Integrated Science

Notes 2024
Year 1

Chapter 5. Model & System –

5.1 Cell Structure & Function

NAME

CLASS 1 INDEX NO.

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Contents Page
5.1 Cell Structure and Function
5.1.1 The Cell Theory 7
5.1.2 Structure and Function of Cells 8
o Plant cell
o Animal cell
o Description of organelles
5.1.3 Specialised Cells 10
5.1.3.1 Cells in Unicellular vs Multicellular Organisms 10
5.1.3.2 Importance of Cell Specialisation 10
5.1.3.3 Examples of Specialised Cells 11
o Red Blood Cells
o Root Hair Cell
5.1.4 Levels of Cellular Organisation 12
o Tissue
o Organ
o Organ System
o Organism
5.1.6 Stem Cells (FYI) 15

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 Unifying Ideas
From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes
Cells are organised in specific ways to enable them to perform their function.
Living systems at all levels of organization demonstrate the complementary nature of structure and function.

Key Ideas
• Microscope drawings of cells are representations of what is observed.
• Models are used to represent cellular structures of plant and animal cells. Models serve as visualisation
aids to explain functions of cellular structures.
• Models of typical plant and animal cells are used to represent their various forms.
• Models of typical plant and animal cells help us to infer the type of cell based on comparison of models
with actual specimen.

At the end of this topic, you will be able to:

• define cell theory
• identify structures of typical plant and animal cells from diagrams, photomicrographs and as seen under the
light microscope using prepared slides and fresh material treated with an appropriate temporary staining
technique:
o chloroplasts o cytoplasm
o cell membrane o cell vacuoles
o cell wall o nucleus containing DNA
o mitochondrion

• list the functions of the organelles identified above.

• compare the structure of typical animal and plant cells.
• infer whether an organism is an animal or a plant, based on its cellular composition
• show an understanding that typical plant and animal cells are models used to represent their various forms
• recognise that in multicellular organisms (e.g., plants and animals), cells are the basic building blocks
• state, in simple terms, the relationship between cell function and cell structure for the following
specialised cells:
o absorption – root hair cells
o transport of oxygen – red blood cells
• differentiate between cell, tissue, organ and organ system.
• explain the significance of the division of labour, even at the cellular level

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Introduction
From the time of the ancient Romans, through the Middle Ages, and until the
late nineteenth century, it was generally accepted that some life forms arose
spontaneously from non-living matter.
This process was termed Spontaneous Generation and was inspired by every
day observations:
• maggots generated from rotting meat
• mice are generated from sweaty underwear and wheat
• eels, turtles are generated from sea sediments

People thought that it was a natural phenomenon, what we call a fact:

in rotten food we find maggots.

There was an explanation to that fact, what we call a hypothesis:

rotten food generates maggots.

Francesco Redi (Italian physician and poet) doubted that hypothesis,

because he had made an observation that added new information:
around rotten food there are always flies.

With the new information Francesco thought a new explanation

(a new hypothesis) to why there were maggots in rotten food.
He proposed that flies were doing something to the rotten food, and
whatever flies were doing, made maggots appear on the food.

He also proposed a way to see if this new explanation was better, a way to test it, an experiment.
“if we allow flies to contact the rotten food we will see maggots appear…”
“…if we stop them from contacting the food, maggots will not appear”

Design of his experiment:

He set up three equal

bottles with meat inside:

One bottle he would leave

open.

A second bottle he would

seal with a cork to stop the
flies from reaching the
meat.

A third bottle he would seal

with a gauze, to let air pass
but not flies. Because some
people believed that
whatever generated the
maggots was in the air.

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 He then predicted what would be
the expected results from his experiment.

“If the meat is generating maggots by itself, I

should see maggots in all the bottles” -he
thought.

“But, if the flies are responsible, then maggots

will appear only in the open bottle”.

He made the experiments and got the results

he predicted. Maggots appeared on the meat
the flies could get to and not on the ones they
could not reach.

From the experiments he concluded

“omne vivum ex vivo” – all life comes from life.

[Reference: https://sci-flies.com/spontaneous-generation/]

Cell theory refers to the idea that cells are the basic unit of structure and function in living things.

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Discovery of Cells – the First Microscope FYI
The first time the word cell was used to refer to these tiny units of life was in 1665 by a British
scientist named Robert Hooke. Hooke was one of the earliest scientists to study living things under
a microscope. The microscopes of his day were not very strong, but Hooke was still able to make an
important discovery. When he looked at a thin slice of cork under his microscope, he was surprised
to see what looked like a honeycomb. Hooke made the drawing to show what he saw. As you can
see, the cork was made up of many tiny units, which Hooke called cells.

Hooke’s early microscope

300X

Cork Cells. This was what Robert Hooke saw when he looked at a thin slice of cork under his microscope.

Soon after Robert Hooke discovered cells in cork, Anton van Leeuwenhoek in Holland made other
important discoveries using a microscope. Leeuwenhoek made his own microscope lenses, and
he was so good at it that his microscope was more powerful than other microscopes of his day.
In fact, Leeuwenhoek’s microscope was almost as strong as modern light microscopes.
Using his microscope, Leeuwenhoek discovered tiny animals such as rotifers. Leeuwenhoek also
discovered human blood cells. He even scraped plaque from his own teeth and observed it under
the microscope. What do you think Leeuwenhoek saw in the plaque? He saw tiny living things
with a single cell that he named animalcules (“tiny animals”).
The figure below shows a brief timeline of the advances in microscope technology and how they have influenced our understanding of
cells.

The advances in microscope technology have deepened our understanding of cells. It enabled more things to be observed or seen
within the cell, allowing for improved understanding of the cell.

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5.1.1 The Cell Theory
The Cell Theory is one of the fundamental theories of biology. For two centuries after the discovery of the
microscope by Robert Hooke and Anton van Leeuwenhoek, biologists found cells everywhere. Biologists in the
early part of the 19th century suggested that all living things were made of cells, but the role of cells as the
primary building block of life was not discovered until 1839 when two German scientists, Theodor Schwann, a
zoologist (studies animals), and Matthias Jakob Schleiden, a botanist (studies plants), suggested that cells were
the basic unit of structure and function of all life. Later, in 1858, the German doctor Rudolf Virchow observed
that cells divide to produce more cells. He proposed that all cells arise only from other cells.
The collective observations of all three scientists form the Cell Theory, which states that:
1. all organisms are made up of one or more cells
2. the cell is the most basic unit of life
3. all cells come only from pre-existing cells

1. Every living thing is made of one or more cells.

Living things are either unicellular (single cell) organisms or multicellular (many cells) organisms. Your body
is composed of about 1014 cells.

Amoeba (unicellular) Alga (multicellular

– made of 4 cells!)

Yeast cell (unicellular) Humans (multicellular)

2. A cell is the most basic unit of life.

Cells make up the smallest level of a living organism such as yourself

and other living things. All the life functions of an organism occur
within cells.

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3. All cells come only from pre-existing cells.

In the mid-1800s, it became clear that all life must arise from pre-
existing life — through reproduction. If cells are the fundamental
units of life, they too must have a reproductive mechanism that
maintains the amount of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) in each cell.

DNA contains the genetic instructions to make proteins.

Reproduction is a characteristic of all living systems; because no

individual organism lives forever, reproduction is essential to the
continuation of every species.

5.1.2 Structure and Function of Cells

• All organisms are composed of cells—the fundamental unit of life.

• Most organisms are single cells, unicellular organisms. Other organisms, including humans, are
multicellular.

Multicellar and unicellular green algae

• Cells have many functions needed to sustain life. They grow and divide, thereby producing more cells. This
requires that they take in nutrients, which they use to provide energy for the work that cells do and to make
the materials that a cell or an organism needs.

All organisms must be able to obtain and use resources, grow, reproduce, and maintain stable internal
conditions while living in a constantly changing external environment.

Scientist has formed a model of a generalized cell for both plants and animals.
• Cells have parts with specific functions: the nucleus, DNA, cytoplasm, cell membrane, and cell wall etc.
• Cells are very small so that materials such as nutrients and wastes can be exchanged efficiently between
the inside and outside of the cell.
• Each living cell consists of a living material called protoplasm, which is made up of:
nucleus and cytoplasm.
• Cytoplasm is jelly-like, containing mainly water.
• Both animal and plant cells contain sub-units called organelles.
o An organelle is a structure in the cytoplasm in the cell.
o Most organelles have a membrane surrounding it.
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 Fig 1 Drawing of a Generalised Animal Cell Fig 2 Drawing of Generalised Plant Cell

Read Science for Lower Secondary Textbook 1B, pages 38 -41

Organelle Description
• Thin outer layer that surrounds a cell
• Purpose: Regulates the movement of molecules in and out of the cell
Cell membrane
• Is partially permeable – only allows some substances to pass through it
• Protects the cell from its environment.
• Outer layer that surrounds the cell membrane in a plant cell. Made up of
cellulose
Cell wall (only in • Purpose: Provides additional protection and support to the cell; giving a fixed
plant cells) shape to the plant cell.
• Is fully permeable – allows all substances to pass through it
• The cell wall is stiff and rigid
• A jelly-like substance that fills the inside of cells
Cytoplasm • Purpose: It is where most cell activities occur
• Contains organelles and dissolved substances

• Where the cell's genetic information, or DNA, is stored

Nucleus • Purpose: Controls cell activities such as cell growth and repair
• This DNA is passed down from parents to offspring
• Small, oval shaped organelles
• Purpose: Breaks down food substances to release energy needed for cell
Mitochondrion
growth and reproduction.
(Plural:
• Every type of cell has a different number of mitochondria. There are more
Mitochondria)
mitochondria in cells that have to perform lots of work and therefore need
more energy, for example- your leg muscle cells, heart muscle cells etc.
• Contains green pigment called chlorophyll.
• Purpose: Convert sunlight (light energy), carbon dioxide, and water into sugars
Chloroplast (only in
(chemical energy). This process is called photosynthesis. The cell can then
plant cells)
transport the sugars to the mitochondria to release energy for the cell’s own
use.
• A space within the cell enclosed by a membrane
• Purpose: Store food substances and water in the cell and they also facilitate
Vacuole the removal of waste products.
• Plant cells usually have one large central vacuole. Animal cells have numerous
small vacuoles.

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5.1.3 Specialised Cells

Cell Specialisation = Cells can be of different shapes, sizes and characteristics to adapt to perform their
specific functions.

5.1.3.1 Cells in Unicellular vs Multicellular Organisms

Not every cell in an animal or plant is identical. Your skin cell is different in shape and structure from your red
blood cell. Both of them are also different from the generalised animal cells we just studied in the previous
section. They all look different because they have different functions. We call these cells with a specific function,
specialised cells. Their different structures help them carry out their functions.

Unicellular organisms are made out of only one cell, so that cell does everything. It is not specialised.

Multicellular organisms are made out of many cells. It is more efficient to have different groups of cells doing
different functions (division of labour). Hence multicellular organisms have specialised cells.

Difference between unicellular and multicellular organisms:

Unicellular Organisms Multicellular Organisms
Unicellular organisms, like bacteria, are able to Multicellular organisms need many different types of
perform all life functions within one single cell. cells to carry out the same life processes. Each of these
They can transport molecules, metabolize special types of cells has a different structure that helps
nutrients, and reproduce within this one cell. it perform a specific function. Humans have many
different types of cells with different jobs, such as blood
cells that carry oxygen and nerve cells that transmit
signals to all parts of the body.

5.1.3.2 Importance of Cell Specialisation

• Allows division of labour between different types of cells.
• The specialised cell becomes more efficient at its function, so the organism can perform multiple functions
at the same time.

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5.1.3.3 Examples of Specialised Cells

1 Red Blood Cells

membrane
haemoglobin

depression due to the

lack of nucleus – results
in a biconcave shape
Alga (multicellular)

biconcave

Function: Transport oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body.
Explanation on how the structural adaptation helps
Structural adaptation
the cell carry out its function
Allows it to bind to oxygen, enabling the transport of
contains haemoglobin (red pigment)
oxygen to the rest of the body
Able to store more haemoglobin, and therefore able
has no nucleus
to transport more oxygen
Increases surface area to volume ratio, increasing rate
circular and biconcave in shape
of oxygen diffusion
flexible and elastic membrane Able to squeeze through narrow capillaries

2 Root Hair Cells

Function: absorb water and mineral salts from soil into the root of a plant.
Explanation on how the structural adaptation helps the cell
Structural adaptation
carry out its function
Increases surface area to volume ratio, to absorb water and
long narrow extension
mineral salts at a higher rate
releases more energy for the root hair cell to absorb mineral
numerous mitochondria
salts

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The following shows some other types of specialised cells found in humans.

5.1.4 Levels of Cellular Organisation

• We have seen how multicellular organisms are made up of many different types of specialised cells with
different functions.
• These cells must all coordinate with each other to sustain life.
• Hence, cells are organised in a manner that allows them to work together for the organism to survive:
a. Cells that perform the same function work together and form a tissue
b. Tissues that perform different but related functions work together to form an organ
c. Various organs work together to form an organ system
d. Several different organ systems make up an organism
• This is called cellular organisation. It shows how cells (the basic unit of life) are organised in a multicellular
organism

Tissues
• Definition: A tissue is a group of cells with similar structures which work together to perform a specific
function.
• Example: a group of muscle cells form muscle tissue; red blood cells and white blood cells form blood, which
is a tissue.

Organ
• Definition: An organ consists of more than one type of tissue working together to perform a specific
function.
• Examples: heart, stomach, brain, lungs, kidneys, leaf and roots in plants

Organ system
• Organ system: An organ system consists of a group of organs working together for a common purpose.
• Examples: circulatory system. transport system, respiratory system, excretory system, reproductive system

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Organism
• Various systems together make up the entire body of an organism.

Examples of cellular organisation in humans

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 All systems make up the organism
and are interdependent.

Read Science for Secondary Textbook 1B, pages 42 - 46

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 FYI
Stem Cells

What are Stem Cells?

Stem cells are the non-specialised cells that grow, divide, and mature into all the other specialized cells in our
body.

There are a few different types of stem cells that get most of the attention.

Embryonic stem cells are found in embryos at a very early stage (less than a week old). These cells can either
create more stem cells, or turn into any other type of cell in the body. This makes them very valuable and
important for research and stem cell treatments.

Adult stem cells are found in much smaller numbers throughout the body’s tissues. Scientists originally believed
that adult stem cells could only replicate into the same types of cells (for example, if you found them in bone
marrow, they could only lead to blood cells), but that has since been proven wrong. Adult stem cells are less
versatile than embryonic stem cells, but they can still be used to regenerate and heal other types of cells.

The Wonders of Stem Cells

Although the process does seem rather strange, more fit for a sci-fi movie than a doctor’s office, stem cells have
opened up a new world for medical research and alternative treatments.

Imagine that you are suffering from heart disease, and things aren’t looking good for your future. Scientists can
take the stem cells they have cultivated, inject them into the diseased tissue of the heart, and allow the stem
cells to naturally replicate and heal the damaged tissues. This can be far more effective than any other invasive
treatment, and far less risky.

Source: http://stemcells.nih.gov/info/basics/1.htm

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