UNIVERSITY OF MINES AND TECHNOLOGY

UMaT, TARKWA

GL/PE/ES 162

B.Sc. Lecture Notes

On

Applied Electronics

Compiled By: J.C. Attachie

Revised by: R. A. Ofosu 2017

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS................................................................................................................... 2
CHAPTER 1 -SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES ............................................................................. 5
1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 Atomic Structure ................................................................................................................. 6
1.2.1 Atomic Mass (or Atomic Weight) ................................................................................. 7
1.2.2 Electron and Shells......................................................................................................... 7
1.2.3 Valence Electrons .......................................................................................................... 8
1.3 Ionization and Covalent Bonding ...................................................................................... 8
1.3.1 Ionization ....................................................................................................................... 8
1.3.2 Covalent Bonding .......................................................................................................... 9
1.4 Types or Classification of Materials used in Electronics ................................................. 9
1.4.1 Conductors, Semi-conductors and Insulators............................................................... 10
1.4.2 Temperature versus Resistivity .................................................................................... 11
1.4.3 Silicon and Germanium ............................................................................................... 12
1.5 Classification of Semiconductors ..................................................................................... 12
1.5.1 N-type and P-type Materials ........................................................................................ 12
1.6 The P-N Junction ............................................................................................................... 14
1.6.1 Formation of the Depletion Region ............................................................................. 15
1.7 The Diode ........................................................................................................................... 16
1.7.1 Forward Biasing ........................................................................................................... 17
1.7.2 Reverse Biasing............................................................................................................ 18
1.8 V-I Characteristics of A Diode ......................................................................................... 19
1.8.2 V-I Characteristic for Reverse Biased Diode ............................................................... 20
1.8.3 The Complete V-I Characteristic Curve ...................................................................... 21
1.9 Zener Diode ........................................................................................................................ 21
1.10 Rectification.................................................................................................................... 23
1.11 Review Questions On Semiconductor Diodes ............................................................. 24
CHAPTER TWO - TRANSISTORS............................................................................................. 26
2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 26
2.1 Bipolar Transistor Basics ................................................................................................. 26
2.2 The Bipolar Junction Transistor...................................................................................... 27
2.2.1 Biasing of Transistors .................................................................................................. 28
2.2.2 Transistor Action.......................................................................................................... 29
2.2.3 Transistor currents........................................................................................................ 31
2.3 Transistor Symbols and Connections .............................................................................. 32
2.3.1 Transistor Connections ................................................................................................ 32

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 2.4 Transistor Static Characteristics ..................................................................................... 33
2.4.1 Common-base Configuration ....................................................................................... 33
2.4.2 Common-emitter Configuration ................................................................................... 34
2.5 The Transistor as an Amplifier ........................................................................................ 35
2.5.1 Common-base Amplifier.............................................................................................. 35
2.6 BJT Characteristics and Parameters .............................................................................. 36
2.6.1 BJT Circuit Analysis ................................................................................................... 36
2.6.2 Cutoff ........................................................................................................................... 37
2.6.3 Saturation ..................................................................................................................... 38
2.6.4 DC Load Line............................................................................................................... 38
2.6.5 DC Beta (βDC) and DC Alpha (αDC) ............................................................................. 40
2.7 Review question on Transistors ....................................................................................... 42
CHAPTER THREE - FEEDBACK THEOREM......................................................................... 45
3.1 Feedback Concept ............................................................................................................. 45
3.2 Feedback Relationships and Definitions ......................................................................... 47
3.3 Feedback Connection Types ............................................................................................. 48
3.3.1 Voltage – Series Feedback ........................................................................................... 50
3.4 Gain with and without Feedback ..................................................................................... 51
3.5 Advantages of Negative Feedback ................................................................................... 51
3.6 Stability of Feedback Amplifiers (Stability of Gain)...................................................... 51
CHAPTER FOUR - OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS ............................................................... 52
4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 52
4.2 Ideal and Practical Operational Amplifiers ................................................................... 54
4.2.1 Ideal operational Amplifiers ........................................................................................ 54
4.2.2 The Practical Op-Amp ................................................................................................. 55
4.3 OP-Amp input modes and Parameters ........................................................................... 55
4.3.1 Input modes ....................................................................................................................... 55
4.3.2 OP-Amp Parameters .................................................................................................... 57
4.4 The Inverting Amplifier .................................................................................................... 59
4.4.1 Virtual Ground and Voltage Gain ................................................................................. 59
4.3.2 Input Resistance............................................................................................................ 60
4.5 The Non-Inverting Amplifier............................................................................................. 61
4.6 Some Simple Applications of Op-Amp ............................................................................ 62
4.6.1 Adder or Summing Amplifier ...................................................................................... 62
4.6.2 Audio Mixer ................................................................................................................. 63
4.6.3 Differential Amplifier .................................................................................................. 64
4.6.4 Subtractor ..................................................................................................................... 65

CHAPTER FIVE - THYRISTORS .............................................................................................. 67

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 5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 67
5.2 Applications of Thyristors ................................................................................................... 67
5.3 Basic Construction and Operation ....................................................................................... 68
5.3.1 Silicon Controlled Rectifier ......................................................................................... 68
5.3.2 Method of Turning a Thyristor OFF ............................................................................ 69
5.4 Static V-I Characteristics of Thyristors (SCR) and Symbol ......................................... 70
5.5 Practical SCR Circuit ....................................................................................................... 71
5.5.1 On-off Control.............................................................................................................. 71
5.5.2 Half-Wave Power Control ........................................................................................... 72

CHAPTER SIX - INSTRUMENTATION ................................................................................... 73

6.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 73
6.2 Characteristics of Instrumentation systems.................................................................... 73
6.2.1 Functional Element of Instruments .............................................................................. 74
6.4 Possible Measurement Variables ..................................................................................... 74
6.5 Introduction to Analogue and Digital Instruments ........................................................ 74
6.5.1 Essential Features of Analogue Instruments ................................................................ 75
6.5.2 Digital/Electronic Instruments ..................................................................................... 76
6.6 Error, Accuracy and Precision......................................................................................... 76
6.6.1 Sources of measurement Error ..................................................................................... 77
6.6.2 Reducing Measurement Error ...................................................................................... 78
6.8 The Moving Coil Instrument ................................................................................................ 79
6.9 MC Instrument Series & Shunt Resistance Calculations .............................................. 80
6.9.1 Ammeter Shunt Resistance Calculations ..................................................................... 80
6.9.2 Voltmeter Series Resistance Calculations.................................................................... 80
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................. 82

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 CHAPTER 1
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

At the end of this chapter, the student is expected to acquire the following:
 Understand the need to study Semiconductor Physics
 Be well informed on the wide applications of semiconductor devices in electronics
 Be able to use the energy band diagram to differentiate between Semiconductors, Conductors
and Insulators
 Classify materials as conductors, semiconductors or insulators
 Appreciate the importance of silicon and germanium
 Understand n-type and p-type materials
 Understand the p-n junction
 Appreciate forward and reverse bias of p-n junctions
 Draw the circuit diagram symbol for a semiconductor diode
 Understand rectification, and describe methods of obtaining half-wave and full-wave
rectification

1.1 Introduction

The wide range of applications of electronics in science and technology has made the subject very
important and one that requires today’s engineer to have a fairly good understanding of the theory on
which the technology is based. Today, there is hardly any branch of science and engineering that does
not make use of the benefits of electronic engineering. From data processing systems (e.g.
computers), communications (e.g. mobile phones), industrial control systems (e.g. PLCs), radio,
television, medicine, and defense equipment, consumer electronics, etc.

At this stage it will be good to set forth a definition of the subject. Electronics is the branch of science
and engineering that deals with the current conduction phenomena in vacuum or gas or
semiconductor and the utilization of the devices based on these phenomena. Electronics may also be
defined as the branch of physics and technology concerned with the behavior and movement of
electrons.

Before the advent of the transistor in 1948, the most dominant electronic devices were the vacuum
and gas tubes. Since then the technology has evolved to advanced integrated circuit technology, where
thousands or millions of transistors could be placed on a single silicon chip. The ability to compress
several electronic components unto a single chip has resulted in the shrinking size of most electronic
devices, e.g. laptops, 3G Mobile Phones with capability for Internet access and television, etc. The
useful application of electronic technology to practical situations requires that you first understand
the theory on which a given application is based. Once the theory is mastered, you can learn to apply
it in practice.

Why study Semiconductor Physics?

A PN-junction diode is the simplest semiconductor device. It conducts in one direction only. Its
unidirectional conducting property helps us in converting ac power into dc power. This application is

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called rectification. There are many more things a diode can do. Another important electronic device
is the transistor. It is used for amplifying weak electrical signals. It is this property of the transistor
that enables a large audience to hear a speaker on stage.

There are many more devices that find wide applications in electronics- junction field-effect
transistor(JFET), metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), unijunction transistor
(UJT), silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), and so on. All these devices are made of semiconductors.
These days, a big electronic circuit containing thousands of diodes, transistors, resistors, capacitors,
etc. is fabricated on a single chip or wafer made of semiconductor.

To understand the functioning of these devices (and many more that are likely to come in future), it
becomes necessary to study the physics of the basic material- the semiconductor. The focus of this
course is on solid state electronics. As a result, we will begin with the study of the atomic structures
of some of the most important semiconductor materials, namely, silicon and germanium.

1.2 Atomic Structure

Unlike Thomas Jefferson's view that all humans are created equal, all atoms are not created equal.
The atoms of different elements differ in their structure, and thus possess different characteristics.
Every material is made up of one or more elements, an element being a substance composed entirely
of atoms of the same kind. For example, water is a combination of the elements hydrogen and oxygen,
i.e., one volume of oxygen always combined with two volumes of hydrogen to produce water
(assuming the gases were at the same temperature and pressure). An atom is the smallest particle of
an element that still retains the characteristics of that element. Different elements have different types
of atoms. In fact, every element has a unique atomic structure.

According to the Bohr theory, atoms have a planetary type of structure, consisting of a central nucleus
surrounded by orbiting electrons as shown in Figure 1.1(a). Each electron has a mass of 9.11 x 10-31
kg and a negative charge of 1.6 x 10-19 C. The nucleus consists of positively charged particles called
protons and uncharged particles called neutrons. The mass of each proton is 1836 times that of an
electron, and is approximately equivalent to the mass of a neutron. The nucleus of all atoms except
that of hydrogen consists of protons and neutrons. Each type of atom has a certain number of electrons
and protons that distinguishes the atom from atoms of all other elements. For example, the simplest
atom is that of hydrogen. It has one proton and one electron, as pictured in figure 1.1 (b). The helium
atom, shown in figure 1.1(c), has two protons and two neutrons in the nucleus, which is orbited by
two electrons.

(b) hydrogen (c)Helium

(a) Planetary model of atomic structure

Figure 1.1 Bohr model of Atoms
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All elements are arranged in the periodic table of the elements in order, according to their atomic
number as shown in Figure 1.2. The atomic number is the number of protons per atom. The atomic
weight is approximately the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. For example, the atomic
number of helium is two, and its atomic weight is four. In their normal (or neutral) state, all atoms of
a given element have the same number of electrons as protons. So the positive charges cancel the
negative charges, and the atom has net charge of zero.

Figure 1.2 Periodic table of Elements

1.2.1 Atomic Mass (or Atomic Weight)

The weight of an atom is determined by the number of protons and neutrons that are present in the
nucleus. The proton and neutron, which are similar in mass, each weighs approximately 1,836 times
greater than a single electron, thus the mass contributed by electrons is insignificant when determining
atomic weight or atomic mass. The atomic mass is the sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
Carbon has an atomic mass of twelve. Since there are six protons in carbon (remember, it has an
atomic number of six and, therefore, must have six protons), it must have six neutrons.

1.2.2 Electron and Shells

Electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom at certain distances from the nucleus. Electrons near the nucleus
have less energy than those in more distant orbits. Only discrete (separate and distinct) values of
electron energies exist within atomic structures. Therefore, electrons must orbit only at discrete
distances from the nucleus. Each discrete distance (orbit) from the nucleus corresponds to a certain
energy level. In an atom, the orbits are grouped into energy levels known as shells. A given atom has
a fixed number of shells. Each shell has a fixed maximum number of electrons. The shells (energy

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levels) are designated 1, 2, 3, and so on, with 1 being closest to the nucleus. The Bohr model of the
silicon atom is shown in Figure 1.3. Notice that there are 14 electrons and 14 each of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus.

Figure 1.3 Illustration of Bohr model of silicon atom

The maximum number of electrons (Ne) that can exist in each shell of an atom is a fact of nature and
can be calculated by the formula,
𝑁𝑒 = 2𝑛2 (1.1)
where n is the number of the shell. The maximum number of electrons that can exist in the innermost
shell (shell 1) is Ne = 2n2 = 2(1)2 = 2

1.2.3 Valence Electrons

Electrons that are in orbits farther from the nucleus have higher energy and are less tightly bound to
the atom than those closer to the nucleus. This is because the force of attraction between the positively
charged nucleus and the negatively charged electron decreases with increasing distance from the
nucleus. Electrons with the highest energy exist in the outermost shell of an atom and are relatively
loosely bound to the atom. This outermost shell is known as the valence shell and electrons in this
shell are called valence electrons. These valence electrons contribute to chemical reactions and
bonding within the structure of a material and determine its electrical properties. When a valence
electron gains sufficient energy from an external source, it can break free from its atom. This is the
basis for conduction in materials.

1.3 Ionization and Covalent Bonding

Atoms form either gain or lose electrons to attain the ionization state. This process aids in atomic
bonding and forms the basis for compounds and materials used today.

1.3.1 Ionization

When an atom absorbs energy from a heat source or from light, for example, the energies of the
electrons are raised. The valence electrons possess more energy and are more loosely bound to the
atom than inner electrons, so they can easily jump to higher energy shells when external energy is
absorbed by the atom. If a valence electron acquires a sufficient amount of energy, called ionization
energy, it can actually escape from the outer shell and the atom’s influence. The departure of a valence
electron leaves a previously neutral atom with an excess of positive charge (more protons than

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electrons). The process of losing a valence electron is known as ionization, and the resulting positively
charged atom is called a positive ion. For example, the chemical symbol for hydrogen is H. When a
neutral hydrogen atom loses its valence electron and becomes a positive ion, it is designated H. The
escaped valence electron is called a free electron. The reverse process can occur in certain atoms
when a free electron collides with the atom and is captured, releasing energy. The atom that has
acquired the extra electron is called a negative ion. The ionization process is not restricted to single
atoms. In many chemical reactions, a group of atoms that are bonded together can lose or acquire one
or more electrons. For some nonmetallic materials such as chlorine, a free electron can be captured
by the neutral atom, forming a negative ion. In the case of chlorine, the ion is more stable than the
neutral atom because it has a filled outer shell. The chlorine ion is designated as Cl-.

1.3.2 Covalent Bonding

When atoms are tightly packed together (or placed close to one another), they tend to share electrons
in their outermost shells. This is due to electronegativity, i.e. the ability of an atom to pull electrons
towards itself. Atoms can attain a more stable arrangement of electrons in their outermost shell by
interacting with one another. An ionic bond is formed when electrons are transferred from one atom
to the other, and a covalent bond is formed when electrons are shared between atoms as shown in
Figure 1.4. The two cases shown represent extremes; often, covalent bonds form with a partial transfer
(unequal sharing of electrons), resulting in a polar covalent bond.

Figure. 1.4 Covalent and Ionic Bonding

1.4 Types or Classification of Materials used in Electronics

Materials may be classified as conductors, semiconductors or insulators. These categories are based
upon by their ability to conduct electricity. That is, the classification depends on the value of
resistivity of the material. Good conductors are usually metals and have resistivity in the order of 10-
7
to 10-8 m, semiconductors have resistivity in the order of 10-3 to 3 x 103 m and the resistivity of
insulators are in the order of 104 to 1014m. The differences in the conducting properties of these
classes of materials originate from the different energy band structures they possess as shown in
Figure. 1.5.

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 .

Figure 1.5 Energy Band Diagram

1.4.1 Conductors, Semi-conductors and Insulators

All materials are made up of atoms. These atoms contribute to the electrical properties of a material,
including its ability to conduct electrical current. For purposes of discussing electrical properties, an
atom can be represented by the valence shell and a core that consists of all the inner shells and the
nucleus.

Conductors:
Conductors are materials that allow current to flow easily. They have a large number of free electrons
and are characterized by one to three valence electrons in their structure. Most metals are good
conductors. Silver is the best conductor, and copper is next. Copper is the most widely used
conductive material because it is less expensive than silver. Copper wire is commonly used as
conductor in electric circuits.
As shown in Figure 1.5, the conduction band and valence band in the energy band diagram of a good
conductor overlap. As a result, there is no forbidden gap. Therefore, at room temperatures, valence
electrons can break away from their parent atom and wander about freely in the material. The band
gap is essentially zero for these materials, and with some of the valence electrons moving freely into
the conductance band, vacancies or holes occur in the valence band. Electrons move, with very little
energy input, into holes that occupy bands of adjacent atoms, and the holes migrate freely in the
opposite direction. The movement of electrons and holes throughout the solid is the mechanism by
which current is carried. Some examples are: copper, Aluminum, Gold, etc.

Semiconductors:

Semiconductors are classed below the conductors in their ability to carry current because they have
fewer free electrons than do conductors. Semiconductors have four valence electrons in their atomic
structures. However, because of their unique characteristics, certain semiconductor materials are the
basis for modern electronic devices such as the diode, transistor, and integrated circuit. Silicon and
germanium are common semiconductor materials. Semiconductor devices find application both in

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the electronics industry and in the electrical power industry. There is a wide range of semiconductor
devices available, some of which are designed to handle currents of the order of milliamperes while
others are able to handle currents of hundreds of amperes. Semiconductors have electrical resistance
values that are intermediate between those of insulators and conductors because these materials have
band gaps that are small, but finite, as shown in Figure 1.5. Normal thermal agitation is sufficient to
move a small number of electrons into the conduction band, and resistance can be reduced by
increasing the temperature. Many semiconductor devices are designed so that application of a voltage
produces the change in equilibrium electron population distribution that is necessary for current flow.

Insulators:

Insulating materials are poor conductors of electric current. In fact, insulators are used to prevent
current where is not wanted. Compared to conductive materials, insulators have very few free
electrons and are characterized by more than four valence electrons in their atomic structures. As
depicted in Figure 1.5, in insulators, the valence band is fully occupied and the only means by which
an electron can move from atom to atom is for a valence electron to be displaced into the conduction
band, which requires a substantial expenditure of energy. This behavior is consistent with the high
resistance to electrical flow in insulators. Some examples are: wood, glass, paper, plastic, diamond,
mica etc.

1.4.2 Temperature versus Resistivity

At this stage it is important to look at the effect of temperature on the resistivity (or resistance) of
these materials as depicted in Figure1.6. The resistivity of insulators and semiconductors decreases
with increase in temperature, due to the thermally generated electron-hole pairs. These materials have
what we called – negative temperature coefficient of resistance.

Unlike insulators and semiconductors, conductors have a positive temperature coefficient of

resistance, i.e., the resistivity of conductors such as copper increases with increase in temperature.
The reason is that raising the temperature of solids also increases the random vibration of the atoms,
thus interfering with the flow of electrons. In conductors it is this effect that predominates, since there
are already plenty of electrons available to act as current carriers. With semiconductors and insulators,
the effect of increasing the number of free electrons predominates. Graphs of resistivity against
temperature for the three types of materials are shown in Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6 Variation of resistivity with temperature for insulators, semiconductors and conductors

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1.4.3 Silicon and Germanium

The most important semiconductors used in the electronics industry are silicon and germanium. As
the temperature of these materials is raised above room temperature, the resistivity is reduced and
ultimately a point is reached where they effectively become conductors. For this reason, silicon
should not operate at a working temperature in excess of 150 °C to 200 °C, depending on its purity,
and germanium should not operate at a working temperature in excess of 75 °C to 90 °C, depending
on its purity. As the temperature of a semiconductor is reduced below normal room temperature, the
resistivity increases until, at very low temperatures the semiconductor becomes an insulator.

Basically, these materials possess the following properties:

 They have 4 valence electrons, i.e. they are tetravalent
 Their resistance increases with decreases in temperature, i.e. they have negative temperature
coefficient of resistance.
 Their conductivity can be improved by doping the semiconductor with suitable impurities.
Incidence of light also leads to an increase in their conductivity.
 The current in the semiconductor is as a result of the movement of holes and electrons,
 At room temperatures, their conductivity lies between that of conductor and insulator.

1.5 Classification of Semiconductors

Semiconductors are classified into two main groups, intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors. Intrinsic
semiconductors are pure semiconductors without any impurity. In general, a semiconductor can be
regarded as ‘pure’ when impurities are less than 1 part in 1010. Extrinsic semiconductors are the
opposite of intrinsic semiconductors, i.e., they are semiconductors with some added impurities. The
process of adding impurities to a pure semiconductor material (e.g., pure germanium or silicon) is
term doping.

1.5.1 N-type and P-type Materials

Adding extremely small amounts of impurities to pure semiconductors in a controlled manner is
called doping. Antimony, arsenic and phosphorus are called n-type impurities and form an n-type
material when any of these impurities are added to silicon or germanium. The amount of impurity
added usually varies from 1part impurity in 105 parts semiconductor material to 1part impurity to
108 parts semiconductor material, depending on the resistivity required. Indium, aluminum and boron
are called p-type impurities and form a p-type material when any of these impurities are added to a
semiconductor.

In semiconductor materials, there are very few charge carriers per unit volume free to conduct. This
is because the ‘four electron structure’ in the outer shell of the atoms (called valence electrons), form
strong covalent bonds with neighbouring atoms, resulting in a tetrahedral structure with the electrons
held fairly rigidly in place. A two-dimensional diagram depicting this is shown for germanium in
Figure 1.7

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 Figure 1.7 Intrinsic (Pure) Germanium Material

N-type Semiconductor

Arsenic, antimony and phosphorus have five valence electrons and when a semiconductor is doped
with one of these substances, some impurity atoms are incorporated in the tetrahedral structure. The
‘fifth’ valence electron is not rigidly bonded and is free to conduct, the impurity atom donating a
charge carrier. A two-dimensional diagram depicting this is shown in Figure 1.8, in which a
phosphorus atom has replaced one of the germanium atoms. The resulting material is called n-type
material, and contains free electrons. Since most of the current carriers are electrons, silicon (or
germanium) doped with pentavalent atoms is an n-type semiconductor (the n stands for the negative
charge on an electron). The electrons are called the majority carriers in n-type material. Although the
majority of current carriers in n-type material are electrons, there are also a few holes that are created
when electron-hole pairs are thermally generated. These holes are not produced by the addition of the
pentavalent impurity atoms. Holes in an n-type material are called minority carriers.

Figure 1.8 n-type Material

P-type Semiconductors

Indium, aluminum and boron have three valence electrons and when a semiconductor is doped with
one of these substances, some of the semiconductor atoms are replaced by impurity atoms. One of
the four bonds associated with the semiconductor material is deficient by one electron and this
deficiency is called a hole. Holes give rise to conduction when a potential difference exists across the
semiconductor material due to movement of electrons from one hole to another, as shown in Figure
1.9. In this figure, an electron moves from A to B, giving the appearance that the hole moves from B

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to A. Then electron C moves to A, giving the appearance that the hole moves to C, and so on. The
resulting material is p-type material containing holes. Since most of the current carriers are holes,
silicon (or germanium) doped with trivalent atoms is called a p-type semiconductor. The holes are
the majority carriers in p-type material. Although the majority of current carriers in p-type material
are holes, there are also a few conduction-band electrons that are created when electron-hole pairs are
thermally generated. These conduction-band electrons are not produced by the addition of the
trivalent impurity atoms. Conduction-band electrons in p-type material are the minority carriers.

Figure 1.9 p-type Material

1.6 The P-N Junction

When you take a block of silicon and dope part of it with a trivalent impurity and the other part with
a pentavalent impurity, a boundary called the pn junction is formed between the resulting p-type and
n-type portions. The pn junction is the basis for diodes, certain transistors, solar cells, and other
devices.

A p-type material consists of silicon atoms and trivalent impurity atoms such as boron. The boron
atom adds a hole when it bonds with the silicon atoms. However, since the number of protons and the
number of electrons are equal throughout the material, there is no net charge in the material and so it
is neutral.

An n-type silicon material consists of silicon atoms and pentavalent impurity atoms such as antimony.
As you have seen, an impurity atom releases an electron when it bonds with four silicon atoms. Since
there is still an equal number of protons and electrons (including the free electrons) throughout the
material, there is no net charge in the material and so it is neutral. If a piece of intrinsic silicon is
doped so that part is n-type and the other part is p-type, a pn junction forms at the boundary between
the two regions and a diode is created, as indicated in Figure 1.10(a). The p region has many holes
(majority carriers) from the impurity atoms and only a few thermally generated free electrons
(minority carriers). The n region has many free electrons (majority carriers) from the impurity atoms
and only a few thermally generated holes (minority carriers).

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 Figure 1.10 Formation of the depletion region. Width of depletion region is exaggerated for
illustration purposes

1.6.1 Formation of the Depletion Region

The free electrons in the n region are randomly drifting in all directions. At the instant of the pn
junction formation, the free electrons near the junction in the n region begin to diffuse across the
junction into the p region where they combine with holes near the junction, as shown in Figure
1.10(b). Before the pn junction is formed, recall that there are as many electrons as protons in the n-
type material, making the material neutral in terms of net charge. The same is true for the p-type
material. When the pn junction is formed, the n region loses free electrons as they diffuse across the
junction. This creates a layer of positive charges (pentavalent ions) near the junction.

As the electrons move across the junction, the p region loses holes as the electrons and holes combine.
This creates a layer of negative charges (trivalent ions) near the junction. These two layers of positive
and negative charges form the depletion region, as shown in Figure 1.10(b). The term depletion refers
to the fact that the region near the pn junction is depleted of charge carriers (electrons and holes) due
to diffusion across the junction. Keep in mind that the depletion region is formed very quickly and is
very thin compared to the n region and p region.

After the initial surge of free electrons across the pn junction, the depletion region has expanded to a
point where equilibrium is established and there is no further diffusion of electrons across the
junction. This occurs as follows. As electrons continue to diffuse across the junction, more and more
positive and negative charges are created near the junction as the depletion region is formed. A point
is reached where the total negative charge in the depletion region repels any further diffusion of
electrons (negatively charged particles) into the p region (like charges repel) and the diffusion stops.
In other words, the depletion region acts as a barrier to the further movement of electrons across the
junction.

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Barrier Potential

Any time there is a positive charge and a negative charge near each other, there is a force acting on
the charges as described by Coulomb’s law. In the depletion region there are many positive charges
and many negative charges on opposite sides of the pn junction. The forces between the opposite
charges form an electric field, as illustrated in Figure 1.10 (b) by the blue arrows between the positive
charges and the negative charges.

This electric field is a barrier to the free electrons in the n region, and energy must be expended to
move an electron through the electric field. That is, external energy must be applied to get the
electrons to move across the barrier of the electric field in the depletion region. The potential
difference of the electric field across the depletion region is the amount of voltage required to move
electrons through the electric field. This potential difference is called the barrier potential and is
expressed in volts. Stated another way, a certain amount of voltage equal to the barrier potential and
with the proper polarity must be applied across a pn junction before electrons will begin to flow across
the junction. The barrier potential of a pn junction depends on several factors, including the type of
semi-conductive material, the amount of doping, and the temperature. The typical barrier potential is
approximately 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for germanium at Because germanium devices are not
widely used, silicon will be used throughout the rest of the notes.

1.7 The Diode

As mentioned, a diode is made from a small piece of semiconductor material, usually silicon, in which
half is doped as a p region and half is doped as an n region with a pn junction and depletion region in
between. The p region is called the anode and is connected to a conductive terminal. The n region is
called the cathode and is connected to a second conductive terminal. The basic diode structure and
schematic symbol are shown in Figure 1.11.

(c)

Figure 1.11 The diode

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1.7.1 Forward Biasing

To bias a diode, you apply a dc voltage across it. Forward bias is the condition that allows current
through the pn junction. Figure 1.12 (a) shows a dc voltage source connected by conductive material
(contacts and wire) across a diode in the direction to produce forward bias. This external bias voltage
is designated as VBIAS. The resistor limits the forward current to a value that will not damage the
diode. Notice that the negative side of VBIAS is connected to the n region of the diode and the positive
side is connected to the p region. This is one requirement for forward bias. A second requirement is
that the bias voltage, VBIAS, must be greater than the barrier potential.

(a)A diode connected for forward bias. (b) A forward-biased diode showing the flow of majority
carriers and the voltage due to the barrier potential across
the depletion region.

Figure 1. 12 A forward biased PN junction diode showing the flow of charge carriers across the depletion
layer

Now, the electrons are in the valence band in the p region, simply because they have lost too much
energy overcoming the barrier potential to remain in the conduction band. Since unlike charges
attract, the positive side of the bias-voltage source attracts the valence electrons toward the left end
of the p region. The holes in the p region provide the medium or “pathway” for these valence electrons
to move through the p region. The valence electrons move from one hole to the next toward the left.
The holes, which are the majority carriers in the p region, effectively (not actually) move to the right
toward the junction, as you can see in Figure 1.12(b).

This effective flow of holes is the hole current. You can also view the hole current as being created
by the flow of valence electrons through the p region, with the holes providing the only means for
these electrons to flow. As the electrons flow out of the p region through the external connection
(conductor) and to the positive side of the bias-voltage source, they leave holes behind in the p region;
at the same time, these electrons become conduction electrons in the metal conductor. Recall that the
conduction band in a conductor overlaps the valence band so that it takes much less energy for an
electron to be a free electron in a conductor than in a semiconductor and that metallic conductors do
not have holes in their structure. There is a continuous availability of holes effectively moving toward
the pn junction to combine with the continuous stream of electrons as they come across the junction
into the p region.

As more electrons flow into the depletion region, the number of positive ions is reduced. As more
holes effectively flow into the depletion region on the other side of the pn junction, the number of

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negative ions is reduced. This reduction in positive and negative ions during forward bias causes the
depletion region to narrow.

1.7.2 Reverse Biasing

Reverse bias is the condition that essentially prevents current through the diode. Figure 1.13(a) shows
a dc voltage source connected across a diode in the direction to produce reverse bias. This external
bias voltage is designated as VBIAS just as it was for forward bias. Notice that the positive side of
VBIAS is connected to the n region of the diode and the negative side is connected to the p region. Also
note that the depletion region is shown much wider than in forward bias or equilibrium. An illustration
of what happens when a diode is reverse-biased is shown in Figure 1.13(b). Because unlike charges
attract, the positive side of the bias-voltage source “pulls” the free electrons, which are the majority
carriers in the n region, away from the pn junction. As the electrons flow toward the positive side of
the voltage source, additional positive ions are created. This results in a widening of the depletion
region and a depletion of majority carriers.

(a) (b)

Figure 1.13 Reverse biased diode and effect on depletion region

In the p region, electrons from the negative side of the voltage source enter as valence electrons and
move from hole to hole toward the depletion region where they create additional negative ions. This
results in a widening of the depletion region and a depletion of majority carriers. The flow of valence
electrons can be viewed as holes being “pulled” toward the positive side. The initial flow of charge
carriers is transitional and lasts for only a very short time after the reverse-bias voltage is applied. As
the depletion region widens, the availability of majority carriers decreases. As more of the n and p
regions become depleted of majority carriers, the electric field between the positive and negative ions
increases in strength until the potential across the depletion region equals the bias voltage, VBIAS. At
this point, the transition current essentially ceases except for a very small reverse current that can
usually be neglected.

Reverse Current
The extremely small current that exists in reverse bias after the transition current dies out is caused
by the minority carriers in the n and p regions that are produced by thermally generated electron-hole
pairs. The small number of free minority electrons in the p region are “pushed” toward the pn junction
by the negative bias voltage. When these electrons reach the wide depletion region, they “fall down
the energy hill” and combine with the minority holes in the n region as valence electrons and flow
toward the positive bias voltage, creating a small hole current. The conduction band in the p region
is at a higher energy level than the conduction band in the n region. Therefore, the minority electrons

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easily pass through the depletion region because they require no additional energy. Reverse current
is illustrated in Figure 1.14.

Figure 1.14 Illustration of the extremely small current caused by movement of minority charge
carriers

Reverse Breakdown
Normally, the reverse current is so small that it can be neglected. However, if the external reverse-
bias voltage is increased to a value called the breakdown voltage, the reverse current will drastically
increase. This is what happens. The high reverse-bias voltage imparts energy to the free minority
electrons so that as they speed through the p region, they collide with atoms with enough energy to
knock valence electrons out of orbit and into the conduction band. The newly created conduction
electrons are also high in energy and repeat the process. If one electron knocks only two others out
of their valence orbit during its travel through the p region, the numbers quickly multiply. As these
high-energy electrons go through the depletion region, they have enough energy to go through the n
region as conduction electrons, rather than combining with holes. The multiplication of conduction
electrons just discussed is known as the avalanche effect, and reverse current can increase
dramatically if steps are not taken to limit the current. When the reverse current is not limited, the
resulting heating will permanently damage the diode. Most diodes are not operated in reverse
breakdown, but if the current is limited (by adding a series-limiting resistor for example), there is no
permanent damage to the diode.

1.8 V-I Characteristics of a Diode

As you have learned, forward bias produces current through a diode and reverse bias essentially
prevents current, except for a negligible reverse current. Reverse bias prevents current as long as the
reverse-bias voltage does not equal or exceed the breakdown voltage of the junction. In this section,
we will examine the relationship between the voltage and the current in a diode on a graphical basis.

1.8.1 V-I Characteristics of a Forward Biased Diode

When a forward-bias voltage is applied across a diode, there is current. This current is called the
forward current and is designated IF. Figure 1.15 illustrates what happens as the forward-bias voltage
is increased positively from 0 V. The resistor is used to limit the forward current to a value that will
not overheat the diode and cause damage. With 0 V across the diode, there is no forward current. As
you gradually increase the forward-bias voltage, the forward current and the voltage across the diode
gradually increase, as shown in Figure 1.15.

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A portion of the forward-bias voltage is dropped across the limiting resistor. When the forward-bias
voltage is increased to a value where the voltage across the diode reaches approximately 0.7V (barrier
potential), the forward current begins to increase rapidly. As you continue to increase the forward-
bias voltage, the current continues to increase very rapidly, but the voltage across the diode increases
only gradually above 0.7V. This small increase in the diode voltage above the barrier potential is due
to the voltage drop across the internal dynamic resistance of the semi-conductive material. The V-I
characteristic curve for a forward-biased diode, as shown in Figure 1.15. The diode forward voltage
(VF) increases to the right along the horizontal axis, and the forward current (IF) increases upward
along the vertical axis.

Figure 1.15 V-I characteristics for the forward bias diode

1.8.2 V-I Characteristic for Reverse Biased Diode

When a reverse-bias voltage is applied across a diode, there is only an extremely small reverse current
(IR) through the pn junction. With 0 V across the diode, there is no reverse current. As you gradually
increase the reverse-bias voltage, there is a very small reverse current and the voltage across the diode
increases. When the applied bias voltage is increased to a value where the reverse voltage across the
diode (VR) reaches the breakdown value (VBR), the reverse current begins to increase rapidly. As you
continue to increase the bias voltage, the current continues to increase very rapidly, but the voltage
across the diode increases very little above VBR. Breakdown, with exceptions, is not a normal mode
of operation for most pn junction devices.

If you plot the results of reverse-bias measurements on a graph, you get the V-I characteristic curve
for a reverse-biased diode. A typical curve is shown in Figure 1.16. The diode reverse voltage (VR)
increases to the left along the horizontal axis, and the reverse current (IR) increases downward along
the vertical axis. There is very little reverse current (usually) until the reverse voltage across the diode
reaches approximately the breakdown value (VBR) at the knee of the curve. After this point, the
reverse voltage remains at approximately VBR, but IR increases very rapidly, resulting in overheating
and possible damage if current is not limited to a safe level. The breakdown voltage for a diode
depends on the doping level, which the manufacturer sets, depending on the type of diode. A typical
rectifier diode (the most widely used type) has a breakdown voltage of greater than 50 V. Some
specialized diodes have a breakdown voltage that is only 5 V

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 Figure 1.16 V-I characteristics of a reversed biased diode

1.8.3 The Complete V-I Characteristic Curve

Combine the curves for both forward bias and reverse bias, and you have the complete V-I
characteristic curve for a diode, as shown in Figure 1.17.

Figure 1.17 V-I Characteristics of A Diode

1.9 Zener Diode

The Zener diode is a special diode that operates in the breakdown region of the ordinary diode.
However, the Zener diode is different from the ordinary diode with respect to its doping level. It is
heavily doped when compared to an ordinary diode. Heavy doping makes the depletion layer narrow,
and consequently breakdown of the junction can occur even at very low reverse voltages. This type
of breakdown is termed Zener breakdown. A Zener diode is fabricated in a way that allows it to be
operated in the breakdown region without damage provided the current is restricted by external
resistance to a safe value. The large current at breakdown is brought about by two factors, known as
the Zener and the avalanche effects. At voltages up to about 5 V the electric field near to the junction
is strong enough to pull electrons out of the covalent bonds holding the atoms together. Extra hole-
electron pairs are produced and these are available to augment the reverse current. This is known as
the Zener effect.

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The avalanche effect occurs if the reverse bias voltage is made larger than 5 V or so. The velocity
with which the charged carriers move through the crystal lattice is increased to such as extent that
they attain sufficient kinetic energy to ionize atoms by collision. An atom is said to have been ionized
when one of its electrons has been removed. The extra charge carries thus produced travel through
the crystal lattice and may also collide with other atoms to produce even more carries by ionization.
In this way the number of charge carriers, and hence the reverse current, is rapidly increased. In the
forward direction a Zener diode behaves just like a silicon signal diode.

Zener diodes are available in a number of standardized reference voltages. For example, it is possible
to obtain a Zener diode with a reference (breakdown) voltage of 8.2 V. An alternative name for the
device is the voltage reference diode. The most common application of the Zener diode is in the
voltage stabilizing circuits. It is also employed as a voltage reference. The symbol for a Zener diode
is shown in Figure 1.18.

From the voltage-current (V-I) characteristics of the P-N Junction diode shown in Figure 1.18, it will
be noticed that as the reverse voltage is increased the leakage current remains essentially constant
until the breakdown voltage is reached where the current increases dramatically. This breakdown
voltage is the Zener voltage for Zener diodes. While for the conventional rectifier or diode it is
imperative to operate below this voltage; the Zener diode is intended to operate at that voltage, and
so finds its greatest application as a voltage regulator.

Figure 1.18 Voltage-Current Characteristic for the Zener Diode

The basic parameters of a Zener diode are:

 The Zener voltage must be specified.

 The most common range of Zener voltage is 3.3 volts to 75 volts, however voltages out of this
range are available.
 A tolerance of the specified voltage must be given. While the most popular tolerances are 5
% and 10 %, more precision tolerances as low as 0.05 % are available.
 A test current (Iz) must be specified with the voltage and tolerance.
 The power handling capability of the Zener diode must be specified. Popular power ranges
are: 1/4, 1/2, 1, 5, 10, and 50 Watts.

The Zener effect, resulting from the applied voltage being sufficient to break some of the covalent
bonds, and the avalanche effect, resulting from the charge carriers moving at sufficient speed to break

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covalent bonds by collision. A Zener diode is used for voltage reference purposes or for voltage
stabilization. Two common circuit diagram symbols for a Zener diode are shown in Figure 1.19.

Figure 1.19 Symbols for a Zener

1.10 Rectification

The process of obtaining unidirectional currents and voltages from alternating currents and voltages
is called rectification. Automatic switching in circuits is carried out by devices called diodes.

Using a single diode, as shown in Figure 1.20, half-wave rectification is obtained. When P is
sufficiently positive with respect to Q, diode D is switched on and current i flows. When P is negative
with respect to Q, diode D is switched off. Transformer T isolates the equipment from direct
connection with the mains supply and enables the mains voltage to be changed.

Two diodes may be used as shown in Figure 1.21 to obtain full wave rectification. A centre-tapped
transformer T is used. When P is sufficiently positive with respect to Q, diode D1 conducts and
current flows (shown by the broken line in Figure 1.21). When S is positive with respect to Q, diode
D2 conducts and current flows (shown by the continuous line in Figure 1.21). The current flowing in
R is in the same direction for both half cycles of the input. The output waveform is thus as shown in
Figure 1.22 and 1.23.

Figure 1.20 Half-wave Rectification

Figure 1.21 Full wave Rectification using Two Diodes

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Four diodes may be used in a bridge rectifier circuit, as shown in Figure 1.23 to obtain full wave
rectification. As for the rectifier shown in Figure 1.22, the current flowing in R is in the same direction
for both half cycles of the input giving the output waveform shown.

To smooth the output of the rectifiers described above, capacitors having a large capacitance may be
connected across the load resistor R. The effect of this is shown on the output in Figure 1.24.

Figure 1.22 Full wave Rectification using Four Diodes

Figure 1.23 Full wave rectification output waveform

1.11 Review Questions On Semiconductor Diodes

1. Explain what you understand by the term intrinsic semiconductor and how an intrinsic
semiconductor is turned into either a p-type or an n-type material.

2. Explain what is meant by minority and majority carriers in an n-type material and state
whether the numbers of each of these carriers are affected by temperature.

3. A piece of pure silicon is doped with (a) pentavalent impurity and (b) trivalent impurity.
Explain the effect these impurities have on the form of conduction in silicon.

4. With the aid of simple sketches, explain how pure germanium can be treated in such a way
that conduction is predominantly due to (a) electrons and (b) holes.

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5. Explain the terms given below when used in semiconductor terminology: (a) covalent
bond (b) trivalent impurity (c) pentavalent impurity (d) electron-hole pair generation.

6. Explain briefly why although both p-type and n-type materials have resistive properties
when separate, they have rectifying properties when a junction between them exists.

7. The application of an external voltage to a junction diode can influence the drift of holes
and electrons. With the aid of diagrams explain this statement and also how the
direction and magnitude of the applied voltage affects the depletion layer.

8. State briefly what you understand by the terms: (a) reverse bias (b) forward bias (c) contact
potential (d) diffusion (e) minority carrier conduction.

9. Explain briefly the action of a p-n junction diode: (a) on open-circuit, (b) when provided
with a forward bias, and (c) when provided with a reverse bias. Sketch the
characteristic curves for both forward and reverse bias conditions.

10. Draw a diagram illustrating the charge situation for an unbiased p-n junction. Explain the
change in the charge situation when compared with that in isolated p-type and n-type
materials. Mark on the diagram the depletion layer and the majority carriers in each region
11. Explain how the formation of depletion layer in a PN- junction prevents or discourages
crossing of majority carriers across the junction.

12 What do you understand by an ideal diode? Draw it’s V-I characteristics.

13. Explain how the process of Zener breakdown occurs in a PN –junction diode. How is it
different from the process of avalanche breakdown?

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 CHAPTER TWO

TRANSISTORS

At the end of this chapter you should be able to:

 understand the structure of a bipolar junction transistor
 understand transistor action for p-n-p and n-p-n types
 draw the circuit diagram symbols for p-n-p and n-p-n transistors
 appreciate common-base, common-emitter and common-collector transistor connections
 appreciate how the transistor is used as an amplifier
 estimate current, voltage and power gains from transistor characteristics
 understand thermal runaway in a transistor

2.1 Introduction

The name transistor comes from the phrase “transferring an electrical signal across a resistor.” The
transistor is a solid state semiconductor device which can be used for amplification, switching,
voltage stabilization, signal modulation and many other functions. It acts as a variable valve which,
based on its input voltage, controls the current drawn by it from a connected voltage supply.

Transistors are the basic amplifying and switching devices in all electronic systems. They are used
either as separate devices or as internal components in integrated circuits such as operational
amplifiers or flip-flops. Integrated circuits may include only a few transistors or many thousands of
these devices.

Some of the typical applications of Transistors are:

 They are used in amplifier circuits to amplify weak signals
 Transistors are used in oscillators as active devices, and
 Transistors can also be used as switches in digital circuits, and also in power control circuits

Various types of transistors are available, including bipolar junction transistor (BJT), field effect
transistor (FET), Metal Oxide Semi-Conductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) and unijunction
transistors, and each of these devices has its own particular characteristics that make it more suitable
for one application or another. The most widely used device is the bipolar transistor, and this is the
type that will be considered in detail.

2.1 Bipolar Transistor Basics

Simple diodes are made up from two pieces of semiconductor material, either Silicon or Geranium to
form a simple PN-junction. If two individual diodes are joined together end to end giving two PN-
junctions connected together in series, we now have a three layer, two-junction, three terminal device
forming the basis of a Bipolar Junction Transistor, or BJT for short. This is illustrated in Figure 2.1.
This type of transistor is generally known as a Bipolar Transistor, because its basic construction

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consists of two PN-junctions with each terminal or connection being given a name to identify it and
these are known as the Emitter, Base and Collector respectively.

Bipolar Transistors are "CURRENT" Amplifying or current regulating devices that control the
amount of current flowing through them in proportion to the amount of biasing current applied to
their base terminal. The term bipolar refers to the use of both holes and electrons as current carriers
in the transistor structure.

Figure 2.1 Basic structure of the Bipolar Transistor

2.2 The Bipolar Junction Transistor

The bipolar junction transistor consists of three regions of semiconductor material. One type is called
a p-n-p transistor, in which two regions of p-type material sandwich a very thin layer of n-type
material as in Figure 2.1(c). A second type is called an n-p-n transistor, in which two regions of n-
type material sandwich a very thin layer of p-type material as shown in Figure 2.1(b). Both of these
types of transistors consist of two p-n junctions placed very close to one another in a back-to-back
arrangement on a single piece of semiconductor material. Diagrams depicting these two types of
transistors are shown in Figure 2.1. and 2.2

Figure 2.2 Constructional Features

In other words, as shown in Fig 2.3, the Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT), internally consists of two
back-to-back ‘diodes’ or semiconductor p-n junctions.

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 Figure 2.3 Bipolar Junction Transistors

The two p-type material regions of the p-n-p transistor are called the emitter and collector and the n-
type material is called the base. Similarly, the two n-type material regions of the n-p-n transistor are
called the emitter and collector and the p-type material region is called the base, as shown in Figure
2.2. The principle of operation of the two transistor types NPN and PNP, is exactly the same the only
difference being in the biasing (base current) and the polarity of the power supply for each type.

2.2.1 Biasing of Transistors

In order for a BJT to operate properly as an amplifier, the two pn junctions must be correctly biased
with external dc voltages. Figure 2.4 shows a bias arrangement for both npn and pnp BJTs for
operation as an amplifier. Notice that in both cases the base-emitter (BE) junction is forward-biased
and the base-collector (BC) junction is reverse-biased. This condition is called forward-reverse bias.

Figure 2.4 An illustration of the forward and reverse biasing of transistors

Transistors have three connecting leads and in operation an electrical input to one pair of connections,
say the emitter and base connections can control the output from another pair, say the collector and
emitter connections. This type of operation is achieved by appropriately biasing the two internal p-n
junctions as shown in Figure 2.5.

When batteries and resistors are connected to a p-n-p transistor, as shown in Figure 2.5(a), the base-
emitter junction is forward biased and the base-collector junction is reverse biased. Similarly, an n-
p-n transistor has its base-emitter junction forward biased and its base-collector junction reverse
biased when the batteries are connected as shown in Figure 2.5(b).

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Considering the silicon p-n-p transistor, biased shown in Figure 2.5(a), if the base-emitter junction is
considered on its own, it is forward biased and current flows. This is depicted in Figure 2.6(a). For
example, if Emitter Resistance (RE) is 1000 , the battery is 4.5 V and the voltage drop across the
junction is taken as 0.7 V, the current flowing is given by (4.5 - 0.7) / 1000 = 3.8 mA.

Figure 2.5 Biasing of PNP and NPN Transistors

When the base-collector junction is considered on its own, as shown in Figure 2.6(b), it is reverse
biased and the collector current is something less than 1 μA. However, when both external circuits
are connected to the transistor, most of the 3.8 mA of current flowing in the emitter, which previously
flowed from the base connection, now flows out through the collector connection due to transistor
action.

Figure 2.6 (a) Forward Bias (b) Reverse Bias

2.2.2 Transistor Action

This describes the operational sequence of transistors.

NPN Transistor Action

In an n-p-n transistor, connected as shown in Figure 2.5(b), transistor action is accounted for as
follows:

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 1. The majority carriers in the n-type emitter material are electrons

2. The base-emitter junction is forward biased to these majority carriers hence the electrons cross
the junction and appear in the base region

3. The base region is very thin and only lightly doped with holes, so some recombination with
holes occur but many electrons are left in the base region

4. The base-collector junction is reverse biased to holes in the base region and electrons in the
collector region, but is forward biased to electrons in the base region; these electrons are
attracted by the positive potential at the collector terminal

5. A large proportion of the electrons in the base region cross the base collector junction into the
collector region, creating a collector current.

The transistor action is shown diagrammatically in Figure 2.7. It must be noted that, the conventional
current flow is taken to be in the direction of hole flow, that is, in the opposite direction to electron
flow, hence the directions of the conventional current flow are as shown in Figure 2.7 by the ‘outside
arrows’.

Figure 2.7 N-P-N Transistor Action illustrated

P-N-P Transistor Action

In a p-n-p transistor, connected as shown in Figure 2.5(a), transistor action is accounted for as
follows:

1. The majority carriers in the emitter p-type material are holes

2. The base-emitter junction is forward biased to the majority carriers and hence the holes can
cross the junction and appear in the base region

3. The base region is very thin and is only lightly doped with electrons so although some
electron-hole pairs are formed, many holes are left in the base region

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 4. The base-collector junction is reverse biased to electrons in the base region and holes in the
collector region, but forward biased to holes in the base region; these holes are attracted by
the negative potential at the collector terminal

5. A large proportion of the holes in the base region cross the base-collector junction into the
collector region, creating a collector current; conventional current flow is in the direction of
hole movement.
Emitter Base Collector

Figure 2.8 P-N-P Transistor Action illustrated

The transistor action is shown diagrammatically in Figure 2.8. For transistors having very thin base
regions, up to 99.5 % of the holes leaving the emitter cross the base collector junction.

2.2.3 Transistor currents

For a p-n-p transistor, the base-collector junction is reverse biased for majority carriers. However, a
small leakage current, ICBO flows from the base to the collector due to thermally generated minority
carriers (electrons in the collector and holes in the base), being present.

The base-collector junction is forward biased to these minority carriers. If a proportion, ˛, (having a
value of up to 0.995 in modern transistors), of the holes passing into the base from the emitter, pass
through the base-collector junction, then the various currents flowing in a p-n-p transistor are as
shown in Figure 2.9(a).

Figure 2.9 Current Flow in Transistor Action

Similarly, for an n-p-n transistor, the base-collector junction is reversed biased for majority carriers,
but a small leakage current, ICBO flows from the collector to the base due to thermally generated
minority carriers (holes in the collector and electrons in the base), being present. The base-collector
junction is forward biased to these minority carriers. If a proportion, , of the electrons passing

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through the base-emitter junction also pass through the base-collector junction then the currents
flowing in an n-p-n transistor are as shown in Figure 2.9(b).

The total current flowing into the transistor must be equal to the total current flowing out of it and
hence the emitter current IE is equal to sum of the collector and base current, Ic and IB respectively,
that is

I = I + IB
E C (2.1)

Typically, IC is equal to 0.99 IE so that IB is equal to 0.01 IE.

2.3 Transistor Symbols and Connections

Symbols are used to represent p-n-p and n-p-n transistors in circuit diagrams and are as shown in
Figure 2.10. The arrowhead drawn on the emitter of the symbol is in the direction of conventional
emitter current (hole flow). The potentials marked at the collector, base and emitter are typical values
for a silicon transistor having a potential difference of 6 V between its collector and its emitter.

The voltage of 0.6 V across the base and emitter is that required to reduce the potential barrier and if
it is raised slightly to, say, 0.62 V, it is likely that the collector current will double to about 2 mA.
Thus a small change of voltage between the emitter and the base can give a relatively large change
of current in the emitter circuit; because of this, transistors can be used as amplifiers.

Figure 2.10 Transistor Symbols

2.3.1 Transistor Connections

There are three ways of connecting a transistor, depending on the use to which it is being put. The
ways are classified by the electrode that is common to both the input and the output. They are called:

(a) common-base configuration, shown in Figure 2.11(a)

(b) common-emitter configuration, shown in Figure 2.11(b)
(c) common-collector configuration, shown in Figure 2.11(c)

These configurations are for an n-p-n transistor. The current flows shown are all reversed for a p-n-p
transistor.

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 Figure 2.11 Transistor Connections

2.4 Transistor Static Characteristics

The effect of changing one or more of the various voltages and currents associated with a transistor
circuit can be shown graphically and these graphs are called the characteristics of the transistor. That
is, a number of current/voltage plots are available in the study of the operation of a transistor in a
circuit. The resulting curves, which are known as the static characteristic curves, give information
on the value of current flowing into or out of one terminal for either a given current flowing into or
out of another terminal or a given voltage applied between two terminals. Four sets of characteristic
can be plotted for each configuration. These are:
(a) the input characteristic,
(b) the transfer characteristics,
(c) the output characteristics and
(d) the mutual characteristics.

As there are five variables (collector, base and emitter currents and voltages across the collector and
base and emitter and base) and also three configurations, many characteristics are possible. Some of
the possible characteristics are given below.

2.4.1 Common-base Configuration

(i) Input Characteristic

With reference to Figure 2.11(a), the input to a common-base transistor is the emitter current,
IE, and can be varied by altering the base emitter voltage VEB. The base-emitter junction is
essentially a forward biased junction diode, so as VEB is varied, the current flowing is similar
to that for a junction diode, as shown in Figure 2.12 for a silicon transistor. Figure 2.12 is
called the input characteristic for an n-p-n transistor having common-base configuration. The
variation of the collector-base voltage VCB has little effect on the characteristic. A similar
characteristic can be obtained for a p-n-p transistor, these having reversed polarities.

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 Figure 2.12 Input Characteristics

(ii) Output Characteristics

The value of the collector current IC is very largely determined by the emitter current, IE. For
a given value of IE the collector-base voltage, VCB, can be varied and has little effect on the
value of IC. If VCB is made slightly negative, the collector no longer attracts the majority
carriers leaving the emitter and IC falls rapidly to zero. A family of curves for various values
of IE are possible and some of these are shown in Figure 2.13. Figure 2.13 is called the output
characteristics for an n-p-n transistor having common-base configuration. Similar
characteristics can be obtained for a p-n-p transistor, these having reversed polarities.

Figure 2.13 Output characteristics

2.4.2 Common-emitter Configuration

In a common-emitter configuration (see Figure 2.11(b)), the base current is now the input current.
As VEB is varied, the characteristic obtained is similar in shape to the input characteristic for a
common-base configuration shown in Figure 2.14, but the values of current are far less. With
reference to Figure 2.9(a), as long as the junctions are biased as described, the three currents IE,
IC and IB keep the ratio 1:  : (1 - ), whichever configuration is adopted. Thus the base current
changes are much smaller than the corresponding emitter current changes and the input
characteristic for an n-p-n transistor is as shown in Figure 2.14. A similar characteristic can be
obtained for a p-n-p transistor, these having reversed polarities.

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(i) Output Characteristics

A family of curves can be obtained, depending on the value of base current IB and some of
these for a n-p-n transistor are shown in Figure 2.15. A similar set of characteristics can be
obtained for a p-n-p transistor, these having reversed polarities. These characteristics differ
from the common base output characteristics in two ways:

1. the collector current reduces to zero without having to reverse the collector voltage, and

2. the characteristics slope upwards indicating a lower output resistance (usually kilo Ohms
for a common-emitter configuration compared with mega ohms for a common-base
configuration).

Figure 2.14 Input Characteristic Figure 2.15 Output Characteristics

2.5 The Transistor as an Amplifier

The amplifying properties of a transistor depend upon the fact that current flowing in a low-resistance
circuit is transferred to a high-resistance circuit with negligible change in magnitude. If the current
then flows through a load resistance, a voltage is developed. This voltage can be many times greater
than the input voltage which caused the original current flow.

2.5.1 Common-base Amplifier

The basic circuit for a transistor is shown in Figure 2.16 where an n-p-n transistor is biased with
batteries b1 and b2. A sinusoidal alternating input signal, ve, is placed in series with the input bias
voltage, and a load resistor, RL, is placed in series with the collector bias voltage. The input signal is
therefore the sinusoidal current ie resulting from the application of the sinusoidal voltage ve
superimposed on the direct current IE established by the base-emitter voltage VBE.

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 Figure 2.16 Common-base Amplifier

Let the signal voltage ve be 100 mV and the base-emitter circuit resistance be 50 . Then the emitter
signal current will be 100/50 = 2 mA. Let the load resistance RL = 2.5 K. About 0.99 of the emitter
current will flow in RL. Hence the collector signal current will be about 0.99 x 2 = 1.98 mA and the
signal voltage across the load will be 2500 x 1.98 x 10-3 = 4.95 V. Thus a signal voltage of 100 mV
at the emitter has produced a voltage of 4950 mV across the load. The voltage amplification or gain
is therefore 4950/100 = 49.5 times. This example illustrates the action of a common-base amplifier
where the input signal is applied between emitter and base and the output is taken from between
collector and base.

Assignment 1: Consider Common-emitter Amplifier

2.6 BJT Characteristics and Parameters

This section looks at some of the characteristics and common parameters associated with the BJTs
operation.

2.6.1 BJT Circuit Analysis

Consider the basic transistor bias circuit configuration in Figure 2.17. Three transistor dc currents
and three dc voltages can be identified.

IB: dc base current

IE: dc emitter current
IC: dc collector current
VBE: dc voltage at base with respect to emitter
VCB: dc voltage at collector with respect to base
VCE: dc voltage at collector with respect to emitter

Figure 2.17 NPN Transistor Current and Voltages

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The base-bias voltage source, VBB, forward-biases the base-emitter junction, and the collector-bias
voltage source, VCC, reverse-biases the base-collector junction. When the base-emitter junction is
forward-biased, it is like a forward-biased diode and has a nominal forward voltage drop of:

VBE ≅ 0.7V (2.2)

Although in an actual transistor VBE can be as high as 0.9 V and is dependent on current, we will use
0.7 V throughout this text in order to simplify the analysis of the basic concepts. Keep in mind that
the characteristic of the base-emitter junction is the same as a normal diode curve like the one in
Figure 1.17. Since the emitter is at ground (0 V), by Kirchhoff’s voltage law, the voltage across RB is

𝑉𝑅𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸

Also, by Ohm’s Law,
VRB = IB R B
Substituting for 𝑉𝑅𝐵 yields
IB R B = VBB − VBE
Solving for 𝐼𝐵 ,
VBB −VBE
IB = (2.3)
RB

The voltage at the collector with respect to the grounded emitter is

VCE = VCC − VRC
Since the drop across R C is
VRC = IC R C
The voltage at the collector with respect to the emitter can be written as
VCE = VCC − IC R C (2.4)

The Voltage across the reverse-biased collector-base junction is

VCB = VCE − VBE (2.5)

2.6.2 Cutoff

When IB = 0, the transistor is in the cutoff region of its operation. This is shown in Figure 2.18 with
the base lead open, resulting in a base current of zero. Under this condition, there is a very small
amount of collector leakage current, ICEO, due mainly to thermally produced carriers. Because ICEO is
extremely small, it will usually be neglected in circuit analysis so that VCE =VCC. In cutoff, neither
the base-emitter nor the base-collector junctions are forward-biased. The subscript ‘CEO’ represents
collector-to-emitter with the base open.

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 Figure 2.18 Collector leakage current (ICEO) is extremely small and is usually neglected. Base-
emitter and base-collector junctions are reverse-biased

2.6.3 Saturation

When the base-emitter junction becomes forward-biased and the base current is increased, the
collector current also increases and VCE decreases as a result of more drop across the collector resistor
(VCE = VCC - ICRC). This is illustrated in Figure 2.19. When VCE reaches its saturation value, VCE(sat),
the base-collector junction becomes forward-biased and IC can increase no further even with a
continued increase in IB. VCE(sat) for a transistor occurs somewhere below the knee of the collector
curves, and it is usually only a few tenths of a volt.

Figure 2.19 Saturation: As IB increases due to increasing VBB, IC also increases and VCE decreases
due to the increased voltage drop across RC. When the transistor reaches saturation, IC can increase
no further regardless of further increase in IB. Base-emitter and base-collector junctions are
forward-biased.

2.6.4 DC Load Line

Cutoff and saturation can be illustrated in relation to the collector characteristic curves by the use of
a load line. Figure 2.20 shows a dc load line drawn on a family of curves connecting the cutoff point
and the saturation point. The bottom of the load line is at ideal cutoff where IC = 0 and VCE = VCC. The
top of the load line is at saturation where IC = IC(sat) and VCE = VCE(sat). In between cutoff and saturation
along the load line is the active region of the transistor’s operation. Load line operation is discussed
below in further detail.

The relationship between the collector-emitter voltage (VCE) and collector current (IC) is given by the
equation: VCE = VCC - ICRL (from equation 2.4) in terms of the d. c. conditions. Since VCC and RL are

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constant in any given circuit, this represents the equation of a straight line which can be written in the
y = mx + c form. Transposing VCE = VCC - ICRL for IC gives:

which is of the straight line form y = mx + c ; hence if Ic is plotted vertically and VCE horizontally,
then the gradient is given by –(1/RL) and the vertical axis intercept is VCC/RL.

A family of collector static characteristics drawn on such axes is shown in Figure 2.20, and so the
line may be superimposed on these as shown in Figure 2.20.

Figure 2.20 The Load Lines

The reason why this line is necessary is because the static curves relate IC to VCE for a series of fixed
values of IB. When a signal is applied to the base of the transistor, the base current varies and can
instantaneously take any of the values between the extremes shown. Only two points are necessary
to draw the line and these can be found conveniently by considering extreme conditions. From the
equation:

VCE = VCC - ICRL

(i) when IC = 0,VCE = VCC (cutoff point) (ii) when VCE = 0, IC = VCC/RL (saturation point)

Thus the points A and B respectively are located on the axes of the IC/VCE characteristics. This line
is called the load line and it is dependent for its position upon the value of VCC and for its gradient
upon RL. As the gradient is given by – (1/RL), the slope of the line is negative.

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For every value assigned to RL in a particular circuit there will be a corresponding (and different)
load line. If VCC is maintained constant, all the possible lines will start at the same point (B) but will
cut the IC axis at different points A. Increasing RL will reduce the gradient of the line and vice-versa.
Quite clearly the collector voltage can never exceed VCC (point B) and equally the collector current
can never be greater than that value which would make VCE zero (point A).

Using the circuit example of Figure 2.21, we have

From Equation 2.4

Figure 2.21 Common-Emitter

Amplifier

2.6.5 DC Beta (βDC) and DC Alpha (αDC)

The dc current gain of a transistor is the ratio of the dc collector current (IC) to the dc base current
(IB) and is designated dc beta (βDC).
𝐼
𝛽𝐷𝐶 = 𝐼 𝐶 (2.5)
𝐵

Typical values of 𝛽𝐷𝐶 range from less than 20 to 200 or higher. 𝛽𝐷𝐶 is usually designated as an
equivalent hybrid (h) parameter, hFE, on transistor datasheets. All you need to know now is that

ℎ𝐹𝐸 = 𝛽𝐷𝐶

The ratio of the dc collector current (IC) to the dc emitter current (IE) is the dc alpha (αDC). The
alpha is a less-used parameter than beta in transistor circuits.

𝐼𝐶
𝛼𝐷𝐶 =
𝐼𝐸

Typically, values of a αDC range from 0.95 to 0.99 or greater, but αDC is always less than 1. The
reason is that IC is always slightly less than IE by the amount of IB. For example, if IE = 100 mA and
IB = 1 mA, then IC = 99 mA and αDC = 0.99.

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READ ON: Thermal Runaway of a transistor and learn to explain how thermal runaway might be
prevented in a transistor.

Summary of Bipolar Junction Transistors

 The Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three-layer device constructed to form two
semiconductor diode junctions joined together, one forward biased and one reverse biased.
 There are two main types of bipolar junction transistors, the NPN and the gate transistor.
 Transistors are "Current Operated Devices" where a much smaller Base current causes a
larger Emitter to Collector current, which themselves are nearly equal, to flow.
 The most common transistor connection is the Common-emitter configuration.
 Requires a Biasing voltage for AC amplifier operation.
 The Collector or output characteristics curves can be used to find either Ib, Ic or β to which a
load line can be constructed to determine a suitable operating point, Q with variations in
base current determining the operating range.
 A transistor can also be used as an electronic switch to control devices such as lamps, motors
and solenoids etc.
 Inductive loads such as DC motors, relays and solenoids require a reverse biased "Flywheel"
diode placed across the load. This helps prevent any induced back emf's generated when the
load is switched "OFF" from damaging the transistor.
 The NPN transistor requires the Base to be more positive than the Emitter while the PNP
type requires that the Emitter is more positive than the Base.

Table 2.1 Comparison between FET and BJT

SN Field Effect Transistor (FET) Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
1 Low voltage gain High voltage gain
2 High current gain Low current gain
3 Very High input impedance Low input impedance
4 High output impedance Low output impedance
5 Low noise generation Medium noise generation
6 Fast switching time Medium switching time
7 Easily damaged by static Robust
8 Some require an input to turn it "OFF" Requires zero input to turn it "OFF"
9 Voltage controlled device Current controlled device
10 More expensive than bipolar Cheap
11 Difficult to bias Easy to bias

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2.7 Review question on Transistors

Problem 1. With reference to a p-n-p transistor, explain briefly what is meant by the
term transistor action and why a bipolar junction transistor is so named.

For the transistor as depicted in Figure 2.8, the emitter is relatively heavily doped with acceptor atoms
(holes). When the emitter terminal is made sufficiently positive with respect to the base, the base-
emitter junction is forward biased to the majority carriers. The majority carriers are holes in the
emitter and these drift from the emitter to the base.

The base region is relatively lightly doped with donor atoms (electrons) and although some electron-
hole recombination’s take place, perhaps 0.5 %, most of the holes entering the base, do not combine
with electrons. The base-collector junction is reverse biased to electrons in the base region, but
forward biased to holes in the base region. Since the base is very thin and now is packed with holes,
these holes pass the base-emitter junction towards the negative potential of the collector terminal.
The control of current from emitter to collector is largely independent of the collector-base voltage
and almost wholly governed by the emitter-base voltage. The essence of transistor action is this
current control by means of the base-emitter voltage.

In a p-n-p transistor, holes in the emitter and collector regions are majority carriers, but are minority
carriers when in the base region. Also thermally generated electrons in the emitter and collector
regions are minority carriers as are holes in the base region. However, both majority and minority
carriers contribute towards the total current flow (see Figure 2.9(a)). It is because a transistor makes
use of both types of charge carriers (holes and electrons) that they are called bipolar. The transistor
also comprises two p-n junctions and for this reason it is a junction transistor. Hence the name—
bipolar junction transistor.

Problem 2. The basic construction of an n-p-n transistor makes it appear that the emitter and
collector can be interchanged. Explain why this is not usually done.

In principle, a bipolar junction transistor will work equally well with either the emitter or collector
acting as the emitter. However, the conventional emitter current largely flows from the collector
through the base to the emitter, hence the emitter region is far more heavily doped with donor atoms
(electrons) than the base is with acceptor atoms (holes). Also, the base-collector junction is normally
reverse biased and in general, doping density increases the electric field in the junction and so lowers
the breakdown voltage. Thus, to achieve a high breakdown voltage, the collector region is relatively
lightly doped.

In addition, in most transistors, the method of production is to diffuse acceptor and donor atoms onto
the n-type semiconductor material, one after the other, so that one overrides the other. When this is
done, the doping density in the base region is not uniform but decreases from emitter to collector.
This results in increasing the effectiveness of the transistor. Thus, because of the doping densities in
the three regions and the non-uniform density in the base, the collector and emitter terminals of a
transistor should not be interchanged when making transistor connections.

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Trial Problems On Transistors

1. Explain with the aid of sketches, the operation of an n-p-n transistor and also explain why
the collector current is very nearly equal to the emitter current.

2. Explain what is meant by the term ‘transistor action’.

3. Describe the basic principle of operation of a bipolar junction transistor including why majority
carriers crossing into the base from the emitter pass to the collector and why the collector
current is almost unaffected by the collector potential.

4. For a transistor connected in common-emitter configuration, sketch the output characteristics

relating collector current and the collector-emitter voltage, for various values of base current.
Explain the shape of the characteristics.

5. Sketch the input characteristic relating emitter current and the emitter- base voltage for a
transistor connected in common-base configuration, and explain its shape.

6. With the aid of a circuit diagram, explain how the output characteristics of an n-p-n transistor
having common-base configuration may be obtained and any special precautions which
should be taken.

7. Draw sketches to show the direction of the flow of leakage current in both n-p-n and p-n-p
transistors. Explain the effect of leakage current on a transistor connected in common-base
configuration.

8. Using the circuit symbols for transistors show how (a) common-base, and (b) common-
emitter configuration can be achieved. Mark on the symbols the inputs, the outputs, polarities
under normal operating conditions to give correct biasing and current directions.

9. Draw a diagram showing how a transistor can be used in common emitter configuration. Mark
on the sketch the input and output polarities under normal operating conditions, and current
directions.

10. Sketch the circuit symbols for (a) a p-n-p and (b) an n-p-n transistor. Mark on the emitter
electrodes the direction of conventional current flow and explain why the current flows in the
direction indicated.

11. State whether the following statements are true or false:

(a) The purpose of a transistor amplifier is to increase the frequency of an input signal
(b) The gain of an amplifier is the ratio of the output signal amplitude to the input signal
amplitude
(c) The output characteristics of a transistor relate the collector current to the base
voltage.
(d) The equation of the load line is VCE = VCC - ICRL
(e) If the load resistor value is increased the load line gradient is reduced
(f) In a common-emitter amplifier, the output voltage is shifted through 180° with reference
to
the input voltage
(g) In a common-emitter amplifier, the input and output currents are in phase
(h) If the temperature of a transistor increases, VBE, IC and ˛E all increase
(i) A heat sink operates by artificially increasing the surface area of a transistor

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 (j) The dynamic current gain of a transistor is always greater than the static current.

12. What will be the gradient of a load line for a load resistor of value 4 k? What unit is the
gradient measured in?

ASSIGNMENT: Read and make notes on the Field Effect Transistor. Consider the following:
 Construction, Circuit symbol JFET
 Analogy between a BJT and a JFET;
 Why the channel is so named, working principles of a JFET;
 JFET Characteristics.

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 CHAPTER THREE
FEEDBACK THEOREM

At the end of this chapter, the student is expected to acquire the following:
 Must know the importance and applications of feedback in electronic circuits.
 Must understand the theory and principle of feedback.
 Understand the difference between open and close loop control systems
 Be able to distinguish between positive and negative feedback and their effect on the
Amplifier.

3.1 Feedback Concept

A feedback system is one for which the input signal is modified in some way by the system output
before the internal processing by the system itself. This general arrangement is illustrated in Figure
3.1.

External
Signal Signal Input Basic Output
Combination System

Output Signal
Processing

Figure. 3.1 The Block Diagram Arrangement for a Feedback System

The signal combination shown is usually a simple addition or subtraction but multiplication, logical
or other combinations may also be used. The output signal processing is often simple attenuation of
amplitude reduction but this too may be combined with differentiation or filtering in various ways.
Most electronic circuits and systems employ feedback in one way or another and since this can affect
the system behavior to a large degree, it is important to have clear appreciation of the principles
involved.

Feedback can affect the overall system properties in many ways some of which may or may not be
desirable. With correctly applied feedback, the most important effect is a stabilizing influence. For
example, the gain of an amplifier without feedback is subject to modification due to a range of
external factors. These include change of dc supply levels, change of component values of device
parameters (due to ageing or replacement), variation in components and devices in a production
spread, change in external loading and change in environmental conditions. The corresponding

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changes in gain for a feedback amplifier will be greatly reduced. A typical reduction could be from a
20% variation in the basic system gain to a 1% variation in the feedback system.

This stabilizing influence is also particularly important in control systems, which can maintain such
variables as temperature, speed or position within precise limits regardless of variation in external
loading. The second important property of feedback systems is concerned with the bandwidth or
frequency response. In general, if the system without feedback correctly processes only signals within
a particular frequency range or bandwidth, the equivalent feedback system will satisfactorily process
signals over a wider frequency range, i.e. it will have a greater bandwidth.

Further properties of feedback, which are of particular interest in amplifiers, include the reduction of
harmonic distortion due to non-linearity within the amplifier and modification of both input and
output impedances. All the above remarks are applicable to correctly designed feedback systems:
under certain circumstances, converse effects can occur resulting in less stability, more distortion,
less bandwidth etc.

Depending on the relative polarity of the signal being fed back into a circuit, one may have negative
or positive feedback. Negative feedback results in decreased voltage gain which subsequently leads
to improve circuit features. Positive feedback drives a circuit into oscillation as in various types of
oscillator circuit.

An audio – frequency amplifier can be designed to have a certain voltage, current or power gain
together with particular values of input and output impedance. The amplifier will add noise and
distortion to any signal it amplifies. The components used in the amplifier, both passive and active
(transistors and ICs), will vary in value both with time and with variation in temperature and also
when component has to be replaced by another of the same type and nominal value. The parameters
of a transistor, such as its mutual conductance, depend upon the operating conditions and so any
fluctuations in the power supplies may also cause the gain of the amplifier to alter. For many
applications, it is important that the gain of an amplifier be kept as constant as possible and then
negative feedback (n. f. b.) is applied to the amplifier at the expense of a reduction in the gain.

The general block diagram of a typical negative feedback amplifier is shown in Figure 3.2. A feedback
network is connected in parallel with the output terminals of the amplifier so that a fraction of the
output voltage can be fed back to the input of the amplifier. The total voltage applied to the input of
the amplifier proper is the phasor sum of the input voltage and the fed-back voltage.

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 Amplifier + Vi
Input Vs A Vo
RL -
voltage

V0- Vf
output OR β
Fed- Feedback voltage Vs-input signal
back network Vi-input to amplifier (=Vs-Vf)
voltage (b)
(a)
Figure 3.2 Block Diagram of a Feedback Amplifier

If the feedback (Vf) is in antiphase with the input voltage, the feedback is negative and the overall
gain of the amplifier will be reduced. Conversely, if the input and feedback voltages are in phase with
one another, positive feedback is applied to the amplifier and its gain will be increased. Positive
feedback will lead to the circuit becoming unstable and prone to oscillate at some particular frequency
and it is the basis of an oscillator circuit as said earlier on.

If the feedback signal is of opposite polarity to the input signal as shown in Figure 3.2 (b), negative
feedback results as said earlier on. While negative feedback results in reduced overall voltage gain, a
number of improvements are obtained, among them being:

a) Higher input impedance

b) Better stabilized voltage gain
c) Improved frequency response
d) Lower output impedance
e) Reduced noise
f) More linear operation.

3.2 Feedback Relationships and Definitions

What are amplifiers?

The purpose of an amplifier is to increase the power in a signal without distorting it. This process is
called amplification.

For example, amplifiers are used to increase the power in the signal from a microphone so that it can
drive a loudspeaker, or to amplify the control signals produced by the pilot of an aircraft so that they
will move the flaps on the wings and other control devices. The extra power must come from a power
supply. In the case of an electronic amplifier, the power supply (which gets its power from the ac
supply mains) or a battery.

The input signal causes the amplifier to control the flow of current from the voltage supply to the
load. Thus, more power may be delivered to the load than is taken from the input signal source. In
practice, amplification usually means increasing the voltage amplitude of the signal into the given
load. The opposite of amplification is called attenuation, and usually refers to a decrease in signal
voltage.
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The properties of feedback amplifiers and closed loop control systems are so closely linked that it is
useful to compare the basic definitions and the resulting expression for the system gain.

A feedback amplifier may be defined as an amplifier for which the terminal input signal is the sum
of an external signal and a signal proportional to the output signal.

The signal proportional to the output signal is the feedback signal i.e.

f  So  f =So
where  is the proportionality constant called the feedback network gain.

3.3 Feedback Connection Types

Differences exist in the methods used to derive the feedback signal and to introduce it into the input
circuit. These differences leads to the classification of negative feedback amplifiers into four types.
In other words, there are Four basic ways of connecting the feedback signal. Both voltage and current
can be fed back to the input either in series or parallel.
The four types are:
1. Voltage – series feedback
2. Voltage – shunt feedback
3. Current – series feedback
4. Current – shunt feedback

In the list above the term voltage refers to connecting the output voltage as input to the feedback
network; Current refers to tapping off some output current through the feed – back network; series
refers to connecting the feedback signal in series with the input signal voltage; shunt refers to
connecting the feedback signal in shunt (parallel) with an input current source.

Voltage-Series feedback connections tend to increase the input resistance, while current-shunt
feedback connections tends to decrease the input resistance. Voltage-series feedback tends to decrease
the output impedance, while current-shunt feedback tends to increase the output impedance.
Typically, higher input and lower output impedance are desired for most cascade amplifiers. Both of
these (impedances) are provided using the voltage – series feedback connection. The feedback
amplifier types are shown in Figure3.3.

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 Figure 3.3 Feedback Amplifier Types:
a) voltage – series feedback, Af = V0/Vs; b) Voltage – shunt feedback, Af = V0/Is
c) Current – series feedback, Af = I0/Vs; d) Current – shunt feedback, Af = I0/Is

In general, these various types of negative feedback connections have similar effects upon the
performance of an amplifier other than on its input and output impedances. Each impedance may
either be increased or decreased according to the type of connection (see table 3.1.). Note that the
changes in input and output impedance are not in the same ratio.

Table 3.1 Types of Negative Feedback and Effect on Impedance

Type of negative
Input impedance Zif Output impedance Zof
feedback
Voltage – Series Increased Decreased

Voltage – Shunt Increased Increased

Current – Shunt Decreased Increased

Current – Series Decreased Decreased

NB: The feedback network is also called β – network, where β is the transfer ratio (β ≤ 1).

If the output of an amplifier is monitored and the information is fed back to the input, correcting
action can be taken. Amplifiers using some method of information feedback are known as feedback
amplifiers or closed – loop amplifiers, since the feedback loop is closed. Generally speaking, feedback
is applied only where it is beneficial and can improve some of the qualities of the circuit. In some
cases, however, feedback has undesirable effects, adversely affecting the performance of the circuit.

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In many amplifiers, either a part or all of the output signal is fed back and included as a part of the
input signal. If the signal is fed back deliberately, then the results can be predicted by circuit theory.
If the output signal is fed back as a result of parasitic components, e.g., by leakage capacitance, then
the results are not easily predicted.

If the signal fed back is in phase with the input signal as said earlier on, it is referred to as positive
feedback or regenerative feedback; if it is antiphase to the input signal, it is known as negative
feedback or degenerative feedback.

Voltage feedback is said to be applied when the signal fed back is proportional to the output voltage
of the amplifier. When the signal fed back is proportional to the output current, current feedback is
applied. Generally speaking, the principal properties affected by feedback are the input impedance,
the output impedance and the gain. Other properties such as distortion, band width, etc. are also
affected

Hybrid feedback circuits, combining both current and voltage feedback are used in practice to give
the correct combination of gain, input impedance, output impedance, bandwidth, etc. In general,
positive feedback results in the opposite effects to those achieved by negative feedback.

3.3.1 Voltage – Series Feedback

Fig 3.3 (a), shows the voltage – series feedback connection with a part of the output voltage fed back
in series with the input signal, resulting in an overall gain reduction. If there is no feedback (Vf = 0),
the voltage gain of the amplifier stage is
V V
A = o  o (3.1)
Vs Vi
If a feedback signal, Vf, is connected in series with the input, then
Vi = Vs – Vf

Since Vo = A Vi = A (Vs – Vf) = AVs – AVf

= AVs – A(β Vo),

then (1+ β A) Vo = AVs ,

so that the overall voltage gain with feedback is

Vo A
Af =  (3.2)
Vs 1  βA

Equation (3.2) shows that, the gain with feedback is the amplifier gain reduced by the factor (1 + β
A). This factor also affect input and output impedance among other circuits features.
 is the fraction of the output voltage fed back into the into circuit.

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3.4 Gain with and without Feedback

The gain with and without feedback, β the overall gain of the circuit is reduced by a factor (1 + β A).
A summary of the gain, feedback factor and gain with feedback of Figure 5.2 is provided in Table
3.2

Table 3.2 Various negative feedback connections and their corresponding gains
Voltage – Voltage – Current – Current –
series Shunt Series Shunt

Gain without
Vo/Vi Vo/Ii Io/Vi Io/Ii
feedback, A

Feedback,  Vf/Vo If/Vo Vf/Io If/Io

Gain with
Vo/Vs Vo/Is Io/Vs Io/Is
feedback Af

3.5 Advantages of Negative Feedback

The application of any of the four types of negative feedback to an amplifier has the effect of reducing
either the voltage gain or the current gain of that amplifier. This is obviously a disadvantage, but on
the credit side, a number of desirable changes in the amplifier performance also take place. These are:
a) The gain stability is increased
b) Distortion and noise produce within the feedback loop may be reduced
c) The input and output impedances of the amplifier can be modified to almost any desire value.
d) The bandwidth of the amplifier is increased.

3.6 Stability of Feedback Amplifiers (Stability of Gain)

For many applications, it is important that an amplifier should have a more or less constant gain even
though various parameters, such as power supply voltages and transistor parameters, may alter with
time and/or with change in ambient temperature. The application of negative feedback will
considerably reduce the effect of such parameter variations on the overall gain of the amplifier.

If the loop gain, βAv or βAi, is much larger than unity (i.e. β Av >> 1), the equation
Av
Av(f) = , becomes,
1  Av
1
Av(f) = Ai(f) =

The gain of the amplifier is now merely a function of the components making up the feedback circuit,
generally one or two resistors. Any changes in the parameters of the transistor, etc, will now have
very little effect on the overall gain of the amplifier.

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 CHAPTER FOUR
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
After completing this chapter, the student must be able to:
 Explain what an operational amplifier is.
 Draw the schematic symbol of an op-amp and State the characteristics of an ideal op-amp.
 Explain the input modes and parameter associated with op-amp operation
 State the meaning of virtual short at the two inputs of an op-amp.
 Draw the circuit diagram of an inverting amplifier, and derive the expression for its gain.
 Draw the circuit diagram of a noninverting amplifier, and derive the expression for its gain.
 State the meaning of negative scale changer and positive scale changer.
 Draw the circuit diagrams of an adder, a subtractor, a differentiator and an integrator
circuit and explain their working.
 State in what respects, a practical op-amp differs from an ideal op-amp.

4.1 Introduction

It was originally designed to perform mathematical operations like summation, subtraction,

multiplication, differentiation and integration of linear analog signals. Hence, it was given the
name operational amplifier (abbreviated as op-amp). Early, these devices were constructed with
vacuum tubes and worked with high voltages.

Today’s op-amps are linear integrated circuits (ICs) that use relatively low dc supply voltages and
are reliable and inexpensive. It has now gained wide acceptance as a versatile, predictable and
economic system building block. Now-a-days, op-amps are put to a variety of other uses such as
sign changer, phase shifter, voltage regulator, comparator, zero-crossing detector, pulse generator,
square-wave generator, triangular-wave generator, time-base generator, voltage-to-current
converter, current-to-voltage converter, sample-and-hold circuit, analog-to-digital converter
(ADC), digital-to-analog converter (DAC), etc.

An op-amp is a direct-coupled, multi-stage, high input impedance and high gain. It uses negative voltage-
shunt feedback to provide a stabilized voltage gain of the amplifier or it is capable of amplifying signals
from 0 Hz to a little over 1 MHz. The standard operational amplifier (op-amp) symbol is shown in
Figure 4.1(a). It has two input terminals, the inverting (-) input and the noninverting (+) input, and
one output terminal. Most op-amps operate with two dc supply voltages, one positive and the other
negative, as shown in Figure 4–1(b), although some have a single dc supply. Usually these dc voltage
terminals are left off the schematic symbol for simplicity. Some typical op-amp IC packages are
shown in Figure 4–1(c).

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 Figure 4.1 Schematic symbol and typical packages for operational amplifiers

The inputs are marked with minus (–) and plus (+) signs. The signal voltage applied to point (-) is
called inverting input. This signal will appear amplified but phase-inverted at the output. The signal
voltage applied to point (+) is called noninverting input. This signal will appear amplified but in-phase
at the output.

A word of caution! The minus and plus signs do not mean that the voltages V1 and V2 are negative
and positive, respectively. These signs merely indicate the nature of amplification process for the two
input signals.

The net input to the op-amp is V in= V 2 –V1 (from figure 4.2). It is known as the differential input. The
output V will be amplified version of this input signal. The voltage gain of the op-amp is then given
V
AOL  0 (4.1)
Vd

This is the open-loop voltage gain of the op-amp. The magnitude of AOL is very large, of the order of 105.
Therefore, the input voltage Vin must be limited to a very small value (say, a few µV), so that the output
is not overloaded. Fortunately, some techniques (like negative feedback network) are available to raise this
limit to more practical values. There is another advantage of AOL being so large. It is because AOL is very
high, we can use heavy negative feedback to improve the overall performance of a circuit.

Figure 4.2 Schematic Symbol of an op-amp

Though the symbolic representation looks like a simple triangle, an actual op-amp may contain about
two dozens of transistors (BJTs and/or FETs), a dozen of resistors and a few capacitors.

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4.2 Ideal and Practical Operational Amplifiers

To illustrate what an op-amp is, let’s consider its ideal characteristics. A practical op-amp, of
course, falls short of these ideal standards, but it is much easier to understand and analyze the
device from an ideal point of view.

4.2.1 Ideal operational Amplifiers

First, the ideal op-amp has infinite voltage gain and infinite bandwidth. Also, it has an infinite input
impedance (open) so that it does not load the driving source. Finally, it has a zero output impedance.
Op-amp characteristics are illustrated in Figure 4.3(a). The input voltage, Vin, appears between the
two input terminals, and the output voltage is AvVin, as indicated by the internal voltage source
symbol. The concept of infinite input impedance is particularly valuable characteristics as already
mentioned.
The op-amp is said to be ideal if it has the following characteristics:
(1) Its open-loop gain is infinite, i.e., AOL = .
(2) Its input resistance (across the inverting and noninverting terminals) is infinite (Ri=.)
(3) Its output resistance (seen looking back into the output terminals) is zero, i.e., Ro = 0 Ω
(4) It has infinite bandwidth (BW =.), i.e., it has a flat frequency response from dc to infinity.
(5) It has perfect balance, i.e., Vo = 0, when V1= V2.
(6) It has zero drift, i.e., its characteristics do not drift with temperature, etc.

The above conditions have the following implications:

(1) R, = . means that the input current Ii = 0. That is, the op-amp does not draw any current from
the signal source. It also means that an ideal op-amp is a voltage-controlled device.
(2) Ro = 0 Ω means that the output voltage Vo is independent of the load resistance connected
across the output. It also means that the output can drive an infinite number of devices.
(3) AOL = . means that for a finite output voltage, the differential input voltage V d = V2 —
V1) must be zero. This implies that V2 = V1. It shows that a short-circuit exists between the two
input terminals. However, since Ri = ., the input current Ii = 0. It means the two input terminals
are not actually shorted (otherwise, there should have been a current flowing), but are virtually
shorted. And, if one input terminal is physically connected to the ground, the other input
terminal becomes a virtual ground.

Figure 4.3 Ideal and Practical Operational Amplifiers

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4.2.2 The Practical Op-Amp
Although integrated circuit (IC) op-amps approach parameter values that can be treated as ideal in
many cases, the ideal device can never be made. Any device has limitations, and the IC op-amp is no
exception. Op-amps have both voltage and current limitations. Peak-to-peak output voltage, for
example, is usually limited to slightly less than the two supply voltages. Output current is also limited
by internal restrictions such as power dissipation and component ratings. Characteristics of a practical
op-amp are very high voltage gain, very high input impedance, and very low output impedance. These
are labelled in Figure 4.3(b). Another practical consideration is that there is always noise generated
within the op-amp. Noise is an undesired signal that affects the quality of a desired signal. Today,
circuit designers are using smaller voltages that require high accuracy, so low-noise components are
in greater demand. All circuits generate noise; op-amps are no exception, but the amount can be
minimized.

Internal Block Diagram of an Op-Amp

A typical op-amp is made up of three types of amplifier circuits: a differential amplifier, a voltage
amplifier, and a push-pull amplifier, as shown in Figure 4.4. The differential amplifier is the input
stage for the op-amp. It provides amplification of the difference voltage between the two inputs. The
second stage is usually a class A amplifier that provides additional gain. Some op-amps may have
more than one voltage amplifier stage. A push-pull class B amplifier is typically used for the output
stage.

Figure 4.4 Internal block diagram of an op-amp

The term differential comes from the amplifier’s ability to amplify the difference of two input signals
applied to its inputs. Only the difference in the two signals is amplified; if there is no difference, the
output is zero. The differential amplifier exhibits two modes of operation based on the type of input
signals.

4.3 OP-Amp input modes and Parameters

In this section, important op-amp input modes and several parameters are defined.

4.3.1 Input modes

Recall that the input signal modes are determined by the differential amplifier input stage
of the op-amp.

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Differential Mode
In the differential mode, either one signal is applied to an input with the other input grounded or two
opposite-polarity signals are applied to the inputs. When an op-amp is operated in the single-ended
differential mode, one input is grounded and a signal voltage is applied to the other input, as shown
in Figure 4.5 In the case where the signal voltage is applied to the inverting input as in part (a), an
inverted, amplified signal voltage appears at the output. In the case where the signal is applied to the
noninverting input with the inverting input grounded, as in Figure 4.5(b), a non-inverted, amplified
signal voltage appears at the output.

Figure 4.5 Single-Ended Differential Mode Amplifier

In the double-ended differential mode, two opposite-polarity (out-of-phase) signals are applied to the
inputs, as shown in Figure 4.6(a). The amplified difference between the two inputs appears on the
output. Equivalently, the double-ended differential mode can be represented by a single source
connected between the two inputs, as shown in Figure 4.7(b).

Figure 4.6 Double-Ended Differential Mode Amplifier

Common Mode
In the common mode, two signal voltages of the same phase, frequency, and amplitude are applied to
the two inputs, as shown in Figure 4.7. When equal input signals are applied to both inputs, they tend
to cancel, resulting in a zero output voltage.

Figure 4.7 Common-mode operation.

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This action is called common-mode rejection. Its importance lies in the situation where an unwanted
signal appears commonly on both op-amp inputs. Common-mode rejection means that this unwanted
signal will not appear on the output and distort the desired signal. Common-mode signals (noise)
generally are the result of the pick-up of radiated energy on the input lines, from adjacent lines, the
60 Hz power line, or other sources.

4.3.2 OP-Amp Parameters

Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

Desired signals can appear on only one input or with opposite polarities on both input lines. These
desired signals are amplified and appear on the output as previously discussed. Unwanted signals
(noise) appearing with the same polarity on both input lines are essentially cancelled by the op-amp
and do not appear on the output. The measure of an amplifier’s ability to reject common-mode signals
is a parameter called the CMRR (common-mode rejection ratio). Ideally, an op-amp provides a very
high gain for differential-mode signals and zero gain for common-mode signals. Practical op-amps,
however, do exhibit a very small common-mode gain (usually much less than 1), while providing a
high open-loop differential voltage gain (usually several thousand). The higher the open-loop gain
with respect to the common-mode gain, the better the performance of the op-amp in terms of rejection
of common-mode signals. This suggests that a good measure of the op-amp’s performance in rejecting
unwanted common-mode signals is the ratio of the open-loop differential voltage gain, Aol, to the
common-mode gain, Acm. This ratio is the common-mode rejection ratio, CMRR.

A A
CMRR = A ol = 20log (A ol ) (4.2)
CM CM

Open loop Gain

The open-loop voltage gain, Aol, of an op-amp is the internal voltage gain of the device and represents
the ratio of output voltage to input voltage when there are no external components. The open-loop
voltage gain is set entirely by the internal design. Open-loop voltage gain can range up to 200,000
(106 dB) and is not a well-controlled parameter. Datasheets often refer to the open-loop voltage gain
as the large-signal voltage gain. A CMRR of 100,000, for example, means that the desired input
signal (differential) is amplified 100,000 times more than the unwanted noise (common-mode). If the
amplitudes of the differential input signal and the common-mode noise are equal, the desired signal
will appear on the output 100,000 times greater in amplitude than the noise. Thus, the noise or
interference has been essentially eliminated.

Input Offset Voltage

The ideal op-amp produces zero volts out for zero volts in. In a practical op-amp, however, a small
dc voltage, VOUT(error), appears at the output when no differential input voltage is applied. Its primary
cause is a slight mismatch of the base-emitter voltages of the differential amplifier input stage of an
op-amp. As specified on an op-amp datasheet, the input offset voltage, VOS, is the differential dc
voltage required between the inputs to force the output to zero volts. Typical values of input offset
voltage are in the range of 2 mV or less.

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Input Bias Current

You have seen that the input terminals of a bipolar differential amplifier are the transistor bases and,
therefore, the input currents are the base currents. The input bias current is the dc current required by
the inputs of the amplifier to properly operate the first stage. By definition, the input bias current is
the average of both input currents and is calculated as follows:

I1 +I2
Ibias = (4.3)
2

Figure 4.8 Input bias current

Input Impedance

Two basic ways of specifying the input impedance of an op-amp are the differential and the common
mode. The differential input impedance is the total resistance between the inverting and the
noninverting inputs, as illustrated in Figure 4.9(a). Differential impedance is measured by
determining the change in bias current for a given change in differential input voltage. The common-
mode input impedance is the resistance between each input and ground and is measured by
determining the change in bias current for a given change in common-mode input voltage. It is
depicted in Figure 4.9(b).

Figure 4.9 Op-Amp Input Impedance

Output Impedance

The output impedance is the resistance viewed from the output terminal of the op-amp, as indicated
in Figure 4.10.

Figure 4.10 Op-Am output impedance

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4.4 The Inverting Amplifier

The inverting amplifier is the most basic op-amp circuit. It uses negative feedback to stabilize the overall
gain. The reason why we need to stabilize the gain is because AOL is too high and unstable. For instance,
the 741C has a maximum AOL of more than 200 000 and a minimum AOL of 20 000. An unpredictable voltage
gain of this magnitude and variation is useless for any practical application.

Figure 4.11 The Inverting Operational Amplifier

Figure 4.11 shows an inverting amplifier. To keep the drawing simple, the power-supply voltages are
not shown. An input voltage V1 drives the inverting input through the resistor R1. This results in an
inverting input voltage Vi. This input voltage is amplified by the open-loop gain to produce an inverted
output voltage. The output voltage is fed back to the input through the feedback resistor Rf. This results
in negative feedback because the output is 180° out of phase with the input.

4.4.1 Virtual Ground and Voltage Gain

When we connect a piece of wire between some point in a circuit and ground, the voltage of the point
becomes zero. Furthermore, the wire provides a path for current to flow to the ground. A mechanical
ground (i.e., a wire connected between a point and ground) is ground to both voltage and current. But
a virtual ground is different. The concept of virtual ground is a widely used shortcut for analyzing an
op-amp circuit. The analysis becomes incredibly easy.

At this point, the ideal op-amp parameters mentioned earlier are useful in simplifying the
analysis of this circuit. In particular, the concept of infinite input impedance is of great
value. An infinite input impedance implies zero current at the inverting input. If there is zero
current through the input impedance, then there must be no voltage drop between the
inverting and noninverting inputs. This means that the voltage at the inverting input is
zero because the noninverting (+) input is grounded. This zero voltage at the inverting input
terminal is referred to as virtual ground. This condition is illustrated in Figure 4.12(a).
Since there is no current at the inverting input, the current through Ri and the current
through Rf are equal, as shown in Figure 4.12(b)

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 Figure 4.12 Virtual ground concept and closed loop voltage gain development for
the inverting amplifier

From Figure 4.12, the voltage across Ri equals Vin because the resistor is connected to virtual
ground at the inverting input of the op-amp and from Kirchhoff’s Law. Therefore,
Iin = If

Also, the voltage across Rf equals -𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 because of virtual ground, and therefore,
−𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐼𝑓 = 𝑅𝑓

Since Iin = If,

𝑉𝑖𝑛 −𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
=
𝑅𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑓
Rearranging the terms,
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑅𝑓
=
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑖𝑛

−𝑅𝑓
Of course, Vout/Vin is the overall gain of the inverting amplifier ⟹ 𝐴𝑐𝑙 = 𝑅𝑖𝑛

This shows that the closed-loop voltage gain of the inverting amplifier (Acl) is the ratio of the
feedback resistance (Rf) to the input resistance (Ri). The closed loop gain is independent of the op-
amp’s internal open-loop gain. Thus, the negative feedback stabilizes the voltage gain. The negative
sign indicates inversion. For instance, if R1 = 1 kΩ and Rf = 50 kΩ, the closed-loop voltage gain is –50.
This means that the output voltage Vo is simply the input voltage V1 multiplied with a negative constant
–50. For this reason, this circuit is also called a negative scale changer. Because of the heavy feedback,
this closed-loop voltage gain is very stable. Even if the open-loop voltage gain AOL varies because of
temperature change, supply voltage variation, or op-amp replacement, ACL will remain very close to
–50.
4.3.2 Input Resistance

In some applications, you may want to have a specific input resistance. This is one of the advantages of the
inverting amplifier; it is easy to set up desired input resistance. Since the right end of R1 is virtually
grounded, the closed-loop input resistance is
Ri(CL) = R1 (4.3)

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For instance, if an input impedance of 2 kΩ and a closed-loop voltage gain of 50 is needed, you can use R1
= 2 kΩ and Rf = 100 kΩ.

4.5 The Non-Inverting Amplifier

The noninverting amplifier is another basic op-amp circuit. This circuit is used when there is a need for
an output which is similar to the input multiplied by a positive constant. This is the reason why this circuit
is also called a positive scale changer. Such a circuit is shown in Figure4.13.

(a) (b)

Figure 4.13 The Noninverting Operational Amplifiers

The input voltage V2 drives the noninverting input (marked +). This input voltage is amplified to
produce the in-phase output voltage Vo, as shown in the figure above. Part of the output voltage is fed
back to the input through a potential divider. Note that the series combination of resistors Rf and R1
appears across the output Vo, and the ground. The voltage across R1 is the feedback voltage applied to
the inverting input (marked –). Since the feedback voltage opposes the input voltage, we have negative
feedback.

In Figure 4.13(b), the output is applied back to the inverting input through the feedback circuit (closed
loop) formed by the input resistor Ri and the feedback resistor Rf. This creates negative feedback as
follows. Resistors Ri and Rf form a voltage-divider circuit, which reduces Vout and connects the
reduced voltage Vf to the inverting input. The feedback voltage is expressed as

𝑅𝑖
𝑉𝑓 = [ ]𝑉
𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑓 𝑜𝑢𝑡

The difference of the input voltage, Vin, and the feedback voltage, Vf, is the differential input to the
op-amp, as shown in Figure 4.13(b). This differential voltage is amplified by the open-loop voltage
gain of the op-amp (Aol) and produces an output voltage expressed as:

Vout = Aol(Vin - Vf)

The attenuation (fraction of output taken), B, of the feedback circuit is

Ri
B=
Ri + Rf
Substituting BVout for Vf in the Vout equation,
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 Vout = Aol(Vin - BVout)

Then applying basic algebra, Vout + AolBVout = AolVin

Vout (1 + AolB) = AolVin

Since the overall voltage gain of the amplifier is Vout/Vin, it can be expressed as

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐴𝑜𝑙
=
𝑉𝑖𝑛 1 + 𝐴𝑜𝑙 𝐵
he product AolB is typically much greater than 1, so the equation simplifies to

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐴𝑜𝑙 1 1 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑓
≅ = = =
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑜𝑙 𝐵 𝐵 [ 𝑅𝑖 ] 𝑅𝑖
𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑓

𝑹𝒇
𝑨𝒄𝒍 = 𝟏 +
𝑹𝒊𝒏

4.6 Some Simple Applications of Op-Amp

OP-AMP applications are so broad and varied that it is impossible to discuss them in detail in this chapter.
We discuss here the following simple applications.

4.6.1 Adder or Summing Amplifier

This circuit gives an output voltage equal to the algebraic sum of two or more input voltages each
multiplied by a constant gain factor. Figure 4.14 shows a three-input inverting adder circuit.

Figure 4.14 A Three-input Op-Amp

We know that, the point A is virtually grounded. Hence, the currents in different resistors are given
as :

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Since the inputs current to op-amp is zero, applying KCL at point A, we get

Or

Or

Or

where,
Rf Rf Rf
K1  ; K2  and K 2 
R1 R2 R3

The overall negative sign is unavoidable, because we are using the inverting input terminal.
If we keep R1 = R2 = R3 = R, then we get the output voltage as;

Hence, the output voltage is proportional to the algebraic sum of the three input voltages.

4.6.2 Audio Mixer

Figure 4.15 shows the circuit of an audio mixer. It provides a convenient way to combine audio
signals in a high-fidelity audio system. The adjustable resistors allow us to set the level of each input,
and the gain control allows us to adjust the combined output volume. By decreasing Level 1, we make
the v1 signal louder at the output. Similarly, by decreasing Level 2, we make the v2 signal louder. By
increasing Gain, we can make all the three signals louder. Here, only three input signals are shown.
However, a commercial audio mixer is capable of combining 8-12 audio signals.

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 Figure4.15 An Audio Mixer

4.6.3 Differential Amplifier

Figure 4.16 shows the differential amplifier circuit. It is a combination of inverting and noninverting
amplifier. That is, when the input v1 is reduced to zero, the circuit becomes a noninverting amplifier;
whereas the circuit is an inverting amplifier when the input v2 is reduced to zero.

We shall use the superposition theorem to establish the relationship between the inputs and the output. When
V2 = 0 V, the resistors R2 and R3 make a parallel combination, carrying no current. The point B is
effectively grounded. The circuit becomes an inverting amplifier. So, the output is,
Rf
vo1   v1
R1
Similarly, when v1 = 0 V, the circuit becomes a noninverting amplifier. It has a voltage divider network
consisting of R2 and R3. Therefore, the potential at point B is
R3
vB  v2
R2  R3

Figure4.16 Differential Amplifier

The output due to V2 is

 Rf   R f  R3   R1  R f  R3 
vo 2  1  v B  1   v 2    v 2
 R1   R1  R2  R3   R1  R2  R3 

If we make R1 = R2 and Rf = R3, we get,

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 Rf
vo 2  v2
R1

By principle of superposition, when both inputs v1 and v2 are present, the output is given by adding the
two outputs,

Rf
vo  vo1  vo 2   (v1  v 2 )
R1

Thus, the voltage gain of the differential amplifier is,

vo Rf
AD  
v1  v2 R1

Note that the gain of the differential amplifier is the same as that of the inverting amplifier.

4.6.4 Subtractor

Figure 4.17 shows a simple op-amp circuit that can be used to subtract one signal from another. It provides
an output proportional to or equal to the difference of the two input signals. As shown in Figure 4.17,
one signal is applied to the noninverting input and the other to the inverting input.

Figure4.17 A Subtractor

Because of the virtual short at the input of the op-amp, the point A is at the same potential as v2. Since the
op-amp takes no current at its input, we must have,
i1  i2
v1  v 2 v 2  vo
Or 
R1 Rf
vo v v  v1
Or  2  2
Rf Rf R1
 Rf  Rf
Or vo  v 2 1   v1
 R1  R1

If we make Rf >> R1, or Rf/R1 >>1, we have

Rf
vo  (v2  v1 )  ACL (v1  v2 )
R1

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ASSIGNMENT: Read and make notes on the following op –amp applications:
a. Differentiator
b. Voltage Follower
c. Integrator

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 CHAPTER FIVE
THYRISTORS
At the end of this chapter, the student is expected to acquire the following:
 Must know the importance of Thyristors (e.g. SCR) in power control systems.
 Understand the theory and principle of operation of Thyristors.
 Be able to explain the voltage-current characteristics of the SCR.
 Be able to enumerate some industrial applications of Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCR)
 Appreciate practical SCR circuits

5.1 Introduction

The term thyristor defines a broad range of solid-state components which are used as electronically
controlled switches. Each of these devices can switch between a conducting (on) state and a non-
conducting (off) state to effectively pass or block electrical current. Some thyristors are capable of
switching currents flowing in one direction while others can switch currents flowing in either
direction.

Thyristors are widely used in applications where dc and ac power must be controlled. These devices
are often used to apply a specific amount of power to a load or to completely remove it. However,
they are also used to regulate or adjust the amount of power applied to a specific load. For example,
a thyristor could be used to simply turn an electric motor on or off or it could be used to adjust the
speed or torque of the motor over a wide operating range. They are also used in light dimmers,
pressure-control systems, and liquid-level regulators.

Thyristors should not be confused with bipolar junction transistors (BJT’s) or field effect transistors
(FET's). Although BJT's and FET's can be used as electronic switches, these devices are not as
efficient and they do not have the power handling capability of Thyristors. Thyristors are devices that
are used expressly for the purpose of controlling electrical power while BJT's and FET's are primarily
used to provide amplification.

Various Thyristors are now available but some of these devices have similar or related characteristics.
Most applications which involve power control are therefore handled with a few basic components.
The thyristors that are most widely used are the Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR), the Bidirectional
Triode (TRIAC), and the Bidirectional Trigger Diode (DIAC).

However, the SCR is the most popular member of the Thyristor family. Unlike the transistor which
has two junctions and provides amplification, the SCR has three junctions and is used as a switch. As
its name implies, the device is basically a diode which conducts current in only one direction.
However, the device can be made to conduct (turn on) or stop conducting (turn off) and therefore
provide a switching action that can be used to control electrical current.

5.2 Applications of Thyristors

The usefulness of the SCR or thyristor may be appreciated by listing just a few of their applications:
a) Switching currents on and off

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 b) Converting a.c. power to controlled D.C. power (rectification)
c) Converting d.c. power to a.c. power (inversion)
d) Controlling the a.c. power delivered to a load
e) Control of a.c. and d.c. machines.
Basically, power thyristors are used as actuators for industrial power controls. (e.g. fans, pumps,
lamps, heating registers, industrial furnaces etc.)

5.3 Basic Construction and Operation

A thyristor is a four-layer semiconductor device, consisting of alternating P type and N type materials
(PNPN). A thyristor usually has three electrodes: an anode, a cathode, and a gate (control electrode)
as shown in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1 Structure (Block Construction) of a thyristor or silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)

The thyristor may be considered a rather an unusual form of electronics component because it consists
of four layers of differently doped silicon rather than the three layers of the conventional bipolar
transistors. Whereas conventional transistors may have a p-n-p or n-p-n structure with the electrodes
named collector, base and emitter, the thyristor has a p-n-p-n structure with the outer layers and their
electrodes referred to as the anode (p-type) and the cathode (n-type). The control terminal of the SCR
is named the gate and it is connected to the p-type layer that adjoins the cathode layer.

Thyristors are usually manufactured from silicon, although, in theory other types of semiconductor
could be used. The first reason for using silicon for thyristors is that silicon is the ideal choice because
of its overall properties. It is able to handle the voltage and currents required for high power
applications. Additionally, it has good thermal properties. The second major reason is that silicon
technology is well established and it is widely used for a variety of semiconductor electronics
components. As a result, it is very cheap and easy for semiconductor manufacturers to use.

5.3.1 Silicon Controlled Rectifier

An SCR is a solid-state device which has four alternately doped semiconductor layers. The device is
almost always made from silicon but germanium has been used. A simplified diagram of an SCR is
shown in Figure 5.2a. As shown, the SCR's four (PNPN) layers are sandwiched together to form three
junctions. However, leads are attached to only three of these layers. These three leads are referred to
as the Anode, Cathode, and Gate.

The manner in which an SCR operates cannot be easily determined by examining the four- layer
structure shown in Figure 5.2a. However, the SCR's four layers can be divided so that two three-layer
devices are formed as shown in Figure 5.2b. The two devices obtained are effectively PNP and NPN

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transistors and when interconnected as shown they are equivalent to the four-layer device shown in
Figure 5.2a. These two transistors can also be represented by their schematic symbols as shown in
Figure 5.2c.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.2 The Thyristor: (a) Basic Construction, (b) two three-layer devices (c) two-transistor
equivalent arrangement.

We will now bias the equivalent circuit in Figure 5.2c just like we would bias the actual SCR shown
in Figure 5.2a. First, we will make the anode of the circuit positive with respect to the cathode but we
will leave the gate open. Under these conditions the NPN transistor will not conduct because its
emitter junction will not be subjected to a forward bias voltage which can produce a base current.
This will, in turn, cause the PNP transistor to turn off because the NPN transistor will not be
conducting and therefore will not allow a base current to flow through the emitter junction of the PNP
transistor. So, the equivalent SCR circuit will not allow current to flow from its cathode to its anode
under these conditions.

If the gate of the equivalent SCR circuit is momentarily made positive with respect to the cathode,
the emitter junction of the NPN transistor will become forward biased and this transistor will conduct.
This will in turn cause a base current to flow through the PNP transistor which will cause this
transistor to conduct.

However, the collector current flowing through the PNP transistor now causes base current to flow
through the NPN transistor (one’s collector forms the others base). The two transistors therefore hold
each other in the on or conducting state thus allowing current to flow continuously from the cathode
to the anode of the circuit. It is important to note that this action takes place even though the gate
voltage is applied only for a moment. This momentary gate voltage causes the circuit to switch to the
on or conducting state and the circuit will remain in that state even though the gate voltage is removed.

In order to switch the equivalent SCR circuit off or non-conducting state, it is necessary to reduce its
anode-to-cathode voltage to almost zero. This will cause both transistors to turn off and remain off
until the conditions previously described are repeated.

5.3.2 Method of Turning a Thyristor OFF

To turn a thyristor OFF, the current flowing in it must be reduced below the holding current value.
This requirement can be satisfied by increasing the circuit resistance, or more commonly, by reducing
the anode-cathode voltage, or by reversing its polarity. When the thyristor is connected to the a.c.

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mains supply, the necessary reversal of the voltage polarity occurs every half-cycle. When a d.c.
voltage supply is used, the reversed voltage can be obtained by the connection of a commutating
capacitor.

5.4 Static V-I Characteristics of Thyristors (SCR) and Symbol

The symbol for a thyristor is shown in Figure 5.4(c). The static characteristics of a thyristor shows
the graphical relationship between the forward current and the forward voltage across the thyristor
with varying gate currents. Typical SCR V-I characteristic shown in Figure 5.5 reveals that a thyristor
has three basic modes (regions) of operation; namely, reverse blocking mode, forward blocking (off-
state) mode and forward conduction (on-state) mode.

Figure 5.4 The Thyristor: (a) arrangement of p-type and n-type layers (b)
construction, (c) symbol

When a voltage is applied across a thyristor with a polarity such that its anode is held negative with
respect to its cathode, p-n junctions, J1 and J3 are reverse-biased and the device only conducts a small
leakage current. In this state or condition, the thyristor is said to be in its reverse blocking region. If
the reverse voltage across the thyristor is increased, the leakage current will also increase, slowly at
first and then at the point where avalanche breakdown occurs, rapidly to a large value which may
well destroy the device.

If a forward voltage is applied across the thyristor, so that the anode is positive with respect to the
cathode, the p-n junctions J1 and J3 will become forward-biased but the junction J2 will be reverse-
biased. Once again only a small leakage current will flow and the thyristor is said to be in its forward
blocking region, or more simply OFF. This forward leakage current also increases slowly with
increase in the forward voltage until the breakover voltage VBO is reached. At this point, the current
passed by the thyristor increases rapidly and the voltage across the device falls to a much lower value,
VF. The thyristor is in its forward conduction region when it’s in its normal conduction mode

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 Figure 5.5 (a) Static Characteristics of a Thyristor, (b) showing the effect of varying the
gate current

The latching current is the minimum current that must flow through a thyristor before it is able to
remain in its ON state after the gate current has ceased to flow. Once the thyristor has definitely turned
ON, the current flowing in it can be reduced but it must always be equal to or greater than, the holding
current. The holding current is the minimum current that can keep the thyristor in its ON condition
after it has been turned ON. The gate has no further control over the thyristor current after it has
turned ON.

5.5 Practical SCR Circuit

5.5.1 On-off Control

Figure 5.6 shows an SCR circuit that permits current to be

switched to a load by the momentary closure of switch SW1 and
removed from the load by the momentary closure of switch SW2.

Assuming the SCR is initially off, momentary closure of SW1

provides a pulse of current into the gate, thus triggering the SCR
on so that it conducts current through The SCR remains in
conduction even after the momentary contact of SW1 is removed
if the anode current is equal to or greater than the holding current,
When SW2 is momentarily closed, current is shunted around the Figure 5.6 On-Off SCR
SCR, thus reducing its anode current below the holding value, control circuit
This turns the SCR off and reduces the load current to zero.

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5.5.2 Half-Wave Power Control

A common application of SCRs is in the control of ac power for lamp dimmers, electric heaters, and
electric motors. A half-wave, variable-resistance, phase-control circuit is shown in Figure 5.17; 120
V ac are applied across terminals A and B; RL represents the resistance of the load (for example, a
heating element or lamp filament). Resistor limits the current, and potentiometer sets the trigger level
for the SCR.

Figure 5.7 Half-wave, variable-resistance, phase control circuit

By adjusting the SCR can be made to trigger at any point on the positive half-cycle of the ac waveform
between 0° and 90°, as shown in Figure 5.8. When the SCR triggers near the beginning of the cycle
(approximately 0°), as in Figure 5.8(a), it conducts for approximately 180° and maximum power is
delivered to the load. When it triggers near the peak of the positive half-cycle (90°), as in Figure
5.8(b), the SCR conducts for approximately 90° and less power is delivered to the load. By adjusting
triggering can be made to occur anywhere between these two extremes, and therefore, a variable
amount of power can be delivered to the load. Figure 5.8(c) shows triggering
at the 45° point as an example. When the ac input goes negative, the SCR turns off and does not
conduct again until the trigger point on the next positive half-cycle. The diode prevents the negative
ac voltage from being applied to the gate of the SCR.

Figure 5.8 Operation of the phase-control circuit.

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 CHAPTER SIX
INSTRUMENTATION
At the end of this chapter, the student is expected to acquire the following:
 Understand the Characteristics of Instrumentation
 Know Functional Element of Instrument
 Be able to distinguish between Analogue and Digital Instruments
 Must know that systematic and random errors affect the accuracy and precision of
measuring instruments.
 Must also know that measurement errors can be eliminated by proper calibration of the
instrument.

6.1 Introduction

The field of instrumentation includes the science and art of measurement, control, and process
manipulation. Specifically, instrumentation is the technology of creating, constructing, and
maintaining the measuring and control devices and systems that equip the manufacturing plants and
research institutions so vital to today’s expanding economy.

Tests and measurements are important in designing, evaluating, maintaining and servicing electrical
circuits and equipment. In order to detect electrical quantities such as current, voltage, resistance or
power, it is necessary to transform an electrical quantity or condition into a visible indication. This is
done with the aid of instruments (or meters) that indicate the magnitude of quantities either by the
position of a pointer moving over a graduated scale (called an analogue instrument) or in the form of
a decimal number (called a digital instrument).

6.2 Characteristics of Instrumentation systems

 Instrument is a device that transforms a physical variable of interest (the measurand) into
a form that is suitable for recording (the measurement).
 It is common to employ a standard system of units by which the measurement from one
instrument can be compared with the measurement of another.
 An example of a basic instrument is a ruler: the measurand is the length of some object
and the measurement is the number of units (meters, inches, etc.) that represent the length.
 The observable variable X need not necessarily be the measurand but simply related to the
measurand in some known way. These are illustrated in Figure 6.1.

Physical Measurement Signal

Variable Variable Measurement
x s M
Measurand Sensor

Physical Process Simple Instrument Display

Model
Figure 6.1 Characteristics of Instrumentation system

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6.2.1 Functional Element of Instruments
 Sensor has the function of converting the physical variable input into a signal variable output.
 Signal variables have the property that they can be manipulated in a transmission system, such
as an electrical or mechanical circuit.
 In a basic instrument, the signal is transmitted to a display or recording device where the
measurement can be read by a human observer.
 The observed output is the measurement M.
 There are many types of display devices, ranging from simple scales to sophisticated computer
display systems.
 The output signal can also be used directly by some larger system of which the instrument is
a part, or may be used as the input signal of a closed loop control system.

6.4 Possible Measurement Variables

a. Common Physical Variables: Force, Length, Temperature, Acceleration, Velocity,

Pressure, Frequency, Capacity, Resistance, Time.

b. Typical Signal Variables: Voltage, Displacement, Current, Force, Pressure, Light,

Frequency.

6.5 Introduction to Analogue and Digital Instruments

A measuring instrument is a device that shows the extent or amount or quantity or degree of a physical
quantity. For example, an Ammeter is an instrument for measuring electric current; Voltmeter is used
for measuring voltage and a Wattmeter is a device for measuring electrical power.
There are two types of measuring instruments namely, analogue instruments and digital instruments.
In the simplest case, the word digital refers to the representation of a quantity in whole numbers form
and analog refers to a continuous representation (fractional increment) of a physical quantity.
Consider the two clocks shown in Figure 6.2.

(a) (b)

Figure 6.2 Types of Measuring Instruments

To use clock A we observe the position of the "hands" as they move past the markings on a circular
scale. The face of this clock is an analogue display*. Clock B tells us the time by displaying numbers
(digits) which change at regular intervals. This is a digital display. Notice that the analogue display
gives us the possibility of estimating the number of seconds whereas the digital display tells us only
hours and minutes.
Similarly, we might use a voltmeter having a pointer that moves across a scale (an analogue meter)
or one having numbers which change according to the voltage applied to its terminals (a digital
meter), as shown in Figure 6.3.

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 Figure 6.3 Analogue and Digital Meters

Again, the analogue display gives us the possibility of making an estimate when the pointer lies
between two marks on the scale but, in this case, a suitable choice of calibration of the digital meter
has given us greater precision.
Both forms of instruments are in used today, and their application depends on the requirements of the
user and the quantity to be measured. However, in terms of accuracy and precision of measurements,
digital instruments are preferred. Among some of the measuring instruments are; the ohmmeter,
Multimeters, Wattmeters, Cathode ray Oscilloscope, etc.

6.5.1 Essential Features of Analogue Instruments

Although most measuring instruments are now manufactured with digital displays, many measuring
devices are still based on analogue principles, i.e., these devices use the movement of an indicator
across a scale to represent the quantity which we require. Also, the measuring process itself is
analogue, after which a digital conversion is done.
Analogue instruments are in demand today because of the following reasons:
 They are cheaper.
 People still prefer an analogue display to a digital one.
 The additional cost of digital instruments can only be justified when accuracy is essential.

All analogue electrical indicating instruments require three essential devices:

(a) A deflecting or operating device. A mechanical force is produced by the current or

voltage which causes the pointer to deflect from its zero position.

(b) A controlling device. The controlling force acts in opposition to the deflecting force and
ensures that the deflection shown on the meter is always the same for a given measured
quantity. It also prevents the pointer always going to the maximum deflection. There are
two main types of controlling device—spring control and gravity control.

(c) A damping device. The damping force ensures that the pointer comes to rest in its final
position quickly and without undue oscillation. There are three main types of damping
used— eddy-current damping, air-friction damping and fluid-friction damping.

(d) A Scale: A standard by which the measured is compared with. It is also an indication of the
level of change recorded. There are basically two types of scale—linear and non-linear. A
linear scale is shown in Figure 6.4(a), where the divisions or graduations are evenly spaced.
The voltmeter shown has a range 0–100 V, i.e. a full-scale deflection (f.s.d.) of 100 V. A non-

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 linear scale is shown in Figure 6.4(b). The scale is cramped at the beginning and the
graduations are uneven throughout the range. The ammeter shown has a f.s.d. of 10 A.

(a) (b)

Figure 6.4 Types of Analogue Scales

6.5.2 Digital/Electronic Instruments

Electronic measuring instruments have advantages over instruments such as the moving-iron or
moving-coil meters, in that they have a much higher input resistance (some as high as 1000 M) and
can handle a much wider range of frequency (from d.c. up to MHz).

The digital voltmeter (DVM) is one which provides a digital display of the voltage being measured.
Advantages of a DVM over analogue instruments include higher accuracy and resolution, no
observational or parallax errors and a very high input resistance, constant on all ranges.

Instruments for a.c. measurements are generally calibrated with a sinusoidal alternating waveform to
indicate Root Mean Square (RMS) values when a sinusoidal signal is applied to the instrument. Some
instruments, such as the moving-iron and electro-dynamic instruments, give a true RMS indication.

Sometimes quantities to be measured have complex waveforms and whenever a quantity is non-
sinusoidal, errors in instrument readings can occur if the instrument has been calibrated for sine waves
only. Such waveform errors can be largely eliminated by using electronic instruments.

6.6 Error, Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy is the extent to which the average of many measurements made by the instrument agrees
with the true value or standard being measured. The difference between the average and the true value
is the error, or inaccuracy, and is the extent to which the instrument is out of calibration. The error
can be positive or negative. The “correction” needed to calibrate the instrument is of the same
magnitude as the error but opposite in sign.

The degree to which an instrument will consistently produce equal measurements is called
“precision”. Variance in readings can be expressed in terms of a standard deviation of the measured
values; the smaller the standard deviation the more precise the instrument.

The terms “accuracy” and “precision” are often confused. Accuracy and precision are two different
concepts. The accuracy of an instrument can be improved by recalibrating to reduce its error, but
recalibration generally does not improve the instrument’s precision.

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6.6.1 Sources of measurement Error

Even the best equipment and measuring techniques are subject to error. A measurement error is the
difference between the measured value of a magnitude and its true value. This deviation can be
attributed either to inaccuracy or to imprecision. All measurement errors are due to either random
errors or systematic errors. However, several conditions can contribute to unreliable measurement
including sensitivity to environmental factors such as temperature and magnetic fields.

 Human Factors

An operator can get different results measuring the same product with the same measuring system
because of slight differences in technique from one measurement to the next. So when two or more
operators measure the same product with the same measuring instrument, the differences in recorded
measurements are likely to be even greater than with one operator. Depending on the measuring
technique, variation in data can be dispersed or show up as a systematic error.

 Random Error

Random errors are statistical fluctuations (in either direction) in the measured data due to the precision
limitations of the measurement device. Random errors usually result from the user’s inability to take
the same measurement in exactly the same way to get exactly the same number. Random error is
caused by any factors that randomly affect measurement of the variable across the sample.

For instance, each person's mood can inflate or deflate their performance on any occasion. In a
particular testing, some children may be feeling in a good mood and others may be depressed. If mood
affects their performance on the measure, it may artificially inflate the observed scores for some
children and artificially deflate them for others. The important thing about random error is that it does
not have any consistent effects across the entire sample. Instead, it pushes observed scores up or down
randomly. This means that if we could see all of the random errors in a distribution they would have
to sum to 0 thus there would be as many negative errors as positive ones.

The important property of random error is that it adds variability to the data but does not affect average
performance for the group. Because of this, random error is sometimes considered noise.

Figure 6.5 Random Error Frequency Distribution

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  Systematic Error

Systematic errors, by contrast, are reproducible inaccuracies that are consistently in the same
direction. Systematic errors are often due to a problem that persists throughout the entire
measurement.

Systematic error is caused by any factors that systematically affect measurement of the variable across
the sample. For instance, if there is loud traffic going on, just outside of a classroom where students
are taking a test, this noise is liable to affect all of the children's scores -- in this case, systematically
lowering them. Unlike random error, systematic errors tend to be consistently either positive or
negative -- because of this, systematic error is sometimes considered to be bias in measurement.

Figure 6.6 Systematic Error Frequency Distribution

6.6.2 Reducing Measurement Error

So, how can we reduce measurement errors, random or systematic? One thing you can do is to pilot
test your instruments, getting feedback from your respondents regarding how easy or hard the
measure was and information about how the testing environment affected their performance.

Second, if you are gathering measures using people to collect the data (as interviewers or observers)
you should make sure you train them thoroughly so that they aren't inadvertently introducing error.

Third, when you collect the data for your study you should double-check the data thoroughly. All
data entry for computer analysis should be "double-punched" and verified. This means that you enter
the data twice, the second time having your data entry machine check that you are typing the exact
same data you did the first time. Fourth, you can use statistical procedures to adjust for measurement
error. These range from rather simple formulas you can apply directly to your data to very complex
modeling procedures for modeling the error and its effects.

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Finally, one of the best things you can do to deal with measurement errors, especially systematic
errors, is to use multiple measures of the same construct.

6.8 The Moving Coil Instrument

A moving-coil instrument operates on the motor principle. When a conductor carrying current is
placed in a magnetic field, a force F is exerted on the conductor, given by F = BIL. If the flux density
B is made constant (by using permanent magnets) and the conductor is a fixed length (say, a coil)
then the force will depend only on the current flowing in the conductor.

In a moving-coil instrument a coil is placed centrally in the gap between shaped pole pieces as shown
by the front elevation in Figure 6.7(a). (The air gap is kept as small as possible, although for clarity
it is shown exaggerated in Figure 6.7). The coil is supported by steel pivots, resting in jewel bearings,
on a cylindrical iron core. Current is led into and out of the coil by two phosphor bronze spiral
hairsprings which are wound in opposite directions to minimize the effect of temperature change and
to limit the coil swing (i.e. to control the movement) and return the movement to zero position when
no current flows. Current flowing in the coil produces forces as shown in Fig 6.7(b), the directions
being obtained by Fleming’s left-hand rule. The two forces, FA and FB, produce a torque which will
move the coil in a clockwise direction, i.e. move the pointer from left to right. Since force is
proportional to current the scale is linear.

Figure 6.7 The Moving Coil Instrument

When the aluminum frame, on which the coil is wound, is rotated between the poles of the magnet,
small currents (called eddy currents) are induced into the frame, and this provides automatically the
necessary damping of the system due to the reluctance of the former to move within the magnetic
field. The moving-coil instrument will measure only direct current or voltage and the terminals are
marked positive and negative to ensure that the current passes through the coil in the correct direction
to deflect the pointer ‘up the scale’.

The range of this sensitive instrument is extended by using shunts and multipliers.

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6.9 MC Instrument Series & Shunt Resistance Calculations

6.9.1 Ammeter Shunt Resistance Calculations

The moving coil instrument (MC) can be made into a voltmeter by connecting a Resistor in series
with it. This resistor is usually called a MULTIPLIER.

Rs = Shunt Resistance
Rm = internal resistance of MC
Is = current through shunt resistor
Im =current through MC needed for energization
I =current to be measured
Vs = Voltage across shunt resistor
Vm= voltage across MC coil
Figure 6.8 Ammeter shunt resistance wiring

From figure 6.8, applying Kirchhoff’s law

I = IM + IS ⟹ IS = I − IM

Since Rs is parallel to MC, Vs = Vm

Hence 𝐼𝑆 𝑅𝑆 = 𝐼𝑀 𝑅𝑀 ⟹ 𝑅𝑆 (I − IM ) = 𝐼𝑀 𝑅𝑀

𝑰 𝑹
𝑴 𝑴 𝐈 𝐑𝐌
𝑹𝑺 = (𝐈−𝐈 )
and = {𝟏 + }
𝐌 𝐈𝐌 𝐑𝐒

6.9.2 Voltmeter Series Resistance Calculations

Conversely, for the moving coil instrument to be used as an ammeter, it is connected in parallel
with a SHUNT resistor

R = Series Resistance Vm
Rm = internal resistance of MC
Im =current through MC needed for energization V
V = Voltage to be measured
Vm= voltage across MC coil
Vr =voltage across series resistance
Figure 6.9 Voltmeter series resistance wiring

From Figure 6.9, 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑀 = IM R since the same current is flowing through the MC and the
R

Dividing through by Vm = R M IM

V − VM IM R V − VM IM R
= ⟹ =
VM 𝑉𝑀 𝐼𝑀 𝑅 𝑀 𝐼𝑀 𝑅 𝑀

Therefore,

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa - 80 – R. A. Ofosu (2017)

 V − VM 𝑅 𝑉 𝑅
= ⟹ −1 =
VM 𝑅𝑀 𝑉𝑀 𝑅𝑀

V R
= +1
VM RM

Note also that the ammeter is wired in series with the load in a circuit, while the voltmeter is wired
in parallel. We have always treated ammeters and voltmeters as perfect.
 A perfect voltmeter has an infinite resistance so takes no current.
 ·A perfect ammeter has zero resistance. Therefore, there is no voltage drop across it.
However, in practice there are no perfect ammeters and voltmeters with the above ideal properties.

Example Question

A moving coil ammeter has a fixed shunt of 0.02Ω with coil circuit resistance of 1kΩ that needs a
potential of 0.5V across it for full scale deflection.
I. What total current does this correspond to?
II. Calculate the value of shunt resistance to give a full scale deflection when total current is 10A
and 75A

Solution:

i. Total current = 𝐼,
0.5
𝐼𝑀 = 1000 = 0.0005𝐴 𝐼𝑆 = 0.5 / 0.02 = 25A
𝐼 = 25 + 0.0005 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓𝑨

ii. When total current is 10A, IS = 10 − 0.0005 = 9.9995A

IM ×R M 0.5
RS = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝜴
IS 9.9995

When total current is 75A, IS = 75 − 0.0005 = 74.9995A

0.5
R S = 74.9995 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟔7Ω

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa - 81 – R. A. Ofosu (2017)

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