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SS 2 FIRST TERM NOTE

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

DIGESTION IN INSECTS
The alimentary canals of insects consist of three major parts:
 The fore gut [mouth, pharynx, oesophagus crop, gizzard]
 Mid gut [stomach]
 Hind gut [intestine, ileum, colon, rectum, anus]

Insects such as grasshoppers feed on leaves. They use their mouth parts to cut and crush the leaves. Saliva is
introduced or poured into the leaves from the salivary gland. The saliva helps to soften the leaves and the
chewed food is in the crop, and broken up further into small pieces.
The foregut and the midgut secrete enzymes rich juice into the midgut where digestion and absorption occurs.

The hindgut is for water absorption. Only solid faeces pellets are egested from the anus after the food waste
has been collected through the malpighian tubules joining the mid and hindgut.

DIGESTION IN BIRD
Birds do not have teeth but beak which they use for feeding. In many birds, the feet also show adaptation for
feeding.
The alimentary canal of the bird consists of the following:
1. Oesophagus 2. Crop 3.Proventriculus
4. Gizzard 5. Small intestine 6. Caeca 7. Cloaca

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MECHANISM OF DIGESTION IN BIRDS

The bird swallows their food whole and store in the crop. In the crop, it is softened by secretion from the wall of
the crop. The food passed through the proventriculus to the gizzard where gastric juice churns the food and
breaks it up into smaller units. It is passed to the gizzard [a strong muscular bag]. Small stone in the gizzard also
assists in the grinding of the food.The digestion is completed in the small intestine by the action of intestinal and
pancreatic juice. The absorption also occurs here and the solid waste passed through the anus into the cloaca.

DIGESTION OF FOOD IN HUMAN

Food passes through the following process in man

Ingestion →Digestion →Absorption →Assimilation →Egestion

Food is ingested in the mouth and the teeth grind the food into smaller units, chemical digestion also begins.
Saliva contains an enzyme, ptyalin that acts on cooked starch to convert it to complex sugar (maltose). Saliva is
slightly alkaline substance secreted by the salivary gland.
The tongue mixes the food with saliva and rolls it into a ball (bolus) which is then swallowed. The food passes
down into the stomach through the gullet (oesophagus). During swallowing of food, the entrance to the trachea
must be closed to prevent choking. The wall of the esophagus contracts and relaxes to push each bolus of food
downward, this process is called peristalsis.

DIAGRAM ONE PAGE

DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH

The muscular wall of the stomach contracts and relaxes forcefully to churn the food into semi – liquid state called
chyme. The gastric juice mixes with the food. Gastric juice contains two important enzymes; pepsin and rennin.
Pepsin digests protein into peptones and polypeptides.. Rennin causes the coagulation of milk into thick curd.
Gastric juice also secrete hydrochloric acid which assists to kill the bacteria present in food.. Food stays in the
stomach for about 3-4 hours.

DIGESTION IN THE SMALL INTESTINE

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Small intestine is made up three parts; the first part of the small intestine is duodenum, second part is called
jejunum while the last part is called ileum. The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains digestive
enzymes. The liver produces bile, which is stored in the gall bladder. Bile is a greenish liquid that emulsifies fat..
The pancreatic juice contains three important enzymes:
 amylopsin converts starch to maltose
 Trypsin converts protein to polypeptides
 Lipase converts Lipids to fatty acids and glycerol

The last part of the small intestine is the ileum. Here the wall of the intestine secretes five important enzymes:
 maltase – converts maltose to glucose + glucose
 Sucrase – converts sucrose to glucose + fructose
 Lactase – converts lactose to glucose + galactose
 Erepsin – converts polypeptides to amino acids
 Lipase – converts fats and oil to fatty acids and glycerol
In man the digestion of food ends in the small intestine. Hence the end product of protein is amino acids, fats and
oil is fatty acid and glycerol while that of starch are glucose, fructose and galactose.

ABSORPTION AND ASSIMILATION

Glucose, amino acids, fatty or carboxylic acids and glycerol as well as vitamins and mineral salt are absorbed in
finger-like projections called villi (Villus) in the small intestine. For efficient absorption, a large surface area is
needed.

Structure of a villus

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1. FILTER FEEDING: This concerns mainly aquatic animals which feed on very tiny organisms in water.
They use their sieve like structure to collect their food or prey.Examples of filter feeders are mosquito
larva, ducks, prawns etc.
2. FLUID FEEDING:This concerns animals which feed on fluid materials and so they are called fluid
feeders. They include classes of animals namely:
(a) Sucker e.g. bugs, mosquitoes, butterfly, housefly, tsetse fly etc.
(b) Wallowers:These are organisms which wallow in their food e.g. tapeworm. Tapeworm lives within
the digested food of its host and absorbs the food directly into the body. Therefore, it does not have
alimentary canal. The absorption of its food is through its entire body surface.

MODIFICATION AND MECHANISMS OF FEEDING IN ANIMALS

This can be studied in five mechanisms:
1. absorption mechanisms e.g. tapeworm
2. Biting and chewing mechanisms e.g. grasshopper
3. Sucking mechanisms e.g. mosquitoes
4. Grinding mechanisms e.g. Man
5. Trapping and absorbing mechanisms e.g. bladder worm.

3. FILTER FEEDING: This concerns mainly aquatic animals which feed on very tiny
organisms in water. They use their sieve like structure to collect their food or prey.Examples
of filter feeders are mosquito larva, ducks, prawns etc.
4. FLUID FEEDING:This concerns animals which feed on fluid materials and so they are
called fluid feeders. They include classes of animals namely:
(a) Sucker e.g. bugs, mosquitoes, butterfly, housefly, tsetse fly etc.
(b) Wallowers:These are organisms which wallow in their food e.g. tapeworm. Tapeworm
lives within the digested food of its host and absorbs the food directly into the body.
Therefore, it does not have alimentary canal. The absorption of its food is through its entire
body surface.
3. SAPROPHYTIC FEEDING :Saprophytes are non green plants . They can not
manufacture their food by themselves.. They feed on dead and decaying organic matter from which
they derive their food. E.g Rhizopus , mushroom and mucor.
4 PARASITIC FEEDING: Parasitic feeding is found in both plants and animals. Animal
parasities are tapeworm, tick. Plant parasite are cassytha, dodder and mistotle

MODIFICATION AND MECHANISMS OF FEEDING IN ANIMALS

There are five mechanisms of feeding ;

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1. absorption mechanisms e.g. tapeworm

2. Biting and chewing mechanisms e.g. grasshopper
3. Sucking mechanisms e.g. mosquitoes
4. Grinding mechanisms e.g. Man
5. Trapping and absorbing mechanisms e.g. bladder worm.

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DIGESTION IN INSECTS
The alimentary canals of insects consist of three major parts:
 The fore gut [mouth, pharynx, oesophagus crop, gizzard]
 Mid gut [stomach]
 Hind gut [intestine, ileum, colon, rectum, anus]
 Insects such as grasshoppers feed on leaves. They use their mouth parts to cut and crush the
leaves. Saliva is poured into the leaves from the salivary gland. The saliva helps to soften the
leaves and the food is chewed and broken up further into small pieces.
 The foregut and the midgut secrete enzymes rich juice into the midgut where digestion and
absorption occurs.
 The hindgut is for water absorption. Only solid faeces pellets are egested from the anus after
the food waste has been collected through the malpighian tubules joining the mid and
hindgut.

TRANSPORT SYSTEM

Transport system
Transport system is the movement of metabolic materials from various parts of an organism where they are
produced and transported to other parts where such are used, stored or removed from the body.

Need For Transport System

All living organisms (plants and animals) need transport system for the following reasons
 To obtain essential materials such as oxygen, water and nutrients.
 To remove metabolic waste such as carbon dioxide, urea, water, etc.
 For moving water and mineral salts from the soil through the roots to the various parts of plant.
 For transfer of hormones from production site to site of action.
 For transfer of glucose to various parts of plants.

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RELATING TRANSPORT IN LOWER ORGANISMS TO THAT IN HIGHER ORGANISM

Transport in Lower Organisms Transport in Higher Organisms
1 Substances are moved over small distance Substances are moved over greater distance
2 Transport is by simple diffusion Transport involves diffusion and other means.
3 Diffusion is enough because the surface area Effusion transport system is necessary because
to volume ratio (A/V) is great surface area to volume ratio (A/V) is too small
4 Cells are not isolated Isolated group of cells need to be connected
5 Transport materials are small in quantity. Transport materials are large in quantity.

Transport Materials In Animals

Materials Transported Source Destination
1 Oxygen Lungs All living cells of the body
2 Carbon dioxide Body cells Lungs
3 Urea Body cells Liver
4 Excess salts Body cells Skin and kidney
5 Water Body cell Skin, lungs, liver, kidney etc
6 Amino acid Small intestine Body cells
7 Vitamins Small intestine Body cells
8 Sugar Body cells Body cells
9 Fatty acid and glycerol Small intestine Body cells
10 Mineral salt Small intestine Body cells
11 Hormones Endocrine glands Target organs of tissue
12 Antibodies White blood cells All body parts
Transport Materials in Plants
Materials Transported Source Destination
Manufactured food Leaves All body cells
Excretory Products All living cells Site of excretion e.g. stomata
(C02 and water)
Water (absorbed) Soil Leaves and other parts of the leaves

Other materials transported in plants are:

1. Oxygen 2.nitrogen waste products (latex) 3. amino acids 4. glucose 5. lipids 6. auxins (hormones) 7.mineral
salts

Transport Media
Liquid or fluid is usually the medium of transportation of minerals. Generally speaking, the four major media of
transportation in organisms are:
Cytoplasm: Used in lower unicellular organisms such as amoeba, chlamydomonas, euglena, etc.
Cell sap/ Latex: A concentrated solution in the cell vacuole of plants.
Blood: Used in most animals, especially vertebrates for conveyance of essential materials like oxygen,
digested food, etc.
Lymph: Found in higher animals. Lymph is a fluid with extra lymphocytes (W.B.C with no red blood cells
present).

TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN MAMMALS (MAN)

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The media of transportation in man include the blood and lymph.

COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF BLOOD

The blood is a tissue in a fluid form. It is about 5-6 liters in the body. Blood is made of two major components.
The blood cells (corpuscles); which are solid. The plasma which; is liquid.

BLOOD CELLS

There are three types

 Red blood cells (erythrocyte)
 White blood cells (leucocytes)
 Blood platelets (thrombocytes)
Blood Cells Description Functions
RBC 1. Small, round and disc-like in shape Helps to transport oxygen from lungs to
2. Has no nucleus. the body cells through its pigment
3. One cubic liter of blood has about 5.5million of (haemoglobin). Haemoglobin combines
red blood cells. readily with oxygen to form
4. Has a life span about 120 days oxyhaemoglobin in the lungs
WBC 1. Irregular (i.e. amoeboid in shaped) Help to defend the body against diseases
2. Relatively large and colourless (larger than by engulfing and intruding pathogens
RBC but fewer) (bacteria and virus) or by secreting
3. Contain nucleus- about 5,000-10,000 per pin antibodies.
head of blood (cubic milliliter of blood)
RBC- Red Blood Cell WBC- White Blood Cell

White blood cells areof two types;

Phagocytes- found in lymphatic system which ingest bacteria, viruses and dead cells to prevent diseases in a
process called phagocytosis.
Lymphocytes- made in lymph glands and they produce antibodies i.e. chemicals which stick to the surface of
germs to kill them.

Blood cell Description Function

Platelets 1. Tiny, Irregular all fragments Aids in blood clotting
2. Have no nucleus
3. Fewer in number and smaller in size
than RBC.
4. About 250,000 – 400,000 per cubic
ml of blood.
5. Produced in red bone marrow.
Blood plasma 1. Liquid component of blood Transport the dissolved substances
(transport liquid) 2. A pale yellow liquid made up mainly and the blood cells.
of water (about 90% water) together
with other dissolved substances like
plasma proteins antibodies,
hormones, enzymes, gases, digested
food, salts and other waste products

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Lymph 1. A colourless liquid in lymphatic  Body defense by producing

system that has similar composition white blood cells. Disease
to the tissue fluid but contains extra causing micro organisms found
lymphocytes. in the lymph are pushed out in
2. Has no red cell the lymph node and engulfed by
phagocytes.
 Absorption of fatty acid and
glycerol

FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD
1. Oxygen is transported through hemoglobin.
2. Temperature regulation by evenly distributing heat produced in the liver and the muscles throughout the
body.
3. Transportation of digested food (glucose, amino acid, fatty acids and glycerol) from the villi to all body cells
and tissues for use or storage.
4. Transportation of excretory products (C02, water, urea) from site of production to excretory organs like skin,
lungs, liver and kidney for removal
5. Transfer of hormones from production site to target organs.
6. Transportation of water (90% of the blood content) to various cells for metabolic activities.
7. Defense against infection through the action of WBC
8. Blood clotting initiated by the platelets when injury is sustained
9. Production of anti bodies by the WBC for destroying pathogens and their harmful product.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

PROTECTIVE FUNCTION OF BLOOD

The blood performs two basic functions in mammals and

These are:
 Transportation of various substances
 Protection of body against diseases

The blood defends the body in major ways

1. Antibody production (Clumping): The lymphocytes produce antibodies which are any of a large
variety of proteins normally present in the body or produced in response to an antigen which it
neutralizes, thus producing an immune response.
2. Neutralization: The whole blood will also produce antitoxins which neutralize the toxins produced
by the pathogens.
3. Phagocyte Action (Engulfing): Phagocytes engulf the pathogens and digest them.

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4. Clotting: The blood platelets clot the blood to prevent germs from entering the body and also
prevent loss of blood

MECHANISM OF CLOTTING
When a blood vessel is damaged and exposed to air, platelets in the blood stream release an enzyme
thrombokinase. The thrombokinase then converts prothrombin (inactive blood protein) to an enzyme called
thrombin. The thrombin then converts the soluble fibrinogen in the plasma to insoluble fibrin in the presence of
calcium ions. The thread like fibrin then forms a network or mesh on the surface of the wound and blood cells are
trapped within the network or mesh to form a clot. The clot dries to scab over the wound.

TYPES OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The circulatory system in animals can be:
 Closed or open
 Single or double
Closed Circulatory System: This involves the blood vessel called arteries ,capillaries and veins. Blood is
therefore limited to the vessels and the heart it does not have direct contact with the body cells .This system is
observed in annelids and vertebrates.

Opened Circulatory System: The blood vessels lead out of the heart but end in blood spaces called haemocoels
within the body cavity. The blood has direct contact with the cells after which it is returned to the heart. Arthropods
and some mollusks have open circulatory system

Single Circulatory System: The blood passes through the heart once in a complete movement round the body
e.g. fishes because of their two chambered heart have single circulatory system.

Double Circulatory System: The blood passes twice in the heart every time it makes one complete movement
round the body. Each time it passes through a separate path way e.g. mammals. Double circulation gives rise to
pulmonary and systematic circulation.

BLOOD VESSELS
o Arteries: These are vessels that carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the body’s organs except
for pulmonary artery that carries deoxygenated blood.
o Arteriole: A branch of an artery that gives rise to capillaries.
o Veins: These are large vessels that carry deoxygenated blood toward the heart except for pulmonary
vein which carries oxygenated blood.
o Venule: Small vessel that carries blood from the capillaries to the veins.
o Capillaries: They link the arteries with the veins around the tissues and organs. They are tiny and thin
walled to facilitate easy exchange of gasses nutrients and waste products between the cells and the
blood

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ARTERY AND VEIN

ARTERY VEIN
1 It has a thick (muscular walls) It has thin wall
2 Elastic wall Non-elastic wall
3 Carries blood away from the heart Returns blood to the heart

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4 Carries oxygenated blood except pulmonary Carries deoxygenated blood except

artery pulmonary vein
5 Blood is pink or bright colour Blood is dark red in colour
6 Situated deep in muscles Superficially situated

7 Has small lumen Large lumen

8 Pressure is high Pressure is low
9 Pulse is readily detectable Pulse is not easily detected
10 It has no valve except semi lunar valves It has valves

THE HEART
The heart is a muscular and powerful organ responsible for pumping blood in the system of mammals. It is located
within the chest cavity and protected in the ribs and sternum..
The special muscles making up the heart is known as cardiac muscles and the heart is enclosed in a two layered
tough protective membranes called the pericardium.

STRUCTURE OF THE HEART

DIAGRAM ONE PAGE

The human heart is divided into four chambers, the right and left auricles, the right and left ventricles. The walls
of the ventricles are often thicker than those of the auricles. The left ventricles especially have a thick wall because
it pumps blood out to all other parts of the body and this requires more pressure.
The heart is divided into two halves by a central barrier called septum. Bicuspid valves separate the left auricle
and the left ventricle. This ensures that blood flows only in one direction i.e. from the auricles to the ventricles.
Similarly the tricuspid valve exists between the right auricle and the right ventricle. It serves the same function as
the former.

HEAT BEAT
The heart beat consist of alternate contractions and relaxation of the right and left auricles as well
as the right and left ventricle. Human heart beat is about 72 beat per minutes this can be divided
into two phases, namely
o Diastole: This is the first stage of the heart beat; the two auricles contract forcing blood into the
ventricles and oxygenated blood into the left ventricle. As the ventricles gets filled up, the cuspid
valves are pushed up and closed.
o Systole: This is the second phase of the heart beat. The ventricles contract sending blood out to the
two tracks of the main arteries and out of the heart. Deoxygenated blood from the right ventricles
passes into the pulmonary artery while oxygenated blood is sent into the aorta. The sequence
repeats itself.

BLOOD VESSELS AND ORGANS SUPPLIED.

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Blood Vessel (Artery) Organ Supplied

o Carotid artery ……. Head
o Pulmonary artery …….. Lungs
o Hepatic artery …….. Liver
o Gastric artery …….. Stomach
o Mesenteric artery …….. Intestine
o Renal artery ……... kidney
o Gonadal artery ……... Gonads
o Intercostals artery ……... Wall of thorax
Corresponding veins accompany the arteries stated above

TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN HIGHER PLANTS

In simple unicellular plant materials are exchanged by simple diffusion process between the plants and its aquatic
environment. Hence there is no need for elaborate transport system. However, in higher plant such as ferns and
the flowering plants. There is a need for elaborate transport system for transporting water and mineral salts from
the soil to the various parts of the plants and also transport manufacture food from the leaves to other parts where
it is either used up or stored up. The transport system of a plant is made up of vascular bundles consisting of the
xylem and the phloem tissues.

The xylem is responsible for conducting water with dissolved substances from the soil to other parts of the plant.
The phloem tissue is responsible for the transportation of manufactured food from the leaves to other parts of the
plant (translocation). In the roots and stems of dicotyledonous plants, a layer called cambium exists between the
xylem and the phloem tissues. The vascular bundles therefore are found in the roots, stems and leaves of
flowering plants.

PROCESSES WHICH AID TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS

The four processes supporting transportation in plants are:

 Translocation: The process by which manufactured food substances are transported through phloem
tissue from site of production to plant tissues where they are used or stored. It is usually from leaves to
other plant parts.

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 Transpiration: The removal of excess water from plants into the atmosphere in form of water vapour.
The loss of water can be through the stomata (in leaves) lenticels (in stem) or cuticle of the leaf
surface. The rate of transpiration is measured using the instruments, potometer.

CONDITION AFFECTING THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

 The Size of the Stomatal Pores: Flaccidity of the guard cells causes them to close preventing
transpiration but when turgidity occurs, the cells open for transpiration to take place.
 Humidity: The higher the humidity, the slower the rate of transpiration.
 Temperature: Increase in temperature leads to increase in transpiration.
 Light: High light intensity causes high photosynthetic rate which in turn leads to increase in temperature
thereby causing high rate of transpiration.
 Wind: The higher the speed of wind, the higher the rate of transpiration.
 Soil Water: Higher level of soil water leads to higher rate of absorption which results in higher rate of
transpiration.

IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPIRATION TO PLANT

1. It helps plants to absorb water and mineral salts from the soil.
2. It facilitates the movement of soil water.
3. Cooling the plant after water evaporation has taken place.
4. Absorption of water and mineral salt by roots of plant water from the soil enters the plant through the root
hairs by osmosis. This leads to increased turgor pressure of the vacuole of root cells. The water absorbed
then gets into the xylem vessel
5. Water transport in the xylem tissue: This is due to the following
a) root pressure and suction pressure,
b) Capillary action due to alteration between the water molecules and the walls of the xylem vessel,
c) transpiration pulls.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

DEFINITION/PHASES OF RESPIRATION

The process of respiration involves the taking in of oxygen its transport within the body of the organism, its
exchange in the cells and the eventual release of energy in form of ATP, water and carbon(IV)oxide. The energy
is utilized by the cells for their daily activities. Respiration can therefore be defined as a biochemical activity
of the cell in which glucose is broken down in a series of reaction controlled by enzymes to release
energy.

The following are the Different Phases of Respiration

 External Respiration (Breathing)

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This is the taking in of oxygen (inhalation)into the respiratory organ(e.g. lungs or gills) and breathing out
(exhalation) of carbon(IV)oxide and water vapour.

 Internal (Tissue) Respiration

This is the oxidation of food substances within the cells leading to the release of energy,carbon(IV)oxide,
and water. This is made possible by the oxygen taken in through the breathing process. This can be
represented by the following equation
C6H12O6 +6O6 →6H2O+6C02+Energy (ATP)

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR RESPIRATION

For effective exchange of gases to take place, the following conditions must be met:
Respiratory Medium: This refers to the environment from which the organism picks up oxygen e.g. air and water.
Respiratory Organ: This refers to the organ possessed by the organism needed to pick oxygen from the
environment and pass out CO2 and water vapour e.g. lungs in mammals and gills in fishes, etc.
Transport Medium: This is needed to transport dissolved oxygen to the various cells of the body which in turn
picks up CO2 and other waste products for elimination process e.g. blood in mammals.
Ventilation: This is the movement of air in the direction over the respiratory surface. This ensures the
replacement of used oxygen and the elimination of waste products. Increase in the rate of gaseous exchange is
facilitated by ventilation mechanism e.g. breathing in human.
Respiratory surface: This refers to the actual surface of the body where gaseous exchange takes place e.g.
alveoli in mammals and cell membrane in amoeba

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPIRATORY SURFACE

The following characteristics must be exhibited by all respiratory surface be it in plant or animals
 Respiratory surface must be moistened because gases diffuse in solution through them.
 It must be permeable to allow gas to pass in and out of them.
 It must be thin-walled to make diffusion easier and faster.
 It must have adequate supply of transport medium e.g. blood.
 The surface must be large to aid easy diffusion of gases.
 It must be highly vascularized i.e. it must have lots of capillaries or similar network to bring in and take
away gases.

TYPES OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

These vary from organism to organism depending on their type, complexity, size and habitat in which they can
be found. The table below reflects various organisms and respiratory structures related to them

Organism Respiratory Structure

1 Unicellular organism e.g. Amoeba and Body surface
paramecium
2 Hydra worm tapeworm Cell membrane
3 Earth worm Wet skin or body surface
4 Fishes e.g. Tilapia Gills

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5 Arthropod e.g. insects Tracheal system

6 Arachnids e.g. spiders Lungs books
7 Tadpoles Gills
8 Reptiles e.g. lizards Lungs
9 Amphibians e.g. toads Mouth, skin, and lungs
10 Mammals Lungs
11 Flowering plant Stomata and lenticels

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM OF MAMMALS & RESPIRATION IN PLANTS

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM IN MAMMALS

The respiratory system of mammals is the most complex of all respiratory systems. It comprises of a pair of lungs
enclosed in the thorax and connected to the outside by series of branched air tube.

In human beings air can be drawn in through the mouth or nose. Both lead into the pharynx a short passage way
which branches at the end into two directions. One leads to the digestive tract while the other leads to the larynx
(voice box) and the lower air pathway. The entrance of the larynx is called the glottis and it is covered by
cartilagenous flap (epiglottis) which prevents food from entering the wind pipe. For air to enter larynx, the glottis
must remain open.

The trachea (wind pipe) branches into two bronchi. The presence of cartilagenous rings in the trachea and bronchi
prevents them from collapsing when the air pressure in them is low. Each bronchus leads to the lung where it
branches into small tubes called bronchioles. The alveoli are richly supplied with blood capillaries and are sited
or surface where gaseous exchange takes place.

As oxygen follows this pathway from the outside to the lungs, C02 is released out from the lungs to the outside
via same pathway.

MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION IN MAMMALS

This entails two phases namely external and internal respiration

External Respiration (Breathing)

This is the taking in of oxygen (inspiration or inhalation) and giving out of C0 2 and water vapour (expiration or
exhalation).

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MECHANISM OF INSPIRATION OR INHALATION IN MAN

 The intercostals muscle contract
 The rib are moved upward and outward
 The diaphragm becomes flattened
 There is an increase in the volume of thoracic cavity
 Consequently air is drawn from the nostril to the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and finally to the alveoli.

MECHANISM OF EXPIRATION OR EXHALATION IN MAN

 The intercostals muscle relax
 The ribs are moved downward and inward
 The diaphragm becomes dome shape
 There is decrease in the volume of thoracic cavity.
 Consequently air is drawn from the alveoli, bronchioles, bronchi, and trachea.
 Consequently air containing waste products like CO2 and water vapour from inside the alveoli or lungs
are forced out through bronchioles, bronchi, trachea, and finally to the exterior through the nose.

Inhaled and exhaled air are made up of the following

Air Component Inhaled Air Exhaled Air
Oxygen 21% 16%
Carbon dioxide 0.03% 4%
Nitrogen 78% 78%
Water vapour variable saturated (higher)

CELLULAR (INTERNAL) RESPIRATION

The oxidation of glucose to release energy is known as cellular respiration and it occurs in the mitochondria
(power house) of all living cells.
Within the cytoplasm of the cells, one molecule of 6-carbon sugar is broken down into two molecules of 3-
carbon pyruvate catalysed by the enzymes in the cytoplasm. This process does not require oxygen. Each
pyruvic acid is further oxidized completely to carbon dioxide and water in the mitochondria. The breakdown of
glucose to pyruvic acid is termed glycolysis whileseries of chemical reactions occurring within the
mitochondrion, responsible for the final breakdown of food molecules to form carbon dioxide, water, and energy
carried out by seven enzymes is known as the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle). Most of the ATPs are
generated in the Krebcycle (36 ATP). A total of 38 ATP molecules are formed when one molecule of glucose is
completely oxidized.

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KREB CYCLE
AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
In most cells, cellular respiration takes place in the presence of oxygen and this is known as aerobic respiration.
The largest amount of ATP possible is generated through it from one molecule of glucose (38 ATP).
In some other organisms, the cells gets energy from breaking down glucose in the absence of oxygen, this is
known as anaerobic respiration. Only two ATPs are produced. Lactic acid often results from anaerobic
respiration instead of pyruvic acid in animals which make it useful in the production of yoghurt. In plants, alcohol
and carbon(IV)oxide are produced.

RESPIRATION IN PLANT
There is no special respiratory organ in plant. Gases move in and out the plant through the stomata and lenticels
 Stomata:They are tiny pores in the lower epidermis of leaves. Each stoma is enclosed within two bean
shaped cells known as guard cells. It regulates the opening and closing of the stomata,
 Lenticels: These are breathing pores or tiny opening found in the bark of older stems. Lenticels consist of a
loose mass of small thin-walled cells which permits easy diffusion of gasses in and out of the plant.

The opening and closing of the stomata is regulated by the guard cells. When the guard cell is turgid, the stomata
open but when the cells become flaccid the stomata are closed.

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