SHAFY

Q. What is thermionic emission?

=> When a current is passed through the filament it becomes hot, and the electrons gain
enough energy to escape the filament. This process is known as thermionic emission.

Q. Lorentz force law

=> Lorentz force is defined as the combination of the magnetic and electric force on a point
charge due to electromagnetic fields.
F = q(E+v×B)

Q. Helmholtz coil
=> The Helmholtz Coils are formed by a pair of conducting circular coils with many turns,
each carrying a current. The coils are separated by a distance equal to the radius of the
circular loops.

Gas filled bulb => • Inert gas থাকে

(কাঁচ এর তৈরি ) •He gas থাকে

e- flow : cathode to anode

Q. কেন magnetic field produce করা হয়?

=> e- তৈরি হয়ে যাতে বাইরে ছড়িয়ে না পড়ে এজন্য magnetic field করা হয়।
Helmholtz coil highly 'uniform magnetic field' produce করে।

~ Helmholtz coil এর magnetic force & accelerating voltage এর Force ইলেকট্রনকে বাইরে না যেতে
দিয়ে circular path এ cathode থেকে anode এ নিয়ে যায়।

Q. কেন Light উৎপন্ন হয়?

=> e- এবং He এর মধ্যে strike হবে। e, He এর মধ্যে প্রবেশ করে He কে উত্তেজিত করবে। আবার, He শক্তি
নির্গত করে আবার আগের অবস্থায় ফিরে আসবে। এর ফলে বর্ণালী উৎপন্ন হবে যা light এর‌
‌মতো দেখতে পাবো।

Q. Diameter depends upon two things :-

1. Helmholtz coil এর magnetic field তৈরি করার জন্য বাইরে থেকে যে voltage দেওয়া হয়।
এই voltage যত বাড়বে diameter reduce হবে। voltage কম হলে diameter বাড়বে।
2. Accelerating voltage বাড়ালে diameter বাড়বে। voltage কমালে diameter কমবে।

~ Required Apparatus:-
(i) electron beam deflection tube
(ii) helmholtz coils
(iii) power supply

^°^ In the absence if electric field,

F = e(v×B)

The magnitude of the force, F =evBsinθ

If θ < 90°, the electron will move in a helical path.

θ = 90°, F =evB
Formula used:
e = an electron charge
m = mass of the electron
B = magnetic field
r = radius if the circular path
Va = accelerating voltage

e/m standard value = 1.75× 10¹¹ C/kg

B—

B∝i ➡️ i change হলে B change হবে

£ Helmholtz coils:-
✓ provides a highly uniform magnetic field which is parallel to the axis of coils.
✓ consists of two electromagnetics on the same axis.

# e/m tube:-
✓ is filled with He at a pressure of 10-² and contains an electron gun.

** The heater heats the cathode, which emits electrons. The electrons are accelerated by a
potential applied between cathode & anode.
{ heat দিলেই e- release হয় না, ইলেকট্রনকে গতিশীল করার জন্য বাইরে থেকে potential (negative energy)
apply করতে হবে। ফলে ইলেকট্রনের সাথে বিকর্ষণ হয়, এজন্য electron বাইরে চলে আসবে।}

***** The force is maximum and acts in a direction perpendicular to both the magnetic field &
the direction of motion of the electron. As a result, the electron moves in a circular path with
a constant speed v.

Or >
কোনো charge magnetic field এর‌মধ্যে দিয়ে গেলে সেখানে একটি Force অনুভব হয়। যেহেতু , Magnetic
field uniform circular shape, সেহেতু ইলেকট্রন এই path অনুসরণ করে।

** Graphical value is more accurate than calculated value. Because এখানে average নেওয়া হয়।

*** Gas এর উপর depend করে বর্ণালী/ colour.

সব gas বর্ণালী show করে না। Usually নিষ্ক্রিয় gas রাখা হয় (visible range)
H - 1 e- (বর্ণালী visible range)

An electron beam deflection tube, also known as a cathode ray tube (CRT), is a specialised
vacuum tube used to generate, control, and manipulate electron beams. It consists of
several key components:-

➢ Electron Gun: The electron gun is responsible for generating and accelerating the
electron beam. It typically consists of a cathode (a heated filament that emits
electrons), control electrodes, and an anode (a positively charged plate that
accelerates the electrons).
➢ Deflection Plates: These are a pair of charged plates positioned perpendicular to
the direction of the electron beam. They create an electric field that can deflect the
electron beam in the horizontal and vertical directions, allowing for the creation of
images on the screen.
➢ Fluorescent Screen: The fluorescent screen is a coated surface located at the end
of the CRT. When the accelerated electrons strike the screen, they cause it to emit
light, producing the visible image.

Applications : They were commonly used in older television sets and computer monitors as
display devices. Modern flat-panel display technologies like LCD and LED

➢ Oscilloscopes
➢ Radar Systems
➢ Medical Imaging
➢ Industrial Testing and Measurement

Operation : involves several fundamental principles of electron physics and electromagnetic

fields.

❖ Electron Generation: The process begins with the electron gun, where electrons are
generated. The cathode, a heated filament, emits electrons through a phenomenon
called thermionic emission. These emitted electrons are negatively charged.
❖ Electron Acceleration: The emitted electrons are accelerated by applying a high
positive voltage to the anode. The anode attracts the negatively charged electrons,
increasing their speed and energy.
❖ Focusing the Electron Beam: To ensure a concentrated and focused electron
beam, the electron gun employs focusing elements, such as focusing electrodes or
 magnetic fields. These elements shape and concentrate the electron beam into a
narrow, well-defined path.
❖ Deflection of the Electron Beam: Once the electron beam is focused, it encounters
a pair of perpendicular deflection plates, typically known as the horizontal deflection
plates and the vertical deflection plates. These plates are charged with an electric
potential that creates an electric field between them.

a)Horizontal Deflection: By applying a varying voltage to the horizontal deflection

plates, an electric field is created that can push the electrons in the horizontal direction. The
strength and polarity of the voltage applied determine the amount and direction of the
deflection.
b) Vertical Deflection: the vertical deflection plates generate an electric field that
deflects the electrons vertically, depending on the applied voltage.

By controlling the voltages applied to the horizontal and vertical deflection plates, the
electron beam can be precisely steered to different positions on the screen.

❖ Fluorescent Screen and Image Formation: At the end of the CRT, there is a
fluorescent screen coated with phosphor material. When the accelerated electron
beam strikes the fluorescent screen, it causes the phosphors to emit light. The
intensity of light emitted by the phosphors depends on the energy of the electrons,
creating a visible image on the screen.

By rapidly scanning the electron beam across the screen in a controlled manner, and varying
the intensity of the beam, it is possible to create complex images and patterns that form the
basis of the displayed content.
What do you mean by progressive waves or standing waves?
=> A progressive wave is a wave that travels through a medium, carrying energy from one
place to another. Examples: ocean waves, sound waves, and electromagnetic waves.
A standing wave is a wave that appears to be stationary, meaning that the individual
oscillations do not appear to be moving from one place to another. Standing waves are
formed by the superposition of two waves of equal frequency and amplitude travelling in
opposite directions. Examples: vibration of a guitar string or the resonance of a pipe organ.

Are longitudinal and Transverse waves are progressive waves?

=> Yes, both longitudinal and transverse waves can be considered as types of progressive
waves.
A longitudinal wave is a wave in which the oscillations are parallel to the direction of wave
propagation. Examples of longitudinal waves include sound waves and seismic P-waves.

A transverse wave is a wave in which the oscillations are perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation. Examples of transverse waves include electromagnetic waves such as
light, radio, and TV waves, as well as water waves.

How are Stationary waveforms?

=> Stationary waves are formed by the superposition of two waves of equal frequency,
amplitude, and wavelength travelling in opposite directions.

Define nodes and antinodes of vibration in a stationary wave.

Ans. A node is a point along a standing wave where the wave has minimum amplitude.
Antinodes are formed in open boundaries and particles at that point have maximum
amplitude.

What is the distance between any two nodes and antinodes in terms of wavelength? How
much is that?
=> The distance between any two adjacent nodes or antinodes in a stationary wave is equal
to half of the wavelength (λ/2) of the wave. This can be expressed mathematically as:
distance between adjacent nodes/antinodes = λ/2

What do you understand about resonance?

=> resonance refers to the phenomenon that occurs when a system is subjected to an
external force or disturbance that has a frequency that matches the natural frequency of the
system.

In transverse arrangement, the fork is so placed that the motion of the prong is at right
angles to the length of thread. While in longitudinal arrangement, the fork is so placed that
the motion of the prong is along the length of the thread.

Define frequency and state its unit.

Ans. The number of crests of a wave that move past a given point in a given unit of time.
The SI unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz).

What is the nature of the wave formed in Melde’s experiment?

Ans. Standing waves.
What is the significance of the ‘U’ shape of the tuning fork?
Ans. The reason is in the acoustic properties of the shape - a U-shaped fork produces a
much purer tone than other shaped resonators. Secondarily,when struck, the fundamental
frequency of vibration has the two sides of the fork move alternately towards and away from
each other.

What is a wave?
=> A wave is a disturbance in which energy is transferred from one location to another.
 SHAFY
Q. What do you mean by interference of light? Ans. Interference is defined as the
combination of two or more electromagnetic waves to form a resultant wave.

Q. What are interference fringes?

Ans. They are alternately bright and dark patches of light obtained in the region of
superposition of two wave trains of light.

Q.. Is there any loss of energy in interference phenomenon?

Ans. No, there is no loss of energy in interference phenomenon. Only redistribution of
energy takes place. The energy absent at dark places is actually present in bright regions.

Q. What is the physical significance of this phenomenon?

Ans. The phenomenon of interference of light has proved the validity of the wave theory
of light.

Q.What are the essential conditions for observing the interference phenomenon
in the laboratory?
Ans. (i) The two sources should be coherent.
(ii) The two sources must emit waves of the same wavelength and time period.
(iii) The sources should be monochromatic.
(iv) The amplitudes of the interfering waves should be equal or nearly equal.

Q. What is the construction of a sodium lamp?

Ans. It consists of a U-shaped glass tube with two electrodes of tungsten coated with
barium oxide. The tube is filled with neon gas at a pressure of 10 mm of mercury and
some sodium pieces. This tube is enclosed in a vacuum jacket to avoid heat losses.

Q. Why does the sodium lamp give out red light in the beginning?
Ans. First of all discharge passes through neon gas.

Q Why is the neon gas filled in it at all?

Ans. Initially, no discharge passes through sodium as its vapour pressure is low. First, the
discharge passes through neon. Now the temperature rises and sodium vaporises. Now
sodium gives its own characteristic yellow colour.

How are these rings formed?

Ans. When a plano-convex surface is placed on a glass plate, an air film of gradually
increasing thickness is formed between the two and monochromatic light is allowed to fall
normally on film and viewed in reflected light, alternate dark and bright rings are observed.
These are known as Newton’s ring.

Plano-convex lenses are positive focal length elements that have one spherical surface
and one flat surface

What do you mean by monochromatic light?

Monochromatic lights are single-wavelength light, where mono refers to single, and chroma
means colour. The white light is a monochromatic light.
Why do you use in extended source of light here?
Ans. To view the whole air film, an extended source is necessary

What may be the reason if the rings are not perfectly circular?
Ans. (i) The plate may not be optically flat.
(ii) The surface of the lens may not be the part of a perfect sphere and
(iii) The plate and the lens may not be perfectly clean.

What are the factors which govern the radius of a ring?

Ans. The radius depends upon
(i) wavelength of light used.
(ii) refractive index ‘’ of enclosed film.
(iii) radius of curvature R of convex lens.

What would be your observation in transmitted light?

Ans. Where we have bright fringe in the reflected light, we shall have a dark fringe in the
transmitted light. These two systems of fringes are complementary.

Why is the centre of the ring dark?

Ans. at the point of contact the two interfering rays are opposite in phase and produce zero
intensity.

Sometimes the centre is bright, why?

Ans. This happens when a dust particle comes between the two surfaces at the point of
Contact.

What will happen if the glass plate is silvered on its front surface?
Ans. The transmitted system of fringes will also be reflected and due to the superposition
of the reflected and transmitted systems the uniform illumination will result.

What will happen when the sodium lamp is replaced by a white light source?
Ans. A few coloured fringes are observed near the centre. The violet colour will come
first as we proceed away from the centre.

Will there be any change in rings if light is obliquely incident?

Ans. The diameter of the rings will increase.

Q.What are Newton’s Rings?

A.Alternate dark and bright rings formed due to presence of air film when plano convex lens
is placed on glass plate is called newton's rings.

Q.How are Newton’s rings formed?

A.They are formed as a result of interference between light waves reflected from the upper
and lower surfaces of the air film developed between the convex surface of plano convex
lens and plane glass plate.
Q.Why are they circular?
A.This is so because the air film formed is wedge shaped and loci of points of equal
thickness are circles concentric with point of contact.

What are the uses of Newton’s rings?

Ans. (i) To determine wavelength of light (monochromatic).
(ii) To determine refractive index of a liquid.
(iii) To measure the radius of spherical surface.

Q.what is the function of the 45° inclined glass plate?

A.It turns the light rays coming from an extended source to 90° and so the rays fall normally
on the plano convex lens.

Q.Why do rings get closer as their order increases?

A.The diameter of dark rings is proportional to the square root of natural numbers while
bright rings are proportional to the square root of odd natural numbers hence the don’t
increase at the same rate.
What is a spectrometer?
A: It is an instrument used for analyzing the spectrum of a source of light.

What is a prism?
Ans. A piece of transparent medium bounded by three rectangular and two triangular
surfaces.

Define deviation.
Ans. Total bending of a ray of light while crossing on an optical medium.

Define angle of deviation (D).

Ans. The angle between the incident ray and the emergent ray.

What is the relation between the angle of incidence and the angle of deviation?
Ans. When the angle of incidence starts increasing from a smaller value, at first the angle of
deviation decreases up to a certain limit (angle of minimum deviation) and then it increases.

How does the angle of deviation vary with the wave length?
Ans. Shorter the wavelength, greater will be the angle of deviation.

What is the relation between wavelength and energy?

Ans. Inverse proportion i.e. shorter the wavelength, greater is the energy of a colour.

What is the angle of the prism in this experiment?

Ans. 60 degree

How is the angle of prism related with the angle of deviation?

Ans. larger the angle of prism, larger is the angle of deviation.

Give some examples of total internal reflection.

Ans. (a) Mirage (b) Glittering of precious stones (c) Shiny appearance of the water surface of
swimming pools as seen from inside the water.

When light enters into the prism is there any change in the frequency of wavelength?
Ans. The wavelength decreases but the frequency does not change.

What is the unit of refractive index?

Ans. No units, because it is the ratio between two similar quantities.

Which of the colours have maximum and minimum angle of deviations?

Ans. The deviation is greater in the violet colour and smallest is red.

Why are the danger signals red?

Ans. Since the deviation in the red colour is minimum, therefore, they can be seen from the
maximum distance.

Define dispersion of light.

Ans. Separation of colours present in polychromatic light by a prism.
Give any example of dispersion.
Ans. Rainbow in the sky due to droplets of water.
What are totally reflecting prisms?
Ans. The prisms in which the angle of the prism is 90 degree, 45 degree and 45 degree.

What kind of glass is used for making prisms?

Ans. Crown glass or optical glass.

What is meant by critical angle?

Ans. When refraction takes place from a denser to a rare medium, that angle of incidence for
which the angle of refraction is 90 degree, is called the critical angle.

On what factors critical angle depends?

Ans. It depends upon the nature of material and the nature of the medium in which the
material is placed. It also changes with the colour of light, greater for red light and smaller for
violet light.

What is totally reflecting prism?

Ans. It is a glass prism having angles of 90 degree, 45 degree and 45 degrees. It deviates
the path of light through 90o or180o without any loss in intensity.

Why do precious stones like diamond glitter?

Ans. These precious stones have large refractive indices and small critical angles which
make the incoming light totally reflected a number of times without much loss in intensity and
hence make their faces look bright.

What do you mean by refractive index?

Ans. Refractive index of a medium determines the extent to which one medium is optically
denser than the other medium for a particular of a light used.

What is the absolute refractive index?

Ans. When light passes from vacuum into another medium than the ratio of the since of
angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is called absolute refractive index.

On what factors does the refractive index depend?

Ans. It depends:(a) Nature of medium (b) Wavelength of incident light.

Under what conditions total internal reflection occurs?

Ans. (a) The light must pass from a denser to rare medium.
(b) Angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than the critical angle for that
Medium.

Define total internal reflection?

Ans. When light strikes the surface of an optically rare medium to an angle of incidence
greater than the critical angle, light instead of emerging into the rare medium is reflected
back into the denser medium. This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.
 SHAFY
What is Polarimeter?
A.It is a device used to measure the angle of rotation of plane of polarization rotated by an
optically active substance.

Name one practical use of polarimeter.

A.It is used to measure percentage of sugar in a solution.

What is specific rotation?

A.Specific rotation of an optically active substance at a given temperature is the rotation in
degrees of the plane of polarisation of incident polarized beam produced by one decimeter
length of substance of unit concentration.

What is the unit of specific rotation?

A.degree/decimeter/gm/cc

What do you understand from the specific rotation of sugar solution?

Ans. The specific rotation is a measure of the rotation of the said plane of polarization of
incident light by a tube of material 1 decimeter long and of concentration 1 g/cc.

What are those factors on which specific rotation depends?

Ans.
● thickness of the substance (θ ∝ l)
● concentration of the solution [proportional to (c)]
● Temperature
● wavelength of light used [θ is Inversely proportional to the square (λ)]
● nature of the substance (proportional)

What are optically active substances?

A.Optically active substances rotate the plane of polarisation or plane of vibration of plane
polarised light when it passes through it.

NAME OF SOME OPTICALLY ACTIVE SUBSTANCES?

Ans. sugar crystals, sugar solution, turpentine, sodium chlorate, tarter acids in aqueous
solutions, solution of quinine sulphate, etc.

Cane sugar is 'sucrose' or 'fructose'?

Ans, Cane sugar is sucrose, fruit sugar is fructose.

What are different optically active substances?

A. Right handed or dextrorotatory & left handed or levorotatory.

Which substances are called dextro-rotatory?

Ans. Those substances which rotate the plane of polarization in the clockwise direction when
the observer faces the source of light.

Which substances are called Laevo-rotatory?

Ans. Those substances which rotate the plane of polarization in the anticlockwise direction
when the observer faces the source of light.
Define plane of polarisation
A.It is the plane passing through the direction of propagation of light.

Define plane polarised light.

A.Light is said to be plane polarised if it has vibrations in a single direction perpendicular to
direction of propagation.

Define plane of vibration.

A.It is the plane containing the direction of vibration and direction of propagation.

How does specific rotation depend on temperature?

A.In some substances it decreases with rise in temperature like turpentine while in quartz it
increases.

What is the function of analyzer and polariser?

A. Polariser change ordinary light to plane polarised light and analyzer is used to analyse
light emitted through the optically active substance

What is Bi-quartz device?

A.It consists of two semicircular discs of right handed and left handed quartz which are
cemented together to form a circular disc.

Are light waves of transverse nature?

Ans. Yes, polarization experiments support this belief.

Do you believe electromagnetic waves are light waves?

Ans. Yes, light waves are of electromagnetic wave nature, having the electric and magnetic
field components.

Which component plays the role of light?

Ans. Electric field component.

Can you observe polarization through sound waves?

Ans. No, they have longitudinal no transverse components.

What is the difference between polarized and ordinary light?

Ans. Polarized light has a transverse component (E vector) in a specific direction, while in
ordinary light it vibrates in all directions.

What are polaroids?

Ans. Polaroids are extremely thin layers of certain materials (e.g., herapathite, iodoquinol
sulphate) with the crystal axes parallel to one another. They can render ordinary light into
polarized light. The polaroids behave like a polarizer and analyzer.

What is Nicol prism?

Ans. Nicol prism is made of calcite crystal in such a way, when unpolarized ordinary light
enters through it, prism gives an intense plane-polarized light.
What are the uses of Nicol Prism?
Ans. It acts as a polarizer (through which plane-polarized light we obtain) and an analyzer (to
detect the plane-polarized light).

If two prisms are placed co-axially, can you see the polarized light from the second one?
Ans. Yes, we can see. First prism produces and the second one analyzes the polarized light.
If they are placed, co-axially polarized light will be seen through the analyzer.

The Nicol prisms are placed in the crossed position, will you be able to see the light?
Ans. No.

Why Na lamp is used in a polarimeter ?

Answer : Sodium (Na) Lamp is used in a polarimeter because it gives monochromatic light.
 SHAFY
What is a compound pendulum?
=> Compound pendulum is a rigid body of any shape free to turn about a horizontal axis.

The rate of change of velocity per unit of time is called acceleration. The acceleration caused
by the gravitational attraction of massive bodies, is called acceleration due to gravity.

Gravity acceleration is caused because of the massive body and mass of earth.

Define a simple pendulum.

Ans. An ideal simple pendulum is defined as ‘single isolated particle suspended by a
weightless, flexible and inextensible string with a frictionless support’.

Why is the word ‘SIMPLE’ used before the pendulum?

Ans. Because the pendulums used in the wall clocks are ‘COMPOUND PENDULUMS’, in
which a metallic rod is used in place of the thread.

Define ‘g’?
Ans. Acceleration due to gravity.

What is the difference between ‘g’ and ‘G’?

Ans. The value of G (gravitational constant) remains constant throughout the universe,
whereas the value of ‘g’ decreases with the increase in the height.

What is the value of ‘g’ at the C.G. of the earth?

Ans. Zero.

How does the value of ‘g’ change as we move from the surface towards the C.G. of the
earth?
Ans. As a rule it should decrease gradually but due to variable density of the earth, it
increases up to a small depth and then decreases.

Where the ‘g’ is greater, at equator or poles?

Ans. At the poles (where the earth is slightly compressed).

What is the value of ‘g’ at sea level?

Ans. g = 9.781 m/s2 at equator. g = 9.832 m/s2 at poles.

Why is the amplitude of the pendulum kept small (2cm or about 5 cm)?
Ans. If the amplitude is large the motion of the simple pendulum will not be simple harmonic.
If θ will not be small Sinθ ≠ θ and T ≠ 2 √L/g.

Define simple harmonic motion (S.H.M).

Ans. The motion of the vibrating body is S.H.M. when
(a) The magnitude of its acceleration is directly proportional to the displacement x from the
mean position.
(b) The direction of acceleration is always towards the mean position (that is opposite to x)
mathematically: a α – x
Define a vibratory system?
Ans. Back and forth or to and from motion between two fixed positions.

Amplitude: the maximum displacement from the mean (equilibrium) position.

Oscillation: the motion from one extreme position to the other and then back to the original
one.
Frequency: number of vibrations per second.
Time period: time taken for one vibration.

What is the relation between frequency and time period?

Ans. f = (1 / T) or T = (1/F)

What are the units of frequency?

Ans. Vibrations / sec, cycles / sec (c.p.s.) or Hertz.

What is the frequency of a second pendulum?

Ans. 0.5 Hz or (1 / 2) Hz, because f = ( 1 / T ) = (1 / 2) ( T = 2 s for a second’s pendulum)

Prove that g = 4 π2 (L / T2)

Ans. For a simple pendulum time period is given by:
T = 2 π √L/g
T2 = 4 π2 L/g
i.e. g = 4 π2 L/T2
Where L = length of the simple pendulum.

Time period will increase or decrease if we use a heavier bob.

Ans. There will be no change in the time period. EXPLANATION: The relation T = 2 √L/g
shows that there is no effect of mass on the time period.

What is restoring force?

Ans. The force which tends to bring a vibrating body towards the mean position.

What is restoring force (net force) acting on the bob?

Ans. If the air friction is neglected, restoring force on the bob = mg Sin θ.

What is net force on the bob, at equilibrium (mean) position?

Ans. Zero, since at mean position the weight of the bob is perfectly balanced by the tension
(T) in the string.

Define equilibrium.
Ans. A body is said to be in equilibrium when its linear and angular accelerations are zero or
when F = 0 & when a body is
(a) at rest or (b) moving with uniform linear velocity its linear acceleration is zero.
(c) not rotating at all or (d) rotating at a constant rate it is in equilibrium.

Can you replace the thread by a rubber band?

Ans. No, because it is not inextensible. By definition the string must be inextensible.
Why does the pendulum stop after some time?
Ans. Its energy is lost as heat.

How P.E. and K.E. of the pendulum interchange into each other during vibrations?
Ans. (a) In the form of P.E. at extreme positions.
(b) In the form of K.E. at mean position and
(c) In the form of P.E. and K.E. between mean and extreme positions.

From where the length of the pendulum is measured?

Ans. From the centre of gravity of the bob to the point of suspension.

What is a bar pendulum?

A.2 A bar pendulum is a long iron rod, which is used in the experiment of which one of the
edges is fixed to move to and fro and friction less.

What is the effective length?

=> Effective length is the distance between the point of suspension & point of oscillation.
The centre of suspension is the point about which the pendulum rotates, while the centre
of oscillation is the point at which the pendulum behaves as a simple pendulum with the
same period of oscillation.

The conditions that must be met to produce SHM is that the restoring force needs to be
proportional to the displacement.

What is gravity?
A. The force experienced by bodies situated on or near the surface of earth due to the
gravitational attraction of earth.
SHAFY 161

What is diffraction?
=> Diffraction is the interference or bending of waves around the corners of an obstacle or
through an aperture into the region of geometrical shadow of the obstacle.

The condition of diffraction:

1. the width of the obstacle must be less than or comparable with the wavelength of the
wave.
2. The source of light should be monochromatic.
3. The size of the slit is very large, comparable to the wavelength.

Diffractions are of two types, namely a) Fresnel’s diffraction and b) Fraunhofer diffraction.

In Fresnel diffraction source and screen are at finite distance from the source where
as in Fraunhofer diffraction source and screen are at infinite distance from the source.

What kind of diffraction occurs in this experiment? Why?

=> Fraunhofer diffraction. Even though source and object are at finite distance it cannot be
Fresnel diffraction since laser light can be focused to infinite distance

What is the required condition for diffraction?

=> Diffraction takes place if the size of the obstacle is comparable to the wavelength of
incident light.

What is diffraction grating?

=>It is an optically flat glass plate on which a large number of equidistant parallel lines are
ruled by a fine diamond pen.

Why diffraction takes place through grating? or What is the significance of grating?
=> Distance between two consecutive lines of grating is comparable to wavelength of light;
so that light is obstructed by the edges of the rulings and hence diffraction takes place.

Define grating constant and what is its significance?

=> The spacing between two consecutive lines is called grating constant. As the distance
between two consecutive lines is of the order of size of the obstacle and hence diffraction
takes place when light incident on the grating.

What is grating element?

=> It is the distance between the centres of any two successive ruled lines or transparent
stripes.

LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

Why is a laser more monochromatic than an ordinary source of light?

=> Laser is more monochromatic than sodium vapour lamp (monochromatic source of light)
as it is more intense, highly directional and coherent. This helps to get a clear diffraction
pattern.
SHAFY
What is the order of diffraction?
=> They are the repeated diffraction patterns obtained on either side of the central maxima.

What is the zeroth order?

=> The central maxima formed when light incident normally on grating (θ=0) is called zeroth
order spectrum.

What is first order and second order in diffraction grating?

=> A value of ±1 is termed first order diffraction and occurs closest to the grating normal and
is the highest in intensity. Similarly a value ±2 is known as second order diffraction and
occurs at a shallower angle and is weaker in intensity.

Name some laser sources?

=> Ruby laser, He- Ne laser, CO2 laser, Semiconductor laser etc.

What are the characteristics of a laser?

=> High intensity,directionality,highly coherent and monochromatic.

What happens to the fringe pattern if monochromatic light is replaced by a composite

source?
=> Coloured fringes are obtained with white fringe at the centre of the pattern.

Why does red color deviate the most in case of grating?

=> This is so because in case of grating sin θ=n λ/(e+d) i.e angle of diffraction is proportional
to the wavelength and the wavelength of red is maximum.

The process of splitting of white light into it’s constituent colours is called dispersion of
light.

Q.Describe essential parts of the spectrometer.

A. Collimator, prism table,telescope.

Q.Why do we need two vernier scales?

A. To remove the error in reading due to not coinciding the axis of prism table and
telescope.

Q.Name two types of spectra.

A. Emission spectra, Absorption spectra

A sodium-vapour lamp is a gas-discharge lamp that uses sodium in an excited state to

produce light at a characteristic wavelength near 589 nm. (dark yellow)

A spectrometer is typically used to measure wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation (light)

that has interacted with a sample.

A collimator is a device which narrows a beam of particles or waves.

SHAFY

Gas discharge tubes, also known as Geissler tubes, are widely used in the laboratory for
spectroscopic purposes.

Resolving Power: The resolving power of a grating is a measure of its ability to spatially
separate two wavelengths.
What are the corresponding points?
=> When two points tn the consecutive slit are separated by a
distance (a+b), the grating element, then these two points are
known as corresponding points.

The dispersive power of a grating is defined as the ratio of the difference in angle of
diffraction of any two neighbouring spectral lines to the diffraction in the wavelength between
the two spectral lines. It is expressed as dθ/dλ.
 SHAFY
What is a Galvanometer?
Ans: A galvanometer is a device that is used to detect feeble electric currents in the circuit.

Define the figure of merit of a galvanometer.

Ans:Amount of electric current required to produce one scale deflection in the galvanometer.
It has a unit ampere per division and it is represented by K.

What is the principle of moving coil galvanometer?

A. Current carrying coil placed in a magnetic field experiences torque.

Why is the method called the half deflection method?

Ans: It is called so because the deflection is made half by using a shunt resistance S.

What type of galvanometer is available in laboratories?

A. The laboratory galvanometer is a Weston Galvanometer. It has a pivoted coil.

Why does the scale of the galvanometer have zero in the middle?
Answer: A needle at zero in the middle can deflect on both sides.

Do we have positive and negative terminals in a Galvanometer?

Answer: No, a galvanometer has no positive and negative terminals. The pointer can deflect
on either side from zero in the middle.

Why are the divisions of a galvanometer scale equally spaced?

Answer: Deflection in pointer is proportional to the current passed. The number of divisions
in deflection will be proportional to the current passed. I ∝= ∅.

Define current sensitivity of a galvanometer.

Answer: The deflection produces per unit current through it.

What do you mean by the resistance of a galvanometer?

Answer: The resistance offered by the coil of galvanometer to the flow of current through it is
known as resistance (G) of the Galvanometer.

How do you determine the resistance of a galvanometer?

Answer: The resistance of a galvanometer is determined by half-deflection method.

Why is this method called half-deflection method?

Answer: It is because when we connect shunt, half of the current flows through
galvanometer and half through shunt.

What is the order of resistance of a voltmeter?

Answer: The voltmeter resistance is of the order of series high resistance (R is in ten
thousands, G is in hundreds).

What is shunt? State its S.l. unit.

Answer: A small resistance connected in parallel with a galvanometer is called shunt. Its S.l.
unit is ohm.
What is the nature of the magnetic field in moving coil galvanometer?
A. It is a radial magnetic field.

What is the importance of radial magnetic field in a moving coil galvanometer

A. Radial magnetic field in a makes the arm of the couple fixed hence the torque on the coil
is always same in all positions so that we get linear scale

What will be the approximate value of resistance of the galvanometer?

A. It is near the value of shunt.

Under what conditions, G = S?

Answer: G = S, only when series resistance R is very high.

Out of galvanometer voltmeter & ammeter which one has maximum & minimum resistance ?
A. Ammeter is having minimum and voltmeter maximum in fact ideal ammeter is having zero
and voltmeter is having infinite resistance.

What is the value of resistance for an ideal voltmeter and ammeter?

A: It is infinity for voltmeter and 0 for ammeter.

Define electric potential?

A: Amount of work done to move a unit charge from infinity to any point in the electric field of
given charge.

Why is the ammeter connected in series?

A. So that whole of the current passes through it. Ammeter has very low resistance.

Why ammeter has low resistance?

A. As we connect shunt so effective resistance of the circuit is minimum and maximum
current flows through it.

Why is a voltmeter connected in parallel in a circuit?

A: So that it draws very small current. Voltmeter posse’s very high resistance, minimum
current must pass through the voltmeter and maximum through the resistance.

What happens if ammeter is connected in parallel and voltmeter in series

A. The ammeter has very low resistance so maximum current passes through it not through
resistance. When we connect voltmeter in series then effective resistance becomes very
high and current will reduce to minimum so voltmeter will not measure actual potential
difference.

Define resistance. What are the factors on which it depends?

A: Obstruction possessed by the conductor in the flow of current is called resistance, it
depends on length, area, temperature, nature of material.

What is an electric fuse? Explain its function.

A: To prevent the circuit from excess current, we have an electric fuse which consists of high
resistance and low melting point. It will melt when high current flows through it.
Can we increase or decrease the range of the ammeter?
A: We can increase by the range by connecting suitable resistance in parallel. But We can
not decrease.

Can we increase or decrease the range of voltmeter?

A. Range can be increased by connecting suitable resistance in series with it. It can be
decreased by connecting suitable resistance in parallel with it.

Is Ohm’s law universal?

A: No, it is not accepted universally. There are many non ohmic devices also which does not
follow ohm’s law.
non Ohmic devices :-> Semi-conductor and electrolytes.

Is ohm’s law valid for high temperatures?

A: No, as with temperature, resistance changes. so, Ohm law is not valid.

What are super-conductors?

A: As temperature decrease , resistance of conductor decrease so for some of the alloy at
very low temperature it drops to zero and conductor becomes super-conductor.

Why does no current flow through the galvanometer?

A. It is because there is no potential difference.

What is the need of Kirchoff's law?

A: Ohm’s law is applicable only on small circuits so to solve complex circuits we need
kirchhoff’s law.

Galvanometer:> Red, Black connection

Commulator:> +,- connection
গ্যালভানোমিটারের কাঁটা আসলে একটি চু ম্বক। গ্যালভানোমিটারের ভিতরে ঠিক এই চু ম্বক কাঁটা বরাবর
একটি বিদ্যুত পরিবাহী তার থাকে। এবার যখন সেই তারের মধ্যে দিয়ে বিদ্যুত প্রবাহ হয়, তখন এই
পরিবাহীটি নিজেই একটি চু ম্বকের মত ব্যবহার করে। এই চু ম্বকটি চু ম্বক কাঁটাটিকে ধাক্কা মেরে সরিয়ে দেয়,
একটি চু ম্বক যেমন আরেকটি চু ম্বককে ধাক্কা দিয়ে সরিয়ে দিতে পারে। (সম মেরু বিকর্ষণ) এর ফলে
গ্যালভানোমিটারে বিক্ষেপ দেখা যায়।
 SHAFY
What is the Photoelectric effect?
=> The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon in which electrons are ejected from the surface
of a metal when light is incident on it. These ejected electrons are called photoelectrons.

Principle of Photoelectric Effect: The "law of conservation of energy" forms the basis for
the photoelectric effect.

In 1905 Albert Einstein was able to provide an explanation of the photoelectric effect

What are photons?

=> A photon is an elementary particle that is a quantum of the electromagnetic field,
including electromagnetic radiation such as light and radio waves, and the force carrier for
the electromagnetic force.

What are the properties of photons?

● A photon travels at a speed of light c in vacuum. (i.e. 3 x 10-8 m/s).
● It has zero rest mass. i.e. the photon can not exist at rest.
● Photons travel in a straight line.
● Photons are electrically neutral.
● Photons may show diffraction under some conditions.
● Photons are not deviated by magnetic and electric fields.
● Energy of a photon depends upon frequency of the photon; so the energy of the
photon does not change when photon travels from one medium to another.

common devices:- photoelectric cell or photodiode

A phototube consists of two electrodes in an evacuated glass tube. One electrode has a
large photosensitive surface and is called the cathode or emitter. The other electrode is in
the form of a wire and is the anode or the collector.

In normal operation the anode is held at a positive potential with respect to the cathode.
When the cathode is exposed to light, electrons are emitted from its photosensitive surface.
These electrons are attracted to the positive anode and form a current that can be measured
with an ammeter or galvanometer.

What are the characteristics Of Photoelectric Effect?

● The threshold frequency varies with material, it is different for different materials.
● The photoelectric current is directly proportional to the light intensity.
● The kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is directly proportional to the light
frequency.
● The stopping potential is directly proportional to the frequency and the process is
Instantaneous.
What factors affect the Photoelectric Effect ?
● The intensity of incident radiation.
● A potential difference between metal plate and collector.
● Frequency of incident radiation.

Discuss the laws of Photoelectric Effect?

● For a given substance, there is a minimum value of frequency of incident light
called threshold frequency below which no photoelectric emission is possible,
however, the intensity of incident light may be.
● The number of photoelectrons emitted per second (i.e. photoelectric current) is
directly proportional to the intensity of incident light provided the frequency is
above the threshold frequency.
● The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is directly proportional to the
frequency provided the frequency is above the threshold frequency.
● The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is independent of the
intensity of the incident light.
● The process of photoelectric emission is instantaneous. i.e. as soon as the photon
of suitable frequency falls on the substance, it emits photoelectrons.
● The photoelectric emission is one-to-one. i.e. for every photon of suitable frequency
one electron is emitted.

What are the conditions for Photoelectric Effect ?

Threshold Frequency:
● It is the minimum frequency of the incident light or radiation that will produce a
photoelectric effect i.e. ejection of photoelectrons from a metal surface is known
as threshold frequency for the metal.
● It is constant for a specific metal but may be different for different metals.
Threshold wavelength:
● During the emission of electrons, a metal surface corresponding to the greatest
wavelength to incident light is known threshold wavelength.
Work Function or Threshold Energy:
● The minimal energy of thermodynamic work that is needed to remove an electron
from a conductor to a point in the vacuum immediately outside the surface of the
conductor is known as work function/threshold energy.

hν = W + E
What is the dual Nature of radiation and matter ?
● Wave theory of electromagnetic radiations explained the phenomenon of
interference, diffraction and polarization.
● On the other hand, quantum theory of e.m. radiations successfully explained the
photoelectric effect, Compton effect, black body radiations, X- ray spectra, etc.Thus,
radiation has a dual nature. i.e. wave and particle nature.
● Louis de Broglie suggested that the particles like electrons, protons,
neutrons, etc have also dual nature. i.e. they also can have particle as
well as wave nature.
"In no experiment, matter exists both as a particle and as a wave simultaneously. It is either
one or the other aspect. i.e. The two aspects are complementary to each other."
What is De-Broglie wave ?
=> The waves associated with the moving material particles are known as De Broglie waves
or matter waves.

Applications of photoelectric effect ?

● Automatic fire alarm
● Automatic burglar alarm
● Reproduction of sound in cinema film
● To determine opacity of solids and liquids
● Automatic switching of street lights
● Light meters used in cinema industry to check the light
● used in photomultipliers to detect low levels of light.
● Used in video camera tubes in the early days of television.
● Night vision devices are based on this effect.
● Motion and Position Sensors
● Used to generate electricity in Solar Panels.
● X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy

What is LED?
A: Light Emitting Diode, a semiconductor light source.

What is knee voltage?

A: The forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts increasing rapidly, is
called the knee voltage or cut-in voltage.

What is turn-on Voltage? Describe its use in determining the energy of the radiation emitted
by the LED?
A: Minimum voltage required to emit the light radiation. Energy of emitted light if proportional
to the turn– on voltage.

How does Knee voltage vary with wavelength?

A: A wavelength of the emitted light is inversely proportional to the turn – on voltage.