Fundamentals of Mixed Signals

and Sensors

Op Amp

Prof. Adelino T. Racusa

An operational amplifier (op-amp) is an electronic unit that functions primarily as a
voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS). This means that the output voltage of the
op-amp is controlled by the difference between its input voltages.

Key Functions
Op-amps can perform various mathematical operations on input signals, making them
extremely versatile in analog circuits. Here are some key operations they can perform:

Summation: Combining multiple input signals into a single output.

Amplification: Increasing the amplitude of a signal.
Integration: Producing an output that is proportional to the integral of the input
signal.
Differentiation: Producing an output that is proportional to the rate of change of the
input signal.
Characteristics
Versatility: Op-amps can be configured in
numerous ways (inverting, non-inverting, summing,
differential, etc.) to achieve a wide range of
functions.
Cost-Effectiveness: They are generally inexpensive
components, making them accessible for various
applications.
Ease of Use: Op-amps are straightforward to
incorporate into circuit designs, often requiring
minimal external components.
Fun to Work With: Their ability to perform complex
functions allows for creativity in circuit design.
Applications
Because of their capabilities, op-amps are widely used in various
applications, including:

Signal Conditioning: Amplifying weak signals from sensors.

Filters: Creating active filters (low-pass, high-pass, band-pass) for signal
processing.
Analog Computation: Performing mathematical operations in analog
computers.
Feedback Systems: Used in control systems to maintain stability and
accuracy.
What’s inside?

• Resistors
• Transistors
• Capacitors
• Diodes
Operational amplifiers (op amps) can perform various mathematical operations.
1. Addition
Operation:
Op amps can sum multiple input signals. The output voltage is proportional to
the sum of the input voltages.
Application:
Audio Mixing: In a sound mixer, multiple audio signals from different
instruments or microphones are added together to create a final output.

2. Subtraction
Operation:
Op amps can also subtract one input signal from another. This results in an
output voltage that reflects the difference between the two inputs.
Application:
Differential Amplifiers: Used in sensor applications (e.g., strain gauges) to
measure small differences in voltage, eliminating common-mode noise.
3. Multiplication
Operation:
While op amps do not directly perform multiplication in their basic form, they
can be configured using additional components (like multipliers) to achieve
this.
Application:
Analog Multipliers: Used in signal processing applications, such as modulating
signals in communication systems.

4. Division
Operation:
Similar to multiplication, division is not a direct function of basic op amp
configurations but can be achieved through specific circuit designs.
Application:
Analog Division Circuits: Used in applications where the output needs to be
proportional to the ratio of two signals, such as in various measurement
systems.
A typical Operational Amplifier

Values of pins

1. The inverting input, pin 2.

2. The noninverting input, pin 3.
3. The output, pin 6.
4. The positive power supply V, pin 7.
5. The negative power supply V , pin 4.
Pin configuration and Circuit Symbol
Powered Op Amp
As an active element, the op
amp must be powered by a
voltage supply.

Although the power supplies

are often ignored in op amp
circuit diagrams for the sake
of simplicity, the power
supply currents must not be
overlooked.
Non-Ideal Op Amp
• The output section consists of
a voltage-controlled source in
series with the output
resistance Ro.

• The op amp senses the

difference between the two
inputs, multiplies it by the gain
A, and causes the resulting
voltage to appear at the
Equivalent Circuit of Non-Ideal Op Amp
output.
Typical Ranges of Op Amp Parameters
• A is called the open-loop voltage gain because it is the gain of
the op amp without any external feedback from output to
input.
 Feedback / Closed-loop gain
• when there is a feedback path from
output to input, the ratio of the
output voltage to the input voltage is
called the closed-loop gain.

• As a result of the negative feedback,

it can be shown that the closed-loop
gain is almost insensitive to the
open-loop gain A of the op amp.
For this reason, op amps are used in
circuits with feedback paths.
 Feedback / Closed-loop gain

What is Closed-Loop Gain?

Closed-Loop Gain:
• When you connect the output of an amplifier back to its
input, you're creating a feedback loop. The closed-loop
gain is simply how much the amplifier boosts the signal,
calculated by comparing the output to the input.
• For example, if you put in a small signal and get a much
larger signal out, the closed-loop gain tells you how much
bigger the output is.
Example
Audio amplifier is often used to drive speakers and enhance sound quality. The
amplifier typically employs a closed-loop configuration to control its gain.

How It Works

1.Input Signal: The audio signal from the source (like a DVD player or streaming device)
is fed into the amplifier.
2.Feedback Mechanism: The amplifier uses feedback to regulate its output. A portion of
the output signal is fed back to the inverting input terminal. This feedback loop allows
the amplifier to adjust its output based on the difference between the input signal and
the feedback signal.
3.Closed-Loop Gain: The gain of the amplifier in this closed-loop configuration is
determined by the ratio of resistors in the feedback network.
4.Output Signal: The amplified output signal is sent to the speakers, producing a loud
and clear sound that enhances the viewing experience.
 Feedback / Closed-loop gain

Feedback Path
• Feedback Path:
• A feedback path means some of the output (the amplified signal) is
sent back to the input. This helps the amplifier adjust itself based on
what it’s producing.
• Negative Feedback:
• Negative feedback is when the feedback actually reduces the input
signal. It’s like if you were trying to balance a scale: if one side is
heavier, you might take some weight off to balance it. This helps
keep things stable.
 Feedback / Closed-loop gain

Why is This Important?

• Insensitivity to Open-Loop Gain:
• The open-loop gain is how much the amplifier boosts a
signal without any feedback. It’s usually very high,
meaning it can make small signals much bigger.
• However, when you add feedback, the closed-loop gain
doesn’t depend much on this open-loop gain. This means
that even if the amplifier's raw power changes (like due
to temperature or aging), the output remains steady and
predictable.
 Feedback / Closed-loop gain

Why Use Op Amps with Feedback?

• Reliable Performance:
• Because of the feedback, op amps can be designed to give consistent
performance. You can set how much you want to boost the signal, and it will
do it reliably, no matter what happens to the open-loop gain.
• Cleaner Sound:
• Feedback also helps reduce noise and distortion, making the output sound
clearer and more accurate.
Limitation
• A practical limitation of the op amp is that
the magnitude of its output voltage
cannot exceed |VCC|. In other words, the
output voltage is dependent on and is
limited by the power supply voltage.

• Three modes:
1. Positive Saturation
2. Linear Saturation
3. Negative Saturation
Axes:
• The vertical axis (y-axis) represents the
output voltage (vo)
• The horizontal axis (x-axis) represents the
differential input voltage (vd)

Supply Voltages:
• +Vcc: Positive supply voltage
• -Vcc: Negative supply voltage
 Transfer Function:
The red line represents the relationship between input and output
voltages. It has three distinct regions:

a. Linear Region:
This is the central part of the curve where the output is
proportional to the input. It passes through the origin (0,0),
indicating that when the input is zero, the output is also zero.

b. Positive Saturation:
When the input voltage increases beyond a certain point, the
output voltage reaches its maximum value (+Vcc) and can't
increase further.

c. Negative Saturation:
Similarly, when the input voltage decreases below a certain
negative value, the output voltage reaches its minimum value (-
Vcc) and can't decrease further.
Saturation in operational amplifiers (op-amps) refers to the condition when
the output voltage reaches its maximum or minimum limit, determined by the
power supply voltages. This happens when the op-amp attempts to produce
an output voltage that exceeds the available supply voltage.
When the op-amp is in saturation, it cannot accurately amplify the input
signal, leading to distortion.
Breaking Down the Formula
Vo:
This is the output voltage of the amplifier.
Vs:
This is the input voltage you apply to the amplifier.
Negative Sign (-):
The negative sign indicates that the output signal is inverted compared to the input. So, if
you increase the input voltage, the output voltage decreases.
The Ratios:
Rf (Feedback Resistor) and Ri (Input Resistor) determine how much the input signal is
amplified or reduced.
If Rf is larger than Ri​, the output will be a larger negative value (more amplification).
If Rf is smaller than Ri​, the output will be a smaller negative value (less amplification).
 A 741 Op Amp has an open-loop voltage gain of 2 x 10^5 , input resistance of 2M ohm,
and output resistance of 50 ohm. The op amp is used in the circuit below. (fig a) Find the closed-
loop gain Vo/Vs. Determine current i when Vs = 2 V

Closed-loop gain (Vo/Vs):

For an inverting amplifier configuration like this, the closed-loop gain is given by:
Vo/Vs = -Rf/Ri

Where:
Rf = Feedback resistor = 20 kΩ
Ri = Input resistor = 10 kΩ
Vo/Vs = -(20 kΩ / 10 kΩ) = -2

The negative sign indicates that the output is inverted compared to the input.
Determine current i when Vs = 2 V:

To find the current i, we can use Ohm's law at the input:

i = Vs / Ri = 2 V / 10 kΩ = 0.2 mA = 200 µA
Ideal Op Amp
• To facilitate the understanding of op amp circuits, we will assume
ideal op amps. An op amp is ideal if it has the following
characteristics:

1. Infinite open-loop gain, A ≃ ∞

2. Infinite input resistance, Ri ≃ ∞
3. Zero output Resistance, Ro ≃ 0
Ideal Op Amp

• Although assuming an ideal op amp provides only an approximate

analysis, most modern amplifiers have such large gains and input
impedances that the approximate analysis is a good one. Unless
stated otherwise, we will assume from now on that every op amp is
ideal.
• END OF LESSON