Introduction

to
Psychological
Statistics

Prepared by:
Jhunar John M. Tauy, MAPsy, Rpsy, RPm
Learning Objectives
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
• define the two general categories of statistics,
descriptive and inferential, and describe how they
are used in a typical research study
• understand population, sample, parameter, and
statistic the relationships among them;
• describe discrete and continuous variables and
identify examples of each; and
• compare and contrast the four scales of
measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio)
and identify examples of each.
Why learn Statistics, other
than to fulfill a requirement?
(Aron et al., 2013)

1. Understanding statistics is crucial to

being able to read psychology
research articles.
2. Understanding statistics is crucial to
doing research yourself.
3. Understanding statistics develops
your analytic and critical thinking.
How to gain the most
from this course?
(Aron et al., 2013)
1. Keep your attention on the concepts.
2. Be sure you know each concept
before you go on to the next.
3. Keep up.
4. Study, especially intensely in the first
half of the course.
5. Help each other.
What is Psychology?
• scientific study of human behavior
and mental processes (Gross, 2015)
• Describe, Predict, Explain, and
Control
Statistics
◦ a branch of mathematics that deals with the
organization, summarization, analysis, and
interpretation of group of numbers (Aron et
al., 2013)
◦ a set of mathematical procedures for
organizing, summarizing, and interpreting
information (Gravetter et al., 2020)
Population
• the set of all the individuals of
interest in a particular study
(Gravetter et al., 2020)
Parameter
• a value—usually a numerical value—
that describes a population
(Gravetter et al., 2020)
Sample
• a set of individuals selected from a
population, usually intended to
represent the population in a
research study (Gravetter et al.,
2020)
Statistic
• a value—usually a numerical
value—that describes a sample
(Gravetter et al., 2020)
Relationship
between a
Sample
and a
Population
Variable
• a characteristic or condition that
changes or has different values
for different individuals (Gravetter
et al., 2020)
Values
• possible number or category that a score
can have (Aron et al., 2013)
• E.g., 1 – 5 on a Pain Assessment Scale,
Male or Female
Score
• or raw score, is a particular
person’s value on a variable
(Aron et al., 2013)
Data (plural)
• are measurements or observations
▪ Datum (singular) – a single measurement
or observation and is commonly called a
score or raw score (Gravetter et al.,
2013)
Dataset
• a collection of measurements or
observations (Gravetter et al., 2013)
Descriptive Statistics
• are statistical procedures used
to summarize, organize, and
simplify data (Gravetter et al.,
2020)
Inferential Statistics
• consists of techniques that allow us to study
samples and then make generalizations
about the populations from which they were
selected (Gravetter et al., 2023)
Sampling Error
• the naturally occurring
discrepancy, or error, that exists
between a sample statistic and
the corresponding population
parameter (Gravetter et al., 2020)
Learning Check
A researcher is interested in the effect of amount of sleep on
high school students’ exam scores. A group of 75 high school
boys agree to participate in the study. The boys are…
a. Population
b. Parameter
c. Sample
d. Statistic
Learning Check
A researcher is interested in the effect of amount of sleep on
high school students’ exam scores. A group of 75 high school
boys agree to participate in the study. The boys are…
a. Population
b. Parameter
c. Sample
d. Statistic
Learning Check
A psychology researcher is interested in determining the average score on a
self-esteem scale among college students aged 18-25 in a specific university.
The researcher collects data from a census of 500 students in the target
demographic and finds an average self-esteem score of 82.45. The
mentioned value is an example of:
a. Population
b. Parameter
c. Sample
d. Statistic
Learning Check
A psychology researcher is interested in determining the average score on a
self-esteem scale among college students aged 18-25 in a specific university.
The researcher collects data from a census of 500 students in the target
demographic and finds an average self-esteem score of 82.45. The
mentioned value is an example of:
a. Population
b. Parameter
c. Sample
d. Statistic
Variables and Measurement
Discrete Variable
• consists of separate, indivisible categories
(Gravetter et al., 2020)
• E.g., Number of Respondents, Frequency
of Psychological Assessments, Number of
Mental Health Support Group Members,
Number of Therapeutic Interventions
Completed
Continuous Variable
• there are an infinite number of possible
values that fall between any two observed
values (Gravetter et al., 2020)
• E.g., Cognitive Ability Score, Perceived
Stress Scores, Emotional Well-being Score
Dichotomous Variable
• one that takes on one of only two possible
values when observed or measured (Kaplan
& Saccuzzo, 2019)
• Artificial Dichotomous – derived from
scores (e.g., passed/failed)
• True Dichotomous – naturally occurring
(Male/Female, Yes/No, True/False,
Heads/Tails)
Learning Check
Identify if the given information is discrete, continuous,
or dichotomous.
1. Number of Counseling Sessions Attended
2. Number of Stress-Relief Techniques Practiced Daily
3. Self-Esteem Score Measured on a 0 to 100 Scale
4. Mental Health Diagnosis Status (Diagnosed/Not Diagnosed)
5. Minutes Spent on Mindfulness Meditation Per Day
Learning Check
Identify if the given information is discrete, continuous,
or dichotomous.
1. Number of Counseling Sessions Attended - Discrete
2. Number of Stress-Relief Techniques Practiced Daily - Discrete
3. Self-Esteem Score Measured on a 0 to 100 Scale – Continuous
4. Mental Health Diagnosis Status (Diagnosed/Not Diagnosed) – Dichotomous
5. Minutes Spent on Mindfulness Meditation Per Day – Continuous
Levels of
Measurement
• also called as scales of
measurement, is a classification
that describes the nature of
information within the values
assigned to variables (Gravetter
et al., 2020)
Nominal
• variable with values that are categories; also
known as categorical variables (Aron et al.,
2013)
• consists of a set of categories that have
different names (Gravetter et al., 2020)
• E.g., Sex, Nationality, Religion, Civil
Status, Type of Therapy, Preferred
Coping Mechanism
Ordinal
• numeric variable in which the values are ranks;
also known as rank-order variable (Aron et al.,
2013)
• consists of a set of categories that are organized
in an ordered sequence (Gravetter et al., 2020)
• E.g., Level of Stress Perceived (e.g., None,
Low, Moderate, High, Very High); Satisfaction
with Counseling Services (e.g., Very
Dissatisfied, Dissatisfied, Neutral, Satisfied,
Very Satisfied); Severity of Anxiety Symptoms
(e.g., Minimal, Mild, Moderate, Severe);
Interval
• variable that contains equal-interval between
numbers and contain no absolute zero point
(Aron et al., 2013)
• consists of ordered categories that are all
intervals of exactly the same size (Gravetter et al.,
2020)
• E.g., Temperature (Celsius and Fahrenheit),
IQ Score, Perceived Stress Scale Score, or
scores in various Psychological Tests/Scales
Ratio
• an interval scale with the additional feature of an
absolute zero point (Gravetter et al., 2020)
• E.g., Number of Therapy Sessions Attended,
Weight Gained in the Past 6 Months, Number
of Social Interaction, Number of Stressful
Events Experienced in a Week
Learning Check

Identify the level of measurement for each variable.

1. Frequency of Therapy Sessions (i.e., number of sessions attended in a
period)
2. Perceived Effectiveness of Therapeutic Intervention (i.e., measured using
a 10-item scale with 0–10 rating)
3. Therapeutic Intervention Sentiment (i.e., very positive, positive, neutral,
negative, very negative)
4. Client Satisfaction Rating (i.e., star rating system, 1 to 5 stars)
5. Type of Psychological Concern (i.e., anxiety, depression, trauma, etc.)
Learning Check

Identify the level of measurement for each variable.

1. Frequency of Therapy Sessions (i.e., number of sessions attended in a
period) - Ratio
2. Perceived Effectiveness of Therapeutic Intervention (i.e., measured using
a 10-item scale with 0–10 rating) - Interval
3. Therapeutic Intervention Sentiment (i.e., very positive, positive, neutral,
negative, very negative) - Ordinal
4. Client Satisfaction Rating (i.e., star rating system, 1 to 5 stars) - Ordinal
5. Type of Psychological Concern (i.e., anxiety, depression, trauma, etc.) -
Nominal
Reminder:
“Most psychological variables (e.g.
intelligence, aptitude, personality), strictly
speaking, are ordinal. However, most
psychologists treat those data as interval
because they are much flexible for statistical
manipulation/analysis.” (Cohen & Swerdlik,
2018
References
Aron, A., Coups, E., & Aron, E. (2013). Statistics for
psychology (6th ed.). Pearson Education Inc.
Cohen, R. & Swerdlik, M. (2018). Psychological testing and
assessment: An introduction to tests and
measurement (9th ed.). McGraw Hill Education
Gravetter, F.J., Wallnau, L. B., & Forzano, L, B. (2020).
Essentials of statistics for the behavioral science (9th
ed.). Cengage Learning
Gross, R. (2015). Psychology: The science of human
behavior (7th ed.). Hodder Education
Kaplan, R. & Saccuzzo, D. (2019). Psychological testing:
Principles, application, and issues (9th ed.).
Cengage Learning