away. For this reason, it will be
necessary to bump the machine repeatedly in order to sustain the vibration for whatever
period of time is necessary to perform the needed frequency (FFT) analysis. For best result, it
is recommended that the machine be bumped at rate 1 or 2 impacts / seconds to not only
sustain the resonant frequencies, but to sustain them at reasonably constant amplitude.

Figure 5-13: Bump test data confirming piping resonance

Figure 5-13 shows vibration analysis data and bump test data taken on the discharge piping of
a vertical pump. Because the piping had extremely high amplitude of vibration, highly
directional in nature, piping resonance was suspected. The frequency of vibration was 2400
CPM or 2 x RPM which was the normal discharge pulsation frequency for this particular
pump. The bump test data clearly shows the natural frequency of the piping at2400 CPM.
This is clearly a resonance problem.

5.15 VIBRATION DUE TO DEFECTIVE ROLLING-ELEMENT BEARINGS

When a rolling-element bearing develops flaws on the raceways and/or rolling elements,there
are actually a number of vibration frequency characteristics that can result, depending on the
extent of deterioration. Thus, identifying these characteristic frequencies can not only help to

46
verify that a bearing is definitely that a bearing is defiantly failing, but can also give some
indication of the extent of deterioration? The following is a discussion of the four stages that
a bearing will typically go through from the earliest stage of deterioration to that approaching
catastrophic failure. Catastrophic failure is defined here as simply the total inability of the
bearing to perform its intended functions of minimizing the friction generated through
rotating motion and keeping rotating and non-rotating parts from coming into contact with
one another. In other words, failure will occur when either the bearing literally comes apart or
seizes due to excessive heat buildup.

5.15.1 Stage One-There's a Visible Flaw

At the first stage of bearing failure, a defect has developed on a raceway or rolling element
that, upon examination, would be visibly detectable to the naked eye. Since the defect is
relatively small at this first stage, the only indication is a significant increase in SPIKE
ENERGY. At this early stage of deterioration, no significant changes are noted in overall
acceleration or velocity amplitudes, nor will a frequency analysis reveal any significant
characteristics. At this stage, the most appropriate action would be to shorten the interval
between periodic checks.

5.15.2 Stage Two-It's Getting Worse

As bearing deterioration progresses, the size of the flaw increases and, thus, the intensity of
the impact forces increase as well. As a result, SPIKE ENERGY (gSE) values will continue
to increase. In addition, at stage two, the intensity of the impact forces has increased
sufficiently to excite the ringing "natural" frequencies of the various bearing components
including the inner raceway, outer raceway, cage, rolling elements, etc. These bearing natural
frequencies generally occur within a frequency range from approximately 20,000 CPM to
150,000 CPM (333 Hz to 2500 Hz) regardless of bearing size or machine RPM.

The vibration velocity signature is very typical of a bearing that has reached the stage 2 level
of deterioration. This analysis data was obtained on the bearing of a centrifugal pump
operating at 3600 RPM. The overall SPIKE ENERGY reading is 1.7 gSE, which would be
considered VERY ROUGH. The overall vibration velocity reading of 0.15 in/sec, on the
other hand, would generally be considered acceptable. The bearing problem is verified,
however, by the velocity' frequency spectrum that reveals a somewhat erratic band of
vibration over a frequency range from approximately 20,000 CPM to 120,000 CPM. The
erratic or "haystack" appearance is not unusual since the impacts generated by the bearing
defects will actually excite numerous bearing components to "ring" at various intervals,
frequencies and intensities. Whether or not the "haystack" includes frequency components
over the entire range from 20,000 CPM to 150,000 CPM will depend, in part, on the extent of
bearing deterioration. Typically, a small range of frequencies will appear first. Then as
47
deterioration continues, the "haystack" will begin to spread out, covering a wider and wider
frequency span.

Another point that needs to be mentioned is that the amplitudes of the ringing resonate
frequencies are not typically very high, and rarely exceed 0.1 in/sec.

Once a stage two level of deterioration is confirmed, the machine should be shut down and
the bearing replaced at the earliest opportunity. Normally, the worse a bearing gets, the more
rapidly it gets worse. If the machine cannot be shut down, even more frequent checks should
be made, perhaps once every few hours, in order to judge the rate of deterioration.

5.15.3 Stage Three - It’s Really Bad

At stage three, SPIKE ENERGY (gSE) readings will continue to increase, and the "haystack"
of ringing natural frequencies will likely spread out, covering more of the frequency range
between 20,000 CPM and 150,000 CPM. In addition, characteristic of stage three will be the
appearance of specific bearing defect frequencies in the velocity frequency analysis (FFT)
data. There are four-types of bearing defect frequencies:

1. The ball passing frequency for the outer raceway (BPFO)

2. The ball passing frequency for the inner raceway (BPFI)

3. The actual rotating speed of the balls or rollers, referred to as the ball spin frequency
(BSF)

4. The rotating speed of the cage or retainer, referred to as the fundamental train
frequency (FTF)

These bearing defect frequencies can actually be calculated if the number of rolling elements,
bearing pitch diameter, rolling element diameter, contact angle and machine RPM are known.
The needed equations are given in Figure 5-15.
Although the specific bearing defect frequencies can be calculated, this is rarely necessary
since most reputable bearing manufacturers and suppliers will provide this information upon
request. In addition, there is a number of software bearing "libraries" available that typically
include literally thousands of bearings from various bearing manufacturers. If the machine
RPM is known, a specific bearing defect frequency can be found by simply multiplying the
RPM times the appropriate defect frequency multiplier. For example, assume that a machine
rotating at 3600 RPM has an SKF N220 bearing, and it was necessary to determine the ball
passing frequency for the outer raceway (BPFO). From the tables, it can be found that the
BPFO multiplier for this particular bearing is 6.86. Therefore, the BPFO is simply 3600 RPM
times 6.86 which equals 24,696 CPM. This would be called the "fundamental" outer raceway
defect frequency.

48
Figure 5-16 shows FFT data taken on a paper machine press roll bearing that had severe
damage on the outer raceway. The roll rotates, at 158 RPM and the cursor frequency of 1410
CPM is the calculated outer race passing frequency.
Since bearing defects generate vibration in the form of impacts, the fundamental bearing
defect frequencies will often be accompanied by multiple harmonically related frequencies as
well. This can be seen in the analysis data in Figure 5-16 which shows many harmonics of
the outer race frequency. Generally speaking, the more harmonic frequencies there are, the
worse the bearing condition.

Of course, inner raceway defects will generate frequencies different from outer defects. In
addition, inner raceway bearing defects will normally be accompanied by "side-band"
frequencies spaced above and below the bearing defect frequencies at plus and minus
machine RPM.

Like the ringing resonant frequencies, the amplitudes of the specific defect frequencies are
rarely very high. An amplitude as low as 0.05 in/sec of a BPFO or BPFI may indicate a
bearing has extremely severe deterioration. In general, when specific bearing defect
frequencies begin to appear in the velocity spectrum (FFT), the machine should be shut down
for immediate bearing replacement. Continued operation may result in catastrophic failure in
a very short time.

Rolling Element Bearing Defect Frequencies

These equations assume the inner race is rotating with the shaft while the outer race is fixed
(stationary).
INNER RACE = BPFI= Nb/2(1+BdCosØ/Pd) x RPM

OUTER RACE = BPFO= Nb/2(1-BdCosØ/Pd) x RPM

BALL ROLER = BSF = Pd/2Bd[1-(BdCosØ/Pd)2] x RPM

CAGE = FTF = ½ (1- BdCosØ/Pd) x RPM

Nb = Number of balls or Rollers

Bd = Balls or Roller Diameter (inch. or mm)

Pd = Bearing Pitch Diameter (inch. or mm)

Ø = Contact Angle (degrees)

Figure 5-15: Equations for calculating specific bearing defect frequencies

49
 Figure 5-16: Pressrollbearing with outer race frequencises dueto sever damge to the outerraceway

5.15.4 Stage Four-The Last Hurrah

Stage four is the final stage of bearing deterioration just before total failure. In many cases, a
failing bearing may never exhibit the vibration and SPIKE ENERGY characteristics of stage
four. During stage three, excessive heat buildup may cause the bearing to seize. Or, in the
case of inner raceway defect, the raceway may have split. Of course, if the raceway splits,
eliminating the normal interference fit, the shaft may actually spin within the race, causing
the shaft to gall and break.
If and when a bearing reaches a stage four level of deterioration, the SPIKE ENERGY levels
may actually decline. The decline in SPIKE ENERGY at stage four is attributed to a process
referred to as "self-penning". The edges of the raceway or rolling element defects begin to
round off, which actually reduces the intensity of the impact forces. Metal which has been
removed from the various bearing components may actually fill in some of the more severe
flaws and be smoothed over by rolling elements. However, during this process, the clearances
within the bearing are beginning to increase substantially, creating a significant looseness
condition. The result will be a noticeable increase in overall vibration velocity amplitudes.
Concerning frequency analysis (FFT) data, at stage four, the "haystack" will continue to
spread out and may actually extend below 20,000 CPM. Since stage four is actually a
looseness condition associated with the rotating system, multiple harmonics of 1 RPM,
similar to that shown in Figure 5-10 will be evident.
At stage four, total, catastrophic failure of the machine could occur within a matter of
minutes.

50
5.16 VIBRATION DUE TO AERODYNAMIC HYDRAULIC PROBLEMS

Vibration problems caused by aerodynamic and hydraulic forces in fans, blowers and pumps
are easy to recognize because the resultant vibration will occur at a frequency which is the
product of the number of fan blades or impeller vanes times machine RPM. For example, if a
pump impeller with 7 vanes rotates at 3600 RPM, the vane passing frequency will be 3600
RPM times 7 vanes or 25,200 CPM (3600 CPM x 7= 25,200 CPM).

It is not unusual to detect some vibration at the vane or blade passing frequencies on nearly
every fan or pump. Just like it would be impossible to perfectly balance or align a machine, it
would be impossible to build a machine where no hydraulic or aerodynamic forces were
present. However, when the amplitude of aerodynamic or hydraulic vibration is excessive or
has shown a significant increase, a problem is indicated.
Whenever excessive or a significant increase has been detected in the vibration amplitude at
the blade or vane passing frequency, the following possibilities should be considered:

1. Resonance: As discussed previously, any exciting force frequency can serve to excite
the natural frequency of a machine or some machine component. Aerodynamic and
hydraulic pulsation vibration frequencies are not excluded from the list of
possibilities. If the problem is, in fact, resonance, the vibration will typically be highly
directional in nature. Refer to the discussion of resonance for additional tests such as
bump tests that can be carried out to verify whether or not the problem is truly
resonance.
2. Manufacturing errors: Simply because a machine is new does not necessarily mean
that it is manufactured or assembled correctly. In fact, one example involved three
identical centrifugal pumps that exhibited high amplitudes of vibration at the vane-
passing frequency and dimensional inspection revealed that the impellers were 0.080-
inch off-center relative to the stationary diffusers, creating an unbalance in the
hydraulic pulsations.
3. Piping and duct configuration: Sometimes high amplitudes of vibration at the vane
or blade passing frequencies may simply be the result of the design features of the
inlet or discharge piping or fan ductwork. Sharp changes in the flow direction of
fluids (liquids or gasses) will generally result in flow turbulence and vibration.
Although the vibration may have high amplitudes at the vane or blade passing
frequencies, random vibration at both low and high frequencies may be present as
well. Elbows immediately adjacent to the suction or discharge of fans and pumps
should be avoided whenever possible. To illustrate, a 90-degree elbow located

51
 directly at the suction flange of a centrifugal pump may cause a variation in the
pressure and flow velocities of the fluid entering the "eye" of the impeller. This
variation in fluid velocity and pressure causes vibration at the vane or blade passing
frequency. Some industry performance standards for fans and pumps require that
elbows in piping and ductwork be located at certain distances from the machine in
order to avoid such vibration problems. For example, the American Petroleum
Institute (API) performance standard for centrifugal pumps (API Standard 610)
requires that suction (inlet) piping elbows be no closer than five times the diameter of
the inlet piping. In other words, if the inlet diameter is ten (10) inches, then the elbow
should be no closer than 10 x 5 or 50 inches downstream on the suction side of the
pump. This will allow the flow velocity and pressure of the fluid to stabilize before
entering the eye of the pump impeller.

4. Design capacity: Fans, blowers, pumps and other fluid-handling machines are
normally designed to operate at certain flow conditions including suction and
discharge pressures, flow rates (volume), head pressures, product density orspecific
gravity, etc. If operated beyond or outside these designed parameters, high amplitudes
of vibration generally result. For example, pumps that are forced to operate well
below their designed capacity will experience "cavitations". Operating below
designed suction pressure, the pump is essentially "starved" and the amount of fluid
that enters the pump is insufficient. This creates vacuum pockets in the fluid that are
unstable and can collapse or implode. Due to their "impactive" nature, these
implosions excite the natural frequencies of various machine components in much the
same way as the impacts from bearing defects. In fact, cavitations often causes a "hay
stack" of random vibration frequencies in the 20,000 CPM to 150,000 CPM frequency
range, just like defective rolling-element bearings. However, the vibration caused by a
defective bearing is typically localized to a specific bearing, whereas cavitations will
not be localized to a specific bearing but will show up at all measurement locations on
the pump. In fact, readings can be taken directly on the pump housing to verify that
the problem is, in fact, cavitations and not a bad bearing.
From the above discussion, it should be obvious that there are many possible causes of high
amplitudes of hydraulic and aerodynamic pulsation frequencies on fluid-handling machines
such as fans, blowers, pumps, compressors, etc., and it is beyond the scope of this text to
cover the details of each possible cause. In general, however, the following checks will
usually identify the specific cause:

1. Check to be sure that the machine is operating within designed parameters of flow,
volume, product density, specific gravity, etc.

52
 2. Check the dimensional tolerances of the machine, especially on new or rebuilt units.
3. Check to make certain there are no obvious flow obstructions. If the pump has
strainers on the suction side or the fan has filters, make sure that they are clean and
free of obstructions.

If the above checks, along with tests for possible resonance, fail to identify the cause of high
amplitudes of "flow-induced" vibration, it may be necessary to shut the unit down for further
inspection to detect problems such as pump wear- ring problems, broken diffuser vanes, etc.

5.17 VIBRATION DUE TO INDUCTION MOTOR PROBLEMS

Induction motors are probably the most common drivers used for industrial machinery. For
this reason, some of the more common vibration problems unique to induction motors will be
covered here. Of course, there are other types of drives including synchronous motors,
variable frequency (VFD) drives and variable speed DC motors, to name only a few.
However, to attempt to cover the unique problems and resultant vibration a characteristic of
each type of drive is well beyond the scope of this text.

In addition to the normal mechanical problems of unbalance, misalignment, distortion,

looseness, etc.; induction motors can also have significant vibration due to "electrical"
problems. Although such problems are normally referred to as "electrical" problems, the
causes are actually mechanical in nature and result in unbalanced magnetic forces between
the motor armature and field or stator. Such problems can be divided into armature or stator
(field) related problems, and can be easily distinguished by their individual vibration
characteristics, as will be explained in the paragraphs to follow.
Typical armature problems that result in unbalanced magnetic forces include:

1. Cracked or broken rotor bars

2. Armature eccentricity: Even though the armature may have been balanced, armature
eccentricity will result in an unequal rotating air gap, creating unbalanced magnetic
forces.

3. Shorted laminations (iron): Perhaps a previous bearing failure has allowed the
armature to rub.

Typical field or stator problems that result in unbalanced magnetic forces include:
1. Unequal air gap between the armature and stator: This could be the result of
manufacturing errors, improper adjustment or worn sleeve bearings.
2. Shorted stator laminations (iron), perhaps due to a rotor rub
3. An elliptical stator bore

53
 4. Operating off axial magnetic center
5. Unbalanced phases on 3-phase systems

6. Open or shorted. Windings

7. Loose connections

Although armature problems can be distinguished from stator or field related problems by
their distinct vibration characteristics, pinpointing a specific problem, such as one of the
possible field problems listed above, may not be possible using vibration data alone. Once the
armature or field has been identified as the cause of an electrical vibration, additional
electrical and physical tests are usually required to positively pinpoint the specific cause.

5.18 TEST FOR ELECTRICAL PROBLEMS UNDER LOAD

When testing motor vibration for possible electrical problems, the motor must be operating
under a reasonable load. Some motor experts suggest that the motor be tested at a load of at
least 75% of its maximum rated load.
The amplitudes of vibration from unbalanced magnetic forces depend on the magnetic
strength of the field, which, of course, is governed by motor current. A motor operating solo
simply doesn’t have sufficient magnetic field strength to reveal potently serious electrical
problems.

5.19 TEST FOR ELECTRICAL PROBLEMS AT NORMAL OPERATING

TEMPERATURE

Some electrical problems may not show up on initial startup when the motor is cold. Cracked
or broken rotor bars or loose connections may only appear after thermal expansion. In
addition, a motor armature may bow at operating temperature to create the effect of an
eccentric rotor.

5.20 DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL

VIBRATION

The first step in identifying electrical problems on induction motors is to verify that the
vibration is, in fact, electrical in nature and not a mechanical problem such as unbalance or
misalignment.

Since the magnetic field must be "induced" through the armature across an air gap, some
energy will be lost and the armature simply can't keep up with the rotating magnetic field. As
a result, induction motors always have a "slip" frequency, which is the difference between the
electrical frequency of the magnetic field rotating in the stator and the actual rotating speed of

54
the armature. For example, the rotating speed of the magnetic field in a 2-pole motor is
exactly AC line frequency or 3600 RPM (60 Hz). If the armature was turning at 3550 RPM,
the slip frequency would be 50 CPM (3600 - 3550 = 50). With a 4-pole motor, the magnetic
field rotates at exactly 1/2 of AC line frequency or 1800 CPM (30 Hz). Therefore, a 4-pole
motor operating at 1750 RPM would have a slip frequency of 50 CPM also (1800 - 1750 =
50). The actual slip frequency for any induction motor depends on the load-the greater the
load, the higher the slip frequency will be.
From the above discussion, it should be apparent that the vibration frequencies generated by
mechanical and electrical problems could be very close. For this reason, it is most important
that when the FFT spectral parameters of Fmax and the number of lines of resolution are
selected, that they be selected to make it possible to separate these frequencies. To illustrate,
assume that an FFT with an Fmax of 120,000 CPM and 400 lines of resolution was taken on
the 3550-RPM motor described above. With these FFT parameters, each line of resolution
would be 300 CPM wide (120,000 CPM/400 lines = 300 CPM). Under these conditions, it
would be impossible to separate or distinguish between mechanical and electrical
frequencies.

5.21 VIBRATION DUE TO FIELD (STATOR) PROBLEMS

To explain the vibration characteristics caused by field or stator problems, consider a motor
with an unequal air gap problem, Figure 5-17. In this case, the armature is noticeably closer
to the motor pole on the bottom. Each motor pole is being el, with a peak positive and a peak
negative value. The diametrically opposed poles are wound in such a way that they are
energized at equal magnetic strength but opposite in polarity. In other words, when the upper
motor pole is energized at a peak positive (+) current value, the lower or opposite pole is
being energized at a peak negative (-) current value. This keeps the magnetic strength of the
opposing motor poles balanced or equal, and if the armature was centered between the motor
poles, there would be no radial unbalance ofthe magnetic forces between the armature and
stator. However, since the armature in Figure 5-17 is closer to the lower pole, the magnetic
attraction between the lower pole and the armature will be greater than that between the
armature and upper pole. The result will be vibration with the following distinct
characteristics:

1. Since each cycle of AC current passing through the motor poles actually has two peak
values, one positive (+) and one negative (-), each pole will be at maximum magnetic
strength twice for each cycle of AC current. In other words, the frequency of vibration
will be two times AC line frequency or 7200 CPM (120 Hz). Of course, this assumes
that AC line frequency is 3600 CPM (60 Hz).

55
2. The vibration frequency of two times AC line frequency is usually the pre-dominant
vibration encountered with electrical problems, especially stator problems. This
characteristic frequency is totally independent of the number of motor poles or
whether the motor is single-phase or three-phase. In other words, whether the motor is
a 2-pole (3600 RPM), 4-pole (1800 RPM), 6-pole (1200 RPM), etc., makes no
difference. A 7200 CPM frequency will be predominant. - Figure 5-18 shows an FFT
taken on a 2-pole motor with a stator problem. Note that the predominant vibration is
7200 CPM or two times AC line frequency. Note also that a vibration at a frequency
of 7173 CPM is also present, which is actually 2 x RPM of the motor, perhaps the
result of a slight misalignment problem. This example further illustrates how close
mechanical and electrical frequencies can be and the need for high resolution in the
FFT data to see the difference.

3. In addition to the predominant 7200 CPM frequency, stator problems will often show
significant vibration at the frequency of the rotating magnetic field. Figure 5-19
shows an FFT taken on a 4-pole motor. The vibration frequency at 1755 CPM is the
actual RPM of the armature. The higher frequency is 1800 CPM, which is the rotating
speed of the magnetic field of a 4-pole motor.

Figure 5-17: Motor with un-equal Air-gap.

4. Another characteristic of field or stator problems is that they are typically highly
directional in nature, which is not the case with armature problems. To explain, the

56
 problem with the motor in Figure 5-17 is a vertical air-gap problem. As a result, the
unbalanced magnetic forces will occur in the vertical direction and the resultant
vibration will be in the vertical direction as well. Because of their directional nature, it
is recommended that high resolution FFT data be taken in at least the horizontal and
vertical directions at one bearing of each induction motor included in a predictive
maintenance program and for detailed analysis.

Figure 5-18: The vibration 7200 CPM is caused by an electrical Field Problem

Figure 5-19: Field Problems may also vibration at the frequency of the rotating magnetic field

57
5.22 VIBRATION DUE TO ARMATURE PROBLEMS

Armature problems, listed above, also cause unbalanced magnetic forces. However, the
resultant vibration characteristics will be different than those caused by field problems.
Figure 5-20 illustrates an armature with a cracked or broken rotor bar. Since this rotor bar is
defective, the magnetic forces between it and its diametrically opposed "good" rotor bar will
not be balanced whenever they are lined up with the motor poles when they are energized at
their maximum magnetic strengths. However, the amount or level of "magnetic unbalance"
force depends on where the armature defect is in its rotation relative to the rotation of the
magnetic field. Remember that an induction motor always has "slip."
Assume that the motor in Figure 5-20 is operating at 3550 RPM, which means that the
magnetic field is rotating at 3600 RPM. The slip frequency in this case is 50 CPM. In Figure
5-20 (A), the rotor bar is lined up with the lower motor pole when it is energized at maximum
magnetic strength. At this instant, the unbalanced magnetic force will be at its maximum
level. However, the next time the lower pole is at its maximum magnetic strength, the
cracked rotor bar will not be perfectly lined up as it was previously because of slip. In this
case, the rotor bar will be 1/50 revolution behind the magnetic field, and since it is not
perfectly lined up with the motor pole at its maximum strength; the unbalanced magnetic
forces will be reduced slightly. As the armature continues to "slip" relative to the magnetic
field, the unbalanced magnetic forces will decrease with each succeeding revolution of the
magnetic field until. When the rotor bar has slipped to a point midway between the motor
poles as shown in Figure 5-20 (C), the unbalanced magnetic forces between the armature and
field will be at their minimum or lowest level. Then, as the broken rotor bar begins to "slip"
toward the opposing (upper) motor pole, the unbalanced magnetic forces will begin to
increase.

From the above explanation, it can be seen that armature problems create a vibration that
varies in amplitude dependent on the slip frequency between the rotating speed of the
armature and magnetic field. It can also be seen from this example, that the unbalanced
magnetic forces are at peak levels whenever the armature has slipped so that the armature
defect is lined up with a motor pole when it is at its maximum magnetic field strength. For
the two-pole motor above, the amplitude was at its peak level twice for each slip cycle.

From the above discussion, the following conclusions can be made concerning the vibration
characteristics associated with armature problems with induction motors.
1. Armature problems such as cracked or broken rotor bars or a bowed or eccentric rotor always
cause pulsating vibration amplitude. If severe, this low frequency pulsation can often be heard
and felt. Stator problems may or may not cause pulsating vibration amplitude.

58
 2. The rate or frequency of the pulsating vibration from armature problems is equal to
the slip frequency multiplied by the number of motor poles, since the amplitude will
peak each time the armature has slipped to line up with an energized motor pole. This
pulsating frequency is called the "pole-passing frequency". A 2-pole motor operating
at 3550 has a slip frequency of 50 CPM. For this motor, pole-passing frequency
would be 100 CPM (50 CPM slip x 2 poles = 100 CPM). A 4-pole motor operating at
1750 RPM would also have a slip frequency of 50 CPM. However, the pole passing
for the 4-pole motor would be 200 CPM (50 CPM slip x 4 poles = 200 CPM)

3. The "pole-passing" frequency characteristics of armature problems are a "modulating"

frequency at which the amplitude of the unbalanced magnetic forces varies. As a
modulating frequency, it will appear as "side-band" frequencies in the FFT spaced
above and below other inherent frequencies of motor vibration. Figure 5-21 shows an
FFT taken on a 2-pole motor with severe rotor bars problem. The vibration at 3576
CPM is 1 x RPM of the motor, perhaps due to slight unbalance. The peak at 3600
CPM is AC line frequency and the rotating speed of the magnetic field on this 2-pole
motor indicating unbalanced magnetic forces and electrical problems. The frequencies
at 3526 and 3626 CPM are pole-pass side-band frequencies spaced above and below 1
x RPM. The peaks at 3478 and 3674 CPM are harmonics of the pole-pass side-band
frequencies. The presence of multiple harmonics of pole-pass side-band frequencies is
usually indicative of severe armature problems.

The pole-pass side-band frequencies caused by armature problems can appear as side-band
frequencies spaced above and below other common frequencies besides 1 x RPM. They may
appear as side-bands around 2x, 3x or 7200 CPM frequencies as well. Wherever they appear
as side-bands, problems with the armature are clearly indicated.

Figure 5-20: Induction Motor with broken rotor bar

59
 Figure 5-21: The “pole-pass” sidebands clearly indicate an armature problem

5.23 VIBRATION DUE TO GEAR PROBLEMS

The identification of possible gear problems is fairly easy since the most common vibration
frequencies will be equal to or harmonics of the "gear-meshing" frequency which is the
product of the number of gear teeth times RPM. For example, the fundamental gear meshing
frequency for a gear with 100 teeth turning at 3600 RPM will be 360,000 CPM (100 teeth x
3600 RPM = 360,000 CPM).
Of course, it is impossible to manufacture perfect gears in terms of tooth profiles,
concentricity and meshing characteristics. As a result, it is not unusual to identify some gear-
related vibration on nearly every gear drive system. However, if the vibration at gear
frequencies or multiple harmonics of gear meshing frequencies is considered excessive,
compared to industry standards, analysis should be carried out to identify possible causes for
correction, not only to avoid failure, but to increase the service life as well.
The following is an outline of some of the more important aspects regarding the analysis of
gears and gear drive systems:
1. Experience has shown that significant gear problems such as gear wear, gear
misalignment and excessive backlash may not cause a significant increase in the
vibration at the fundamental gear-mesh frequency. In many cases, gear problems will
cause a more significant increase at a multiple or harmonic of the fundamental gear-
mesh frequency such as 2x or 3x the fundamental gear-mesh frequency. For example,
the FFT data presented in Figure 5-22 was taken on a gear driven lubrication pump of
a lobe-type compressor. The fundamental gear-mesh frequency is 29,925 CPM and is
identified on the FFT as 1 x OPMF which means one times the oil pump meshing
frequency. The most significant or predominant frequency in this case, 59,565 CPM
or two times the oil pump gear meshing frequency.

60
 2. Gear problems not only cause vibration at frequencies, which are equal to, and
multiple harmonics of gear mesh frequencies, but will often be accompanied by "side-
band" frequencies spaced above and below the gear frequency at the rotating speed(s)
of the gears at fault. In Figure 5-22, for example, the predominant gear vibration
occurs at 2 times the fundamental gear meshing frequency of 59,565 CPM. In
addition, this gear frequency is surrounded by numerous side-band frequencies spaced
at the rotating speed of the oil pump high-speed pinion gear. This clearly indicates
that the pinion gear and not the low speed bull gear is the problem gear.

If both gears were defective or if the gears were misaligned, then side-band
frequencies at both the low speed and high-speed gear RPMs would likely appear. In
other words, the side-band frequencies can actually help pinpoint the gear(s)
responsible for the problem.

3. Other mechanical problems such as gear case distortion or bearing wear may result in
vibration at gear mesh frequencies and their harmonics. Therefore, when a significant
gear vibration is detected, be sure to check for other mechanical problems that might
be responsible before condemning the gears.

Figure 5-22: Gear Problems may cause vibration at harmonics of the fundamental gear mesh frequency.

61
4. Gear problems such as gear wear or excessive backlash that cause high impact forces
between the gear teeth can excite the "ringing" natural frequencies of the gears,
shafting, bearings and other machine components. The result can be a "hay stack" of
random, high frequency vibration in the 20,000 CPM to 150,000 CPM frequency
range-very similar to that caused by the impacts generated by defective rolling
element bearings. However, unlike bearing problems, where the high frequency
vibration is localized to a specific bearing, gear problems are not localized and
typically show up at all bearing locations.

62
6 Time waveform

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The analysis of time waveform data is not a new technique. In the early days of vibration
analysis time waveform data was viewed on oscilloscopes and frequency components
calculated by hand. The relationship between frequency and time is as follows:

f = 1/p
Where: f is the frequency in Hz p is the period in seconds (the amount of
time required to complete 1 cycle)

Knowledge of this relationship permits the determination of frequency components from the
raw waveform data.
For example:

63
The above waveform was acquired from a 1785 RPM pump. The time spacing between the
impacts is 0.0337 seconds. From this information the frequency can be determined.

f = 1/p = 1 / 0.0337 = 29.67 Hz = 1780 CPM

This indicates that the impact is occurring at a frequency of 1 x RPM.

In most situations the time waveform pattern is very complex as illustrated below and
therefore the determination of frequency components is extremely difficult using this method
and is not recommended.

In most situations time waveform data is best utilized by applying the principles of pattern
recognition and if necessary calculating the frequency components of the major events in the
waveform pattern.

6.2 WHEN TO USE TIME WAVEFORM

Time waveform can be used effectively to enhance spectral information in the following
applications:

• Low speed applications (less than 100 RPM).

• Indication of true amplitude in situations where impacts occur such as assessment of
rolling element bearing defect severity.
• Gears.
• Sleeve bearing machines with X-Y probes (2 channel orbit analysis)
• Looseness.
• Rubs.
• Beats

64
6.3 WHEN NOT TO USE TIME WAVEFORM

Time waveform can be applied to any vibration problem. In some situations normal spectral
and phase data provide better indications as to the source of the problem without the added
complexity of time waveform data. Examples include

• Unbalance on normal speed machines

• Misalignment on normal speed machines

6.4 INSTRUMENT SETUP FOR TIME WAVEFORM

The key to successful analysis of time waveform data is in the set up of the instrument. The
following items have to be considered when setting up the instrument

• Unit of measurement
• Time period sampled
• Resolution
• Averaging
• Windows

6.5 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Amplitude measurement units should be generally selected based upon the frequencies of
interest. The plots below illustrate how measurement unit selection affects the data displayed.
Each plot contains 3 separate frequency components of 60Hz, 300Hz, and 950 Hz.

65
 This data was taken using displacement note how the
lower frequency at 60 Hz is accentuated

The same data is now displayed using velocity note

how the 300Hz component is more apparent.

The same data is now displayed using acceleration

note how the large lower frequency component is
diminished and the higher frequency component
accentuated.

The unit of measurement displayed in time waveform data should be the natural unit of the
transducer used. For example if a displacement reading is required, then a displacement
transducer should be used. In most cases where modern data collectors are employed this
means that acceleration will be the unit of choice. If data is gathered from non-contact probes
on sleeve bearing machines displacement is usually used.

66
6.6 TIME PERIOD SAMPLED

For most analysis work the instrument should be set up to see 6-10 revolutions of the shaft
being measured. The total sample period desired can be calculated by this formula
Total sample period [seconds] = 60 x # of revolutions desired RPM.

The following table Illustrates common time period in seconds by machine speed:

Machine RPM Time period for 6 Time period for 10

revolutions (secs.) revolutions (secs.)

3600 0.1 0.167

1800 0.2 0.333

1200 0.3 0.5

900 0.4 0.667

300 1.2 2.0

100 3.6 6.0

Some instruments do not permit the setting of time period data when acquiring time
waveform data. With these instruments it is necessary to set an equivalent FMAX setting.
The appropriate FMAX setting can be calculated by the following formula.
FMAX [CPM] = Lines of Resolution x RPM
# of Revolutions desired
The following table Illustrates the common FMAX settings for 1600 lines of resolution by
machine RPM:

The following table Illustrates the common FMAX settings for 1600 lines of resolution by
machine RPM

Machine RPM FMAX for 6 revolutions FMAX for 10 revolutions

3600 960kCPM 576kCPM

1800 480kCPM 288kCPM

1200 320kCPM 192kCPM

900 240kCPM 144kCPM

300 80kCPM 48kCPM

100 26kCPM 16kCPM

67
6.7 RESOLUTION

For time waveform analysis it is recommended that 1600 lines (4096 samples are used). This
ensures that the data collected has sufficient accuracy and key events are captured.

6.8 AVERAGING

In most data collectors averaging is performed during the FFT process. Unless synchronous
time averaging is invoked the time waveform presented on the screen will be the last average
taken even if multiple averages are selected in the instrument setup.
It is normal therefore to take a single average. Overlap averaging should be disabled.
Synchronous time averaging can be used to “synchronize” data acquisition to a particular
shaft. This can be useful on gears where broken teeth are suspected to assist in the location of
the defective teeth relative to a reference mark. It is also useful on reciprocating equipment to
“time“events to a particular crank angle.

6.9 WINDOWS

Various windows can be applied to the time waveform prior to performing the FFT. The
purpose of these windows is to shape the spectrum and minimize leakage errors. Some
instruments can apply these windows to time waveform data as well. This would force the
data to zero at the start and end of the time sample potentially losing data. To eliminate this
effect a uniform or rectangular window should be applied.

6.10 INTERPRETATION OF WAVEFORM DATA

6.10.1 Unbalance

68
The classic sine wave illustrated above is rarely seen in acceleration time waveform. This is
because acceleration emphasizes the higher frequency components that are almost always
present in the vibration signal. This de-emphasizes the underlying lower frequency signal.
The waveform below is more representative of sinusoidal vibration when viewed in
acceleration. Note the high frequency components superimposed on the lower frequency.

6.11 MISALIGNMENT

Although the classic symptoms of misalignment are M and W shapes in the time waveform,
these symptoms cannot be relied upon. The relative phase angle between the 1 x RPM and 2
x RPM components determines the shape or pattern of the plot.

The pattern above illustrates the classic pattern of misalignment. In the pattern below the
relative phase between 1 x RPM and 2 x RPM was changed 90 degrees resulting in a very
different pattern.

69
The pattern below originates when the 1X, & 2X, vibrations are 0 degrees apart.

6.12 AMPLITUDE SYMMETRY

When observing time waveform data sym

metry above and

below the centerline axis is important. Symmetrical data indicates that the machine motion is
even on each side of the center position. Non-symmetrical time waveform data indicates the
motion is constrained possibly by misalignment, or rubs.

70
This waveform pattern is symmetrical above and below the zero line.

6.13 SYMMETRY OF THE TIME AXIS

71
When the previous time waveform is observed with 1 x RPM markers present it can be noted
that the waveform pattern although complex is repetitive with 1 x RPM. This indicates that
the vibration is synchronous to RPM.
The waveform pattern below indicates a non-repetitive pattern characteristic of non-
synchronous vibration.

This example is of two frequency sources that are not harmonically related. (58 Hz and 120
Hz) This is the kind of signal that could be created when a 2-pole motor has an electrical hum
problem.

72