DIGESTIVE SYSTEMS

OBJECTIVES
1. Describe with appropriate illustrations different
types of alimentary tract
2. Explain the feeding mechanism of some animals
3. Explain how some insectivores plants feed.
 CONTENT

Content

1. Description and function of parts of the alimentary canal

2. Modification of parts to effect their digestive function
3. Feeding habitats: categories and mechanisms
4. Modification of feeding habits: filter feeder, fluid feeders,
insect feeders, parasitic and saprophytic feeders
5. Feeding in protozoa, hydra and mammals.
The digestive system
 Thedigestive system is a system which consists of
specialized organs and glands that aid the breakdown of
ingested food.
DEFINITION OF DIGESTION
 Digestionis the breakdown of large food molecules into
simple, soluble and absorbable form which the body of
an organism can easily utilize.
Types of digestive tract

1. Complete digestive tract: This type of digestive

tract or gut has two openings a mouth and anus.
This can be found in organisms under the phylum
Nematoda, Annelida, and all vertebrates
2. Incomplete digestive tract: this has one opening
which serve as both mouth and anus this can be
found in organisms in the phylum Platyhelminthes
and coelenterate and Echinodermata
Types of digestion
1. Intracellular digestion: this kind of digestion takes place within the
food vacuole in a cell. This is found in unicellular organisms like
amoeba, paramecium etc.
2. Extracellular digestion: this type of digestion occurs within gut which
rather than with the cell but the digested food is absorbed by the cells
this can be found in multicellular organisms like Rhizopus, tape
worm, man and other vertebrates
Remember to explain external and internal digestion using Rhizopus and
house fly as an example
 FEEDING MECHANISM IN
AMOEBA
Amoeba feed on microscopic organisms found in its environment. Since it has no
mouth, when it comes close to food particle, it stretches its pseudopodia which flows
around the organism and engulfs it. Some water is also enclosed and the cavity
formed is called a food vacuole. Enzymes from the cytoplasm are secreted on the
food to digest them. The soluble products formed the diffuse into the cytoplasm while
undigested material is egested.
 FEEDING IN
PARAMECIUM
It feeds on microscopic organisms like bacteria and decayed
food. The beating of the cilia creates a current of water to
enter into the gullet through the oral groove. This water and
food particles are taken into the food vacuole which the
moves around the cytoplasm. Enzymes are then secreted to
digest the food. The soluble particles are then absorbed into
the cytoplasm while undigested food are passed out through
the anal pore. Digestion is intracellular.
 DIGESTION IN HYDRA

It a carnivorous. It waits for a prey to brush over its tentacles. The stinging cells are
then discharged which inject poison into the prey and stun it. The tentacle then coil
around the prey and direct it into the mouth where it goes into the gut cavity. The
gland cells on the wall of the guts secrete digestive juice containing enzymes which
digest the food. This is extracellular digestion. The amoeboid cells in the endoderm
engulfs partially digested food into the food vacuole where intra cellular digestion
takes place to complete the digestion of the food. The digested food the diffuse to all
body parts while the undigested food are removed through the mouth.
Thus digestion in hydra is both extracellular and intracellular.
REVISE YOUR NOTE ON
FEEDING HABITS AND
MODIFICATION YOU DID IN
SS1.
MODIFICATIONS AND FEEDING
MECHANISMS IN SOME
ORGANISMS
There are five modifications and mechanisms of feeding associated
with some organisms and these include
1. Absorbing mechanisms e.g Tape worm: the tape worm as an endo
parasite carries out parasitic feeding on his host. It has no mouth what
it does is to absorb digested food from the intestine of man. The body
of tape worm is adapted for parasitic feeding as follows
 No alimentary canal hence food is absorbed through its entire body
 It has hooks and suckers for attachment to the intestine of the host
to avoid dislodgement
 The body has thick cuticles which resist digestive enzymes
 The flat body provides a large surface area for the absorption of
already digested food
MODIFICATIONS AND FEEDING
MECHANISMS IN SOME
ORGANISMS
2. Biting and chewing mechanisms e.g. grasshopper and
cockroach: they have mouth part adapted for biting and chewing
the mouth is divided into four different parts which include
 Labrum or upper lip: this prevent the food from falling of the
mouth
 Mandibles: this is heavy toothed and jaw like used for cutting and
chewing food
 Maxillae: this breaks down the food which the mandible chews
into smaller particles
 Labium: also called the lower lips this prevent the wastage of
food from the mouth.
 Mouth parts of a
grasshopper
MODIFICATIONS AND FEEDING
MECHANISMS IN SOME
ORGANISMS
Sucking mechanisms: the three
3.

organisms which exhibit sucking

mechanism are mosquito, butterfly
and housefly.
MODIFICATIONS AND FEEDING
MECHANISMS IN SOME
ORGANISMS A. Mosquito: the mandible and maxillae are
modified to form the stylet
1. This possess a piercing mouth part called
proboscis used for sucking blood.
2. The mouth part together forms a stylet which is
capable of piercing the skin to suck blood
3. All parts of the stylet except the labium is sharp
to ease penetration into the skin
4. The mosquito produce saliva which prevent the
blood from clotting while it is sucking
5. The labium can be folded easily to allow the stylet
perform the function of penetrating the skin
MODIFICATIONS AND FEEDING
MECHANISMS IN SOME
ORGANISMS
Butterfly: the maxillae is modified to form the
proboscis
i. It has a long coiled proboscis used for sucking
nectar of flowers
ii. The insect is capable of recoiling the long
proboscis under its head when not in use
iii. The proboscis is able to extend into the corolla
of the flower to draw nectar. There by acting as a
straw. This type of feeding is called siphoning.
iv. The other mouth parts are non-functional due
to the type of food they feed on.
House fly

Its labium is modified to form a proboscis.

It has two lobes known as labella (sing
labellum) are found at the end of the proboscis
which helps to pour liquid on the food during
feeding. It has fine channels through which
liquidized food is absorbed into the mouth.
The proboscis is lowered into the food, saliva
in then poured to digest the food.
The dissolved food is then drawn up through
the labella into the alimentary canal.
The sucking mechanism in housefly is called
sponging.
MODIFICATIONS AND FEEDING
MECHANISMS IN SOME
ORGANISMS
4. Grinding mechanisms: this is found

among mammals due to the presence of

different sets of teeth.
5. Trapping and absorbing mechanism:
this is found in insectivores or carnivores
plants.
DROSERA OR SUNDEW/
insectivores
A. Drosera or sundew:
it is brightly coloured to
attract the insect. The
insect is then trapped by
the sticky glandular hairs
found on the leaves.
While the insect is
struggling to escape, the
glandular hairs bend over
it and secrete enzymes to
digest it.
MODIFICATIONS AND FEEDING
MECHANISMS IN SOME
ORGANISMS
2. The pitcher plant has leaves which
are modified into a pitcher like
container. The inner wall of this
structure is slippery and smooth to
prevent the insect once trapped from
finding their way out. The insect then
falls to the bottom of the pitcher where
they are digested by a pool of liquid
containing digestive enzymes
MODIFICATIONS AND FEEDING
MECHANISMS IN SOME ORGANISMS

C. The Venus flytrap traps its prey

between its leaves. The surface of
the leaves has tiny fringed teeth-like
hairs which are found along the
edge the leaves. When an insect
lands on the leaves, the leaves
closes trapping the insect inside it.
The inner surface of the leaves then
secretes enzymes which digest the
insect.
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM IN MAN
Digestion involves four processes

 Ingestion: Ingestion – The taking of food from outside.

 Absorption – The passage of digested food through the wall of the
alimentary canal into the blood stream.
 Assimilation – The manufacture of the body’s own material from the
absorbed food and their use in metabolism.
 Egestion – The discharge of undigested and unabsorbed part of food
from the alimentary canal through the anus.
The human digestive system

The human digestive system is

made up of
1.The mouth
2.The oesophagus
3.The stomach
4.The small intestine
5.The large intestine
6.The rectum
7.The anus
Relative positions of the different
organs
Functions of each parts of the
digestive system
THE MOUTH
The mouth is made up of the teeth, the tongue, the hard and soft palate
FUNCTIONS OF THE HARD AND SOFT
PALATE
 The soft helps to direct food into the pharynx and also prevents food
from entering the nasal cavity.
 When food is rolled against the roof of the hard palate, it helps to grind
it into smaller particles.
 The hard palate aids the swallowing of food.
Function of the tongue

The tongue lies on the floor of the mouth and

has several taste buds or taste receptors
which enable one to sense various kinds of
taste. The sour and salty taste buds are
located on the side of the tongue. The sweet
taste buds are located on the tip of the
tongue. The bitter taste buds are located at
the back of the tongue.
Functions of the tongue
 It aids in detection of taste.
 Itworks together with the lips and the palates to aid
speech.
 It blocks the epiglottis during swallowing
 The tongue helps to keep the inner and outer surface of the
teeth clean as it rolls over its surface.
 It
aids the chewing of food by mixing food during
mastication.
 It helps to push food into the throat after mastication.
The salivary gland

Humans possess three pairs of salivary

glands while rabbits possess four pairs. The
human salivary gland consists of the
parotid, sub maxillary and the sublingual
glands which all have ducts that secret
saliva into the mouth cavity. Saliva contains
and enzyme called ptyalin, mucin and
water which catalyzes the conversion of
cooked starch into maltose. The sight, smell
and the taste of food induces the secretion
of saliva.
FUNCTION OF THE SALIVA

 It helps in speech by wetting the tongue to prevent

it from sticking to the roof of the mouth.
 The mucin content makes food stick together to
form bolus.
 It moistens the soft tissues in the mouth.
 The liquid part of saliva helps to moisten dry food,
hence making it soft for chewing.
1. The tongue presses upward and
back against the roof of the mouth
forcing a pallet of food called
bolus to the back of the mouth
2. The soft palate closes tha nasal
cavity at the back
3. The larynx cartilage
(epiglottis)round the top of the
wind pipe
Process of digestion in the mouth

The teeth helps to masticate

the food, the tongue rolls it
into bolus, the salivary gland
secretes saliva which
contains the enzyme ptyalin
which act on cooked starch
converting it to maltose
Q

 Sequance of carbohydrate digestion

Starch to maltose to glucose
Protein
Protein to peptone to plypeptide to amino acid
Fats and oil to fatty acids and glycerol
THE PHARYNX AND OESOPHAGUS

 PHARYNX is a short muscular tube which

connects the mouth to the oesophagus. Food from
the mouth asses through it into the throat.
 OESOPHAGUS is a long tube through which
food passes into the stomach by a wave-like
process called peristalsis.
The stomach

The stomach is a double membrane organ which lies below the

diaphragm in the abdominal cavity. Food is churned and mixed up
with gastric juice in the stomach by the muscular action of the
stomach muscles. The entire mixture obtained after churning is
called chyme. The entrance into the stomach is guided by the
cardiac sphincter, while the exit is guided by the pyloric sphincter.
The thick inner mucosa is called gastric mucosa. The pH in the
stomach is acidic, hence the enzymes present in gastric juice
functions best in an acidic medium. The gastric juice contains the
enzymes pepsin and renin which are initially produced as inactive
pepsinogen and prorenin. They are converted by hydrochloric acid
into their active forms. Pepsin digests proteins into polypeptides
or peptones, while rennin clots or curdles milk proteins by
converting the soluble caseinogen to insoluble casein which can
then be acted upon by pepsin. When there is no food in the
stomach it folds up into wrinkles called rugae.
In the stomach,
The opening into the stomach is called cardiac or oesophagal
sphincter
The exit out of the stomach is called pyloric sphincter
The stomach secretes gastric juice which contains
1. Pepsin 2. renin 3. HCl
HCl activates the enzymes of create a suitable environ for the
enzyme to work and also kill microorganisms that enters the
stomach with the food.
Functions of the stomach
 The warmth of the stomach helps to melt fat molecules in ingested
food.
 Food is stored temporarily in the stomach for about four hours.
 The dilute HCl secreted by the stomach wall helps to destroy any
ingested bacteria and also enhances the conversion of pepsinogen to
pepsin and prorenin to renin
 The churning action of the stomach muscles helps to break large
food particles into small particles.
In man the small intestine is about 6m long. It consists of three parts; the
first part is the duodenum, the second part is the jejunum and the third
part is the much coiled ileum. The entrance of chyme into the small
intestine stimulates the secretion of the following juices;
The intestinal juice also called succus entericus. Its pH is alkaline and
also contains important digestive enzymes.
The pancreatic juice which is secreted by the pancreas. It contains
important digestive enzymes. It has an alkaline pH.
The bile a watery, alkaline juice secreted by the liver and stored in the gall
bladder. Bile is brownish and alkaline. It does not contain any enzyme.
Bile enables the emulsification of large fat molecules.
The duodenum: This is the first part of the small
intestine. The duodenum contains pancreas which
secretes the pancreatic juice. The pancreatic juice
contains three enzymes which are.
Amylase which converts starch to maltose
Lipase which converts fats and oils to fatty acids
and glycerol
Trypsin which converts protein and peptones to
polypeptide.
Functions of bile

1. Bile emulsifies fat: it breaks down fats into tiny droplets

2. It creates an alkaline environment for the enzymes in the
duodenum to function
3. It prevents the spoilage of food in the intestine
4. It adds water to chyme
The pancreases secretes pancreatic juice which contains the
enzymes
Amylase, trypsin and lipase
Amylase converts starch to maltose
Trypsin converts peptone polypeptide
Lipase converts emulsified fat to fatty acids and glycerol
The jejunum and ileum

The jejunum. This is the second chamber of the small intestine, digestion does not
take place here.
The ileum: This part secretes the intestinal juice which contains the following
enzymes.
 Lipase which convert fats and oil to fatty acid and glycerol.
 Erepsin which converts polypeptides to amino acids.
 Maltase which converts maltose to two units of glucose.
 Sucrase which converts sucrose to glucose and fructose.
 Lactase which converts lactose to glucose and galactose.
In humans, final digestion and absorption of
food takes place in the small intestine. And the
end product of food carbohydrate digestion is
glucose, protein digestion is amino acids while
fats and oil is fatty acids and glycerol
 ABSORPTION OF
DIGESTED FOOD
ABSORPTION OF DIGESTED FOOD.
The end products of food digestion are absorbed in the small intestine
by tiny finger like structure called villi (singular villus). The glucose
and amino acids are easily absorbed into the blood stream through the
villi while the fatty acids and glycerol enters the lacteal and are carried
by the lymph vessels and empties their content into the blood vessels
near the heart before carried to other body parts.
Image of the villus
ADAPTIVE FEATURES OF THE
VILLI FOR FOOD ABSORPTION
 It is very long, hence it affords food a long time to pass through it
for absorption to take place.
 Large surface area - The surface of the ileum is highly folded which
gives it a larger surface area for absorption than a simple tube.
 The villi has thin epithelium which facilitates quick passage of
digested food.
 It is richly supplied with lots of blood capillaries and lymphatic
capillaries to carry away absorbed food substances.
Adaptive features of the ileum
for the absorption of food
 Adaptive features of the ileum for food absorption
 It is very long, hence it affords food a long time to pass through it for absorption
to take place.
 Large surface area - The surface of the ileum is highly folded which gives it a
larger surface area for absorption than a simple tube.
 The villi has thin epithelium which facilitates quick passage of digested food.
 It is richly supplied with lots of blood capillaries and lymphatic capillaries to
carry away absorbed food substances.
 The undigested food goes to the large intestine where it absorbs water and turns
into feaces and goes to the rectum before leaving the body through the anus.
 ASSIMILATION

The process of moving digested food

molecules into the cells where they are
used is called assimilation. It can also be
defined as the transport and utilization
of absorbed food in the body cells.
 The process of
assimilation
 The absorbed food in the blood stream is first transported to the liver
where they are sorted out. The liver is the largest organ in the body.
Three major blood vessels are involved in the assimilation process in the
liver. They are; the hepatic portal vein, the hepatic artery and the
hepatic vein.
 The hepatic portal vein transports absorbed food from the small
intestine to the liver.
 The hepatic artery supplies the liver with oxygenated blood.
 The hepatic vein transports the remaining glucose and amino acids
round the body.
 Image of assimilation in
the liver
 ASSIMILATION OF CARBORHYDRATES

 In the liver glucose is converted into glycogen and stored

in the liver. The conversion of glucose to glycogen is done
by the hormone called insulin which is produced by the
pancreas. When glucose is deficient in the blood, the liver
converts glycogen into glucose and circulates it around the
body. The body cells oxidize glucose to release energy for
metabolic activities
ASSIMILATION OF PROTEINS

Amino acids are used for the synthesis of enzymes,

hormones protoplasm, for growth and repair of
worn-out tissues. The excess is converted into urea
and excreted through the urine. The body does not
store amino acids.
The conversion of amino acids to urea and glucose is called
deamination.
 ASSIMILATION OF
FATS
 The absorbed fats mix with the lymph (a colorless fluid in the lymphatic
capillaries) to form a milky liquid called chyle. Under normal
conditions, when there is sufficient supply of glucose in the blood, fat is
not oxidized but during fasting, when there is a low supply of glucose in
the blood, fats are oxidized to provide the energy for the vital activities
in the body. They are used for building protoplasm in cell membranes.
Excess fats are stored in the adipose tissue underneath the skin,
around the heart, around the kidneys, and in the mesenteries that
bind the small intestine.
ORGANS ASSOCIATED WITH DIGESTION – THE LIVER
AND THE PANCREAS

 THE LIVER AND THE GALL BLADDER is a large brownish soft tissue organ
which lies immediately below the diaphragm.
 The gall bladder which is embedded within the liver secrets bile through bile duct.
Bile emulsifies fats.
 It keeps the blood glucose level constant by converting excess glucose to
glycogen and also re-converts it when glucose level in the blood is low.
 Excess amino acid is deaminated in the liver.
 Storage of glycogen.
 It helps to detoxify alcohol and toxins in the blood stream.
The liver produces bile which is stored in the gall bladder
Functions of bile
1. It helps in the emulsification of fats
2. It create an alkaline environment for enzyme in the
duodenum to act
3. It prevents decay or putrefaction of food in the small
intestine
 THE PANCREAS

The pancreas is the gland which lies within the

loop of the duodenum. It secrets the pancreatic
juice which contains some important digestive
enzymes and a hormone called insulin. Insulin
helps to control blood sugar level.
The large intestine

The undigested part of food passes into the colon (large intestine) where they
are processed into faeces. Water is also re-absorbed into the body in the colon.
The moment sufficient quantity of faeces is formed, it is passes into the
rectum and finally out through the anus.
The large intestine is connected to the posterior end of the jejunum of the
small intestine. It is 1.9m long and 7.5m wide. It is divided into ascending,
descending and transverse colon. The lower end of the ascending colon is
the caecum. The caecum has a finger-like out-growth called appendix
which has no function but when infected is surgically removed.
The transverse colon runs across the upper part of the abdominal cavity and
descends to form the descending colon. The lower end of the descending
colon is the muscular rectum. The rectum ends up as anus. The anus is
guarded by a ring-like sphincter muscle which relaxes and contracts to let
faeces out of the body.
Digestive system of birds
1. THE MOUTH - A horny beak. It has a tongue which pushes food
down the throat. Its salivary gland is poorly developed, hence it
produces mucus to moisten the food it swallows.
2. THE PHARYNX AND OESOPHAGUS –its short pharynx is
connected to the long, narrow oesophagus. Food passes through it
into the crop.
3. THE CROP – Food is temporarily stored in the crop. Some birds
like dove, pigeon, and parrot have epithelial cells that secrete “bird
milk” which is regurgitated to the mouth for feeding the young ones.
4. THE STOMACH – The stomach consists of the proventriculus
(true stomach) and a muscular gizzard. The proventriculus secretes
gastric juice which contains protein digesting enzymes and dilute
hydrochloric acid. The gizzard churns food through its muscular
action with the aid of the coarse stones which it swallows while
eating.
DIESTIVE SYSTEMS OF RUMINANT
Digestive system of rabbit

Ruminants are herbivores that

possess a four-chambered stomach
which aids the digestion of the
plant parts they feed on. The four
chambers are rumen, reticulum,
omasum and abomasum.
The Rumen

The rumen is the largest portion

where ingested grasses are
temporarily stored. Many bacteria
and protozoans which reside in
here start-up the digestion and
fermentation of cellulose in the
ingested grasses.
The reticulum

Further fermentation of the ingested grasses

takes place in the reticulum. The reticulum
also supplies fluid to the rumen to moisten
the grasses for easy action of the bacteria
therein. It also stores sand and stones which
were picked up alongside the grasses. When
the animal is resting, it regurgitates the
partially fermented grasses into its mouth
and chews them all over again. This is called
‘chewing the cud’
OMASUM OR PSALTERIUM

The re-chewed cud is then directed to the next stomach compartment

called omasum. The inner part of the omasum looks like the surface of
a towel. The food is further broken down and useful water is re-
absorbed into the body. After this, the solid food is passed on into the
true stomach.
ABOMASUM (TRUE STOMACH)

This compartment bears gastric

glands which secrets the digestive
juice that acts finally on the chewed
cud. The undigested matter in food is
passed out through the anus.
ENZYMES

Enzymes are biological catalysts

proteineous in nature that speed
up the rate of the biochemical
reaction.
Enzyme action

The molecules upon which enzymes may act

are called substrates and the enzyme converts
the substrates into different molecules known
as products. Enzymes are usually much larger
than their substrates. Every enzyme has an
active site where the substrate usually binds to
it to enable it act on the substrate
The specific action of an enzyme with
a single substrate can be explained
using a Lock and Key analogy first
postulated in 1894 by Emil Fischer. In
this analogy, the lock is the enzyme
and the key is the substrate. Only the
correctly sized key (substrate) fits into
the key hole (active site) of the lock
(enzyme).
 ENZYME SPECIFICITY
 Enzymes are highly specific in nature,
interacting with one or few substrates
and catalyzing only one type of chemical
reaction.
 Substrate specificity is due to complete

fitting of active site and substrate .

Example:
 Oxydoreductase do not catalyze
hydrolase reactions and hydrolase do
not catalyze reaction involving oxidation
and reduction.
 TYPES OF ENZYME SPECIFICITY
 Enzymes show different degrees of specificity:
 Bond specificity.
 Group specificity.
 Absolute specificity.
 Optical or stereo-specificity.
 Dual specificity.
 BOND SPECIFICITY
 In this type, enzyme acts on substrates that
are similar in structure and contain the same type
of bond.
 Amylase which acts on α-1-4 glycosidic in
,bond dextrin :and glycogen, shows bond
Example starch
specificity.
 GROUP SPECIFICITY
 In this type of specificity, the enzyme is
specific not only to the type of bond but
also to the structure surrounding it.
Example:
 Pepsin is an endopeptidase enzyme, that
hydrolyzes central peptide bonds in which
the amino group belongs to aromatic
amino acids e. g phenyl alanine, tyrosine
and tryptophan.
SUBSTRATE SPECIFICITY OR
ABSOLUTE
In this
 SPECIFICITY
type of specificity ,the enzymes acts only on one
substrate
Example :
 Uricase ,which acts only on uric acid, shows substrate
specificity.

 Maltase which acts only on maltose, shows substrate

,
specificity
.
OPTICAL / STEREO-SPECIFICITY
 In this type of specificity , the enzyme is not specific
to substrate but also to its optical configuration
Example:
 D amino acid oxidase acts only on D amino acids.

 L amino acid oxidase acts only on L amino

acids.
 DUAL SPECIFICITY
 There are two types of dual specificity.
 The may act on one substrate by two different
enzyme
reaction types.
Example:
 Isocitrate dehydrogenase enzyme acts on isocitrate (one
substrate) by oxidation followed by decarboxylation(two
different reaction types) .
 DUAL SPECIFICITY
 The enzyme may act on two substrates by one reaction type

Example:
• Xanthine oxidase enzyme acts on xanthine
and hypoxanthine(two substrates) by oxidation (one reaction
type)
COFACTOR SPECIFICITY

Co-factor are non-protein part of enzymes that are

required for the proper functioning of some enzyme.
Hence the enzymes which require co-factors to
function well show co-factor specificity. So, only a
correct combination of substrate and co-factor allows
proper enzymatic reaction.
o Co-factor is the non protein molecule
which carries out chemical reactions
that can not be performed by standard
20 amino acids.
o Co-factors are of two types:
 Organic co-factors
 Inorganic cofactors
These are the inorganic molecules required for the proper activity of
enzymes.
Examples
Enzyme carbonic anhydrase requires Zn for its activity
Hexokinase has co-factor Mg
These are the organic molecules required for the
proper activity of enzymes.
Example
Glycogen phosphorylase requires the small organic molecule
pyridoxal phosphate.
TYPES OF ORGANIC CO-FACTORS

1. Prosthetic Group

A prosthetic group is a
tightly bound organic
co-factor e.g flavin
 COENZYME

A coenzyme is a
loosely bound organic
cofactor e.g NAD
APOENZYME/ HALOENZYME

An enzyme without its co-factor is

called an apoenzyme
The complete complex of a protein
with all necessary small organic
molecules, metal ions and other
components is termed as
holoenzyme of holoprotein.
 SITES OF ENZYME SYNTHESIS
o Enzymes are synthesized by ribosomes which are attached to
the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

o Information for the synthesis of enzyme is carried by DNA.

o Amino acids are bonded together to form specific

enzyme
according to the DNA‟s codes.
INTRACELULER AND
EXTRACELLULER ENZYMES
o Intracellular enzymes are synthesized and retained in the cell for the
use of cell itself.
o They are found in the cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria and
 chloroplast.
Example :
 Oxidoreductase catalyses biological oxidation.
 Enzymes involved in reduction in the mitochondria.
Extracellular enzymes are synthesized in the cells but
secreted from the cell and work externally
Examples
Digestive enzyme produced by the pancreas, are not
used by the cells in the pancreas but are transported
to the duodenum.
FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME
ACTIVITIES
 FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF
ENZYME CATALYZED REACTIONS

 Temperature
 Hydrogen ion concentration(pH)

 Substrate concentration
 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE

 Raising the temperature increases the rate of enzyme

catalyzed reaction by increasing kinetic energy of reacting
molecules.
 Enzymes work maximum over a particular temperature

known as optimum temperature. Enzymes for humans

generally exhibit stability temperature up to 35-45 ᵒ C.
 However some times heat energy can also increase kinetic

energy to a point that exceed the energy barrier which

results in denaturing of enzymes.
 5- 40oC Temperature
Increase in Activity

40oC - denatures

Rate of Reaction

0 10 20
30 40
50 60

<5oC - inactive
 EFFECT OF PH
 Rate of almost all enzymes catalyzed reactions
depends on pH
 Most enzymes exhibit optimal activity at pH

value between 5
and 9
 High or low pH value than optimum value will

cause ionization of enzyme which result in

denaturation of enzyme
 PH AFFECTS THE FORMATION OF HYDROGEN BONDS
AND SULPHUR BRIDGES IN PROTEINS AND SO AFFECTS
SHAPE.

trypsin arginase
Rate of Reaction (M) pepsin

Acidic 2 4 6 8 10
pH Basic
ENZYME INHIBITION
 TRANSPORT SYSTEM

TRANSPORT REFERS TO THE MOVEMENT OF

METABOLIC MATERIALS FROM WHERE
THEY ARE PRODUCED OR OBTAINED TO
WHERE THEY CAN BE UTILIZED IN THE
BODY OR ORGANISMS.
 The need for transportation
1. It is necessary so that every cells in the body can obtain all the essential
materials for its metabolism like oxygen, water and nutrient.
2. It is needed so that organisms can get rid of metabolic waste from their
body
3. It is necessary in plant so that water and mineral salt can move from the
root to the stem
4. Transport is necessary to move hormones in plants and animals from
where they are secreted to their target organ
5. It also help in the transfer of glucose from the leaves to other parts of the
plants.
TRANSPORTATION IN LOWER
ORGANISMS
Due to large area to surface volume ratio in most
protozoans, transportation is achieved through diffusion.
The materials are transported by the movement of
substances across the cytoplasm. On the other hand,
higher multicellular organisms require a well defined
transport system to achieve transportation because
substances move far distances form one part of the body
to the other.
 Materials for transport in animals
 These materials include oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones,
amino acids, urea, excess salt, water, vitamins, sugar, fatty
acids and glycerol, mineral salt and antibodies.
Materials for transport in plants
 Theseinclude manufactures food, water, excretory products,
oxygen, amino acids, glucose, hormones, and mineral salts.
REASONS WHY MULTICELLULER
NEEDS A TRANSPORT SYSTEM
An efficient transport system is needed in multicellular organisms because of the
following reasons
 Diffusion alone cannot be used to transport materials to isolated cells
 They have a small surface area to volume ratio hence diffusion alone cannot
transport materials
 The cells in complex multicellular organisms are far apart from each other hence
substances have to move a greater distance
 A conducting or linking system becomes necessary to connect isolated groups of cells
 The materials transported in multicellular organisms are too large in quantity as such
diffusion or osmosis will not be sufficient enough to transport them
 MEDIA FOR TRANSPORT

In all organisms, the media for transport is

usually fluid or liquid and these media include
 CELL SAP: this is the medium of
transportation in plants. It is also called latex.
It is a concentrated solution found in the
vacuole of the cell and as such it is able to
transport water and mineral salt from the soil
to the roots hairs to the upper parts of the
plant.
Cytoplasm
This is the media of transportation in unicellular animals like
amoeba and paramecium. In this organisms, cytoplasm is used as
the medium of transportation of material from one part of the cell to
another through cytoplasmic streaming.
Blood

 BLOOD: this is the medium of transportation

in higher animals. It is able to transport
materials from where they are produced
through veins and arteries to where they are
needed.
 LYMPH
Lymph: also a medium of
transportation in higher animals. It
is a fluid similar to tissue fluid but
also contains extra lymphocyte
and no red blood cell. It returns
fluid to the main veins through the
openings in the subclavian vein
(left jugular) vein below the neck.
Example of lymph vessel is the
lacteal which transport fatty acids
and glycerol.
 Body fluid
This is found in invertebrates like
Platyhelminthes, Nematoda and Annelida
and Arthropoda. They have large volume of
body fluid flowing and bathing the cells and
tissues which helps to transport materials.
The food and oxygen needed by the
organisms are dissolved in the body fluid
and are transported to all cells while the
waste products are carried to the excretory
organs which lie in a free space called
coelom and bathed by body fluid called
coelomic fluid.
Mechanism of transportation
in some organisms
 Unicellular organisms – cytoplasmic streaming called cyclosis.
Transport in hydra
Transport in protists
MECHANISM OF TRANSPORT
IN INSECTS Insects and molluscs do not have a true heart or blood
capillaries. Its circulatory system consists of non-
continuous blood vessels which opens into its body cavity
called haemocoels or sinuses. The blood of insects and
molluscs is called haemolymph. The organs and tissues
are bathed in the blood mixed with interstitial fluid and
exchange of materials occur between the body cells and
the blood (haemolymph). Blood in these space then flows
into vessels leading to the heart. Here the valves in the
heart and blood vessels only permit blood to flow in only
one direction making the distribution of blood to be
poorly controlled. interstitial fluid is also called tissue
fluid it is a colourless liquid found in the minute space
between cells.
TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN MAN
The medium of transport in man is the blood and lymph which
provide an efficient means of transport of materials within the
body.
STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF
BLOOD
 Blood is made up of cell or corpuscles and fluid in which the
blood cells float and this fluid is called plasma.
BLOOD CELLS
 There are three types of blood cells which are
RED BLOOD CELLS

RED BLOOD CELLS OR ERYTHROCYTES:

they are small, round or biconcave or disc like in
shape. They are devoid of nucleus, they are
numerous and has a life span of about 4 months
before they are destroyed by the liver. They are
mainly produced by the red bone marrow. The red
colour of the cells is due to the presence iron
compound called haemoglobin.
The function is to help in the transport of oxygen
from the lungs to the body cells. It combines readily
with oxygen to form oxy-haemoglobin in the
lungs.
Red blood cells have adaptations that
make them suitable for this:
1.they contain haemoglobin - a red
protein that combines with oxygen
2. they have no nucleus so they can
contain more haemoglobin
3. they are small and flexible so that
they can fit through narrow blood
vessels
4. they have a biconcave shape
(flattened disc shape) to maximise
their surface area for oxygen
absorption
WHITE BLOOD CELLS

They are irregular and amoeboid in shape

which makes them to change their shape and
squeeze through the walls of the blood
capillaries. They are colourless and has a
nucleus. They are larger than the red blood
cells but fewer in number. They are produced
by the red bone marrow, lymph nodes and
spleen. The last only a few days.
Types of white blood cells *two
types )
Lymphocytes: they are produced in the lymph node
or glands they have a large rounded nucleus and
non-granular cytoplasm. They show limited
movement. They produce antibodies
Phagocytes: they are called phagocytes because
they can ingest foreign materials. They are
produced by the bone marrow. There are of two
types
Monocytes: has a bean shaped nucleus
Polymorph (polymorph nuclear leucocyte) or
granulocytes : has a nucleus with many lobes and
granular cytoplasm. They include eosinophils,
basophils and neutrophils
BLOOD PLATELETS OR
THROMBOCYTES
These are tiny irregular cell
fragments without nucleus.
They are produced by the red
bone marrow. They are fewer
in number and smaller in size
than the red blood cells. Their
function is to aid in blood
clotting.
 Process of blood clotting
 When a blood vessel is damaged and exposed to
air, platelets in the blood stream release an
enzyme thrombokinase.
 The thrombokinase then converts prothrombin
(inactive blood protein) to an enzyme called
thrombine.
 The thrombine then converts the soluble
fibrinogen in the plasma to insoluble fibrin in
the presence of calcium ions.
 The threadlike fibrin then forms a mesh or
network on the surface of the wound which traps
blood cells within the network to form a clot.
The clot dries to form a scab over the wound.
BLOOD CLOTTING PROCESS
IMPORTANCE OF BLOOD
CLOTTING
It prevents the loss of more blood from
the body.
It prevents harmful micro-organisms
from entering the body.
It ensures the healing of wounds.
LIQUID PART OF BLOOD
( PLASMA )

PLASMA: this is a pale yellow liquid. It is

made up of 90% water. It has many
substances dissolved in it and they include
plasma proteins like serum albumin,
serum globulin, fibrinogen and
prothrombin, antibodies, hormones,
enzymes, gases, digested foods, salt and
waste products.
The function is to transport the substances
that are dissolved in it.
 lymph

 LYMPH is a colourless liquid associated with the lymphatic system. It

is similar in composition to tissue fluid but contains extra lymphocytes
with no red cells. It returns fluid to the main vein through the subclavian
vein (left jugular vein) below the neck. The lymph node are where
lymph passes through to be made pure before entering the circulatory
system and these are found in the groin, neck and armpit.
 NB: the lymphatic system is second to the circulatory system but unlike
the circulatory system it ends blindly.
 Functions of
blood
 It helps in the transport of oxygen.
 It helps in the regulation of body temperature
 It transport digested food to all body cells.
 It transport excretory product to the various excretory organs.
 It transport hormones from where they are secreted to their target
organs.
 It defends the body against infection.
 It aids in blood clotting.
 It produces antibodies that help to fight infections.
 THE MAMMALIAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Circulatory system refers to the continuous flow

of blood round the body involving the heart and
blood vessels.
Types of circulatory system

 Open circulatory system: Here the blood from the heart passes
through blood vessels leading out of the heart and are poured into
empty spaces called heamocoel or sinuses within the body cavity. In
this case the blood comes into direct contact with the cells after which
it is returned to the heart. This type of circulation occurs in
Arthropods and Mollusca.
Closed circulatory system - Here the
blood flows through blood vessels called
arteries from the heart which then branch
into smaller unit called capillaries which
then joins to other vessels called veins.
Here the blood and the cells are not in
direct contact. This type of circulation
occurs in mammal and other vertebrates.
Single circulation

Here the blood passes

through the heart once to
make a complete circulation.
This occurs in animals with
two- heart chambers like
fishes (Pisces).
CORONARY CIRCULATION

Is responsible for supplying the

heart with oxygenated blood and
digested nutrients. It starts at the
aorta and branches off all over
the heart then drains the spent
blood into the right atrium of the
heart.
CORONARY CIRCULATION
Double circulation: Here the blood passes through
the heart twice to make a complete cycle. Double
circulation gives rise to two other types of circulation
listed below;
Pulmonary circulation: In this circulation, the blood
flows from right ventricle of the heart to the lungs
through the pulmonary artery to pick up oxygen and
back to the heart through the pulmonary vein.
Systemic circulation: In this circulation, the blood
flows from the left ventricles of the heart through the
aorta to all body parts and back to the heart through
the inferior and superior vena cava.
 BLOOD VESSELS

There are 3 blood vessels in the

human circulatory system; these are
ARTERIES, CAPILLARIES, and
VEINS.
 Arteries

These carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to all parts of the body except
pulmonary artery.
Characteristics
 They have thick walls
 They have small canal or lumen
 The walls are elastic to withstand the high pressure of blood coming from the
heart.
 Note: Arteries divides and become smaller on leaving the heart to form
ARTERIOLES. Also, the smaller veins from capillaries will join to form the
bigger veins called VENULES
ARTERIES
 Image of an artery
and vein
 veins

 These are blood vessels which carry blood from

all body parts back to the heart. That is they
return blood to the heart.
Characteristics
 They are less elastic than the arteries
 They have larger lumen or canal than the
arteries
 They have valve to prevent back flow of blood
since blood flows through them at reduced
pressure (slowly)
 QUESTION
Since blood in the leg veins flows at low pressure and against
gravity, what prevent its back flow or what makes it to flow against
gravity?

Answer: presence
of valve and
muscular
contraction
 capillaries

These are the minute blood

vessels that connect arteries to
veins. They are located
between arteries and veins
around organs and tissues in
the body. The capillaries
divide further to form venules
that join the vein.
Characteristics of capillaries
1. They are tiny and
permeable,
2. They are one cell
thick,
3. They are found at the
junction between veins
and arteries and around
tissues and organs of the
body.
The direction of blood circulation in the body goes thus;
From the heart to arteries to the arterioles to
capillaries to venules to veins and back to the heart
 Image of a capillary

The direction of blood circulation in the body goes thus;

From the heart to arteries to the arterioles to capillaries to venules to veins and back to the
heart
Comparing veins arteries and
capillaries
Differences between veins
and arteries
 THE MAIN ARTERIES IN THE HUMAN
BODY

 The main arteries leaving the heart are the pulmonary artery and the
aorta. The following arteries arise from the aortic arch;
 Carotid artery/juguler - head
 Pulmonary artery - lungs
 Subclavian artery - fore-limbs
 Hepatic artery - liver
 Mesenteric artery - stomach and intestine
 Renal artery - kidney
 Gonadal artery - gonads
 Intercostal arteries - wall of thorax
 Iliac arteries - hind limbs

Functions of the human
circulatory system
Exchange of gases.
Distribution of digested food substances.
Removal of waste products.
 Main veins in the
body

The pulmonary vein which conveys oxygenated blood from the lung to the
left auricle
 The jugular vein which collects blood from the head and neck.
 The subclavian vein which brings blood from the fore limbs. Note here that
the jugular and the subclavian vein unite to form the superior vena
cava.
 The inferior vena cava which brings blood from the dorsal and lower part of
the body into the right auricle.
 Iliac veins which brings blood from the hind limbs.
 The hepatic vein brings blood from the liver. The veins from the gut do not
open directly into the inferior vena cava. They unite to form the hepatic
portal vein. It is referred to as portal because it conveys blood from
one capillary network to another. It is the only vein that starts and
ends with a capillary.
 The renal vein brings blood from the kidneys.
 THE HEART

 THE HEART is a muscular organ which pumps blood round the

body. It is made up of the cardiac muscles which is the only
involuntary muscles that are striped and striated. It is located at
the center of the thoracic cavity, though inclined to the left side.
Structure of the heart

The cone-shaped human heart is enveloped

in a two-layered tough membranous bag,
the pericardium. The space between the
two layers is filled with the pericardial
fluid. This fluid reduces friction due to the
pumping movement of the heart. The
coronary arteries and veins supply the
heart with oxygen and nutrient. It
consists of four chambers – two upper
auricles and two lower ventricles.
The septum divides the heart longitudinally
into two sides (right and left). The right
auricle opens into the right ventricle through
an opening controlled by the tricuspid valve.
On the left side, the left auricle also opens
into the left ventricle through an opening
controlled by the bicuspid or mitral valve.
These valves help to stop the reverse flow of
blood in the heart.
The right side of the heart pumps only de-
oxygenated blood to the lungs for
oxygenation during pulmonary circulation,
while the right side pumps oxygenated
blood through the aorta to all parts of the
body in the systemic circulation.
Note that blood in both sides of the heart do
not mix up, though they both pump blood.
This is why the heart is regarded as a double
pump. The ventricles are thicker and firmer
than the auricles the wall of the left
ventricle is thicker and firmer than the right
auricle. This is because blood is pumped out
through the left ventricle to all parts of the
body.. The artrio-ventricular valves
(triscupid and biscupid valves) are attached
to the wall of the ventricles by the chordae
tendinae which controls the mechanism of
the tricuspid valve. The chordae tendinae is
attached to the inner walls of the ventricles
by papillary muscles.
Two large veins – the anterior and posterior vena
cava, bringing dark red e-oxygenated blood from
all parts of the body except the lungs, open into
the right auricle. The pulmonary veins bring bright
red oxygenated blood from the lungs open into the
left auricle. The opening and closing of the veins
are controlled by the rings of muscles that line the
veins.
The right ventricle opens into the pulmonary
artery, which branches into two, one leading to the
right lung and the other to the left lung. These two
arteries carry de-oxygenated blood to the lungs.
The left ventricle opens into the large aorta which
distributes oxygenated blood around the body. The
semi-lunar valves in the arteries prevents the back
flow of blood from the arteries into the ventricles.
 Internal structure of the
human heart
The cardiac cycle
The cardiac cycle

This is caused by alternate contraction and

relaxation of the four chambers of the heart. The
heart beat occurs in two stages which are
diastole and systole
For the first heartbeat, the two auricles relax to
receive blood from the vena cava and the
pulmonary veins. The auricles then contract to
pump blood into the relaxed ventricles
Systole
the ventricles contracts forcing the
blood in the left and the right
ventricle into the aorta and the
pulmonary artery respectively mean
while the back flow of blood into
the auricles is prevented by the
closing of the bicuspid and
tricuspid valve this closure make a
loud “LUB” sound.
Diastole

After the ventricles have fully

contracted, they start to relax the
blood in the arteries tends to flow
back to the ventricles but this is
prevented by the closure of the
semi-lunar valve which then
produce a soft “dub” sound.
In summary

In summary, the contraction of the

ventricles leading to the closure of
the tricuspid and bicuspid valve is
called systole and the sound heard
is the “lub” sound. While the
relaxation of the ventricles leading
to the closure of the semi lunar
valve is called diastole and the
sound heard is the “dub”.
diastole and systole
PULSE
Rhythmic dilation of an artery
generated by the opening and closing
of the aortic valve in the heart. This
rhythmic dilation is caused by the force
which pushes the blood into the arteries
from the aorta. A pulse can be felt by
applying firm fingertip pressure to the
skin at sites where the arteries travel
near the skin's surface; it is more
evident when surrounding muscles are
relaxed.
Causes of fast pulse rate

 Fear
 Rigorous activities
 Fever
 Heart disease
 Over secretion from the thyroid gland
 Over weight in very fat individuals.
Causes of slow pulse rate

Heart disease
Injuries or disorders of the brain
Old age
 Blood pressure
Blood pressure is defined as the force
exerted by the blood against the arterial wall.
The resistance put on by the arteries exerting
a similar pressure on the blood propels the
blood forward towards the capillaries. The
pressure however gets reduced
proportionately with distance from the heart
and so low in the venules and veins. Blood
pressure is measured using a
sphygmomanometer.
The two components of blood pressure are
the systole and diastole as discussed
previously
How blood pressure is maintained

Blood pressure is maintained by the force of

the heart’s contraction and the elasticity of
the arterial walls. This pressure causes blood
to flow in spurts whenever an artery is cut in
a wound. The diminished pressure in the
capillaries and veins makes blood to ooze or
flow gently when a vein is cut in a wound.
Why does increased physical
activity raise heart rate?
During exercise, your body may need three or
four times your normal cardiac output, because
your muscles need more oxygen when you
exert yourself. During exercise,
your heart typically beats faster so
that more blood gets out to your body.
CLASS EXERCISE

1. Describe the mechanism of tooth decay 3mks

2. Give eight differences between veins and arteries
16mks
3. State three functions of the lymphatic system
6mks
Why is heart rate lower in an
individual who does aerobic
exercise regularly?
This is mainly achieved through an increase in the
size of the heart's pumping chambers (ventricles),
which means that your heart doesn't have to beat as
fast to deliver the same amount of blood. This is
evident in a slower resting heart rate, and a
slower heart rate for the same exercise intensity.
WHY DOES HEART RATE CHANGE
WITH BODY POSITION?
It has been shown that heart
rate and blood pressure are higher
in standing and sitting positions due
to gravity
The heart rate generally increases from lying to sitting to
standing as more energy is required to maintain each of these
posture
Note
A low resting pulse, low blood pressure,
and a quick return to resting pulse after
exercise are all indications of excellent
cardiovascular condition.
THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

The plasma which filters into the

extracellular space flows in vessels similar to
blood vessels constitutes the lymphatic
system. It is a clear colourless tissue fluid.
It is formed from blood. In the following
way.
Blood pressure at the arterial end of
capillaries is very high, hence plasma without
its proteins which are too large is forced out
through the capillary wall into the space
between the cells (intercellular space).
The white blood cells can also pass through the blood vessels
since they are amoeboid. This then forms tissue fluid (tissue
fluid is dilute plasma containing white blood cells with no red
cells).
At the venous end of the capillaries which has a lower pressure,
small amount of tissue fluid are absorbed back to the blood
capillaries there by absorbing most of the water back into the
capillaries by osmosis.
The remaining tissue fluid are collected as lymph into another
system of tubes which returns it to the blood these tubes are
called lymphatic vessels or lymphatics. The lymph is rich in
oxygen nutrient and other useful materials. It fills all
intracellular spaces as tissue fluid. When the cells has used up
all the useful materials in it, the carbon dioxide and other waste
are taken towards the heart through the lymphatic vessels.
The lymphatic vessels have some swellings
along their course called lymph nodes which
produce phagocytes and helps to filter out
bacteria from tissue fluid before passing them
on to the lymphocytes to engulf and digest
them.
Before the lymph is emptied into the blood
stream through the left and right subclavian
veins which then take the blood to the right
auricles.
Functions of the lymphatic system

1. It collects and returns interstitial body fluid or tissue

fluid) fluid including plasma proteins to the blood and
thus help maintain fluid balance
2. It defend the body against diseases by producing
lymphocytes
3. It absorbs lipids from the intestine and transport them to
the blood
4. It transport antigens presenting cells like dendritic cells to
the lymph node where an immune response is stimulated
Differences between the lymphatic system
and blood circulatory system
Lymphatic system Blood circulatory system
Mainly fluid, plasma with white blood Consists of plasma, white blood cells
cells no red blood cells and red blood cells and others

Lymph flow is sluggish Blood flow is fast

No respiratory pigment so not so Has respiratory pigment
efficient in transport of oxygen heamoglobin hence transport
oxygen
Lymph flow is facilitated by muscular Blood flow is facilitated by pressure
activities from the heart beat

Collects tissue fluid and returns it Circulates blood round the body and
into the blood stream back to the heart
 TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN
PLANT
1. Lower plants: all lower plants from the single celled to the lower
multicellular plants like spirogyra and bryophyte that lacks vascular
tissues, use their cytoplasm for transport (cytoplasmic streaming).
Most these plants live in water or moist places therefore the cytoplasm
is always supplied with water as such dissolved gases and
manufactured food move round the body by the streaming of the
cytoplasm. While the water product diffuse out of the cell as the
cytoplasm streams. While the materials that needs to be stored are kept
away from the cytoplasm like starch which are stores in the pyrenoids
 TRANSPORT IN VASCULAR
PLANTS
In vascular plants: transportation in vascular plants are aided by the
following processes
 Transpiration
 Translocation
 Root pressure (transport of water)
 Absorption of water and mineral salt.
 Processes that aid
transport in plants 3
 TRANSPORT OF WATER IN THE XYLEM TISSUE: Transport of
water through the xylem tissue of plant is due to the followings;
1. Root pressure and suction pressure: this is created as a result of
difference in osmotic pressure between the cells sap and the
concentration of soil nutrients. The cell sap is always more
concentrated and tends to draw up nutrient. Also, SUCTION
PRESSURE (the total force by which the cells absorb water from the
surrounding) which is normally created when water is lost in form of
transpiration through the stomata of the leaves also contribute to the
movement of water from the soil through the xylem tissue.
Mechanism of transportation of water in
higher plants (root pressure)
Absorption of water and mineral salts takes place
mainly in the zone of roots hairs. Each root hairs is a
fine tubular outgrowth of an epidermal cell. It grows
between the soil [particles thereby coming into close
contact with water containing dissolved mineral salt
surrounding them. The sap in the root air cell is more
concentrated than the surrounding soil solution, and
the root hair cell plasma membrane act as a
selectively permeable membrane, water therefore
enters the root air by osmosis this entry of water then
dilutes the sap of the root hair sap making it more
dilute than that of the next cell therefore the water
continues moving up the plant
Root pressure continues

Hence, water then passes by osmosis

from the root hair cell into the inner .
Similarly, water passes from cell B in
the diagram to the next cell C of the
cortex this process continues until the
water enters the xylem vessels and
move up the plant.
Root pressure is the osmotic pressure within the
cells of a root system that causes sap or water to rise
through the xylem to the leaves. Root pressure
occurs in the xylem of some vascular plants when the
soil moisture level is high either at night or when
transpiration is low during the day.
ROUTE FOLLOWED BY THE
ABSORBED WATER
From the root hair cells through
osmosis and capillarity , passes
to the epidermis to cortical cells
of the root then to the
endodermis then to the pericycle
and finally xylem vessels of the
root from there it is passed to
the xylem of the stem under root
pressure.
Structures of dicot stem and root
Adaptation of the root hair cell to
absorption
1. The root hair is long and narrow this increases the surface area to
volume ratio which in turn increases the rate of absorption of water
and mineral salt
2. The cell sap contains sugars, amino acids and salts. It is more
concentrated than the soil solution and it is prevented from leaking
out of the cell by cell membrane this result in water entering the
root by osmosis
3. The root hair cell absorbs ion and mineral salt against concentration
gradient by active transport this process require energy which is
obtained from cellular respiration in the root hair cell
EXPERIMENT TO SHOW ROOT PRESSURE
IN A YOUNG POTTED PLANT

 AIM: To show root pressure in young potted

plant
 MATERIALS: shoot of young potted plant,
knife, glass tube, rubber band water and
pipette
 METHOD: cut the shoot of the potted plant a
few centimeters above the level of the soil
thus leaving a stump. A glass tube is then
fixed tightly to the stump with a rubber band
and water in introduced into the glass tube
with a pipette to level marked A
 OBSERVATION: After some time, water will be
seen rising from A to B in the glass due to
root pressure.
EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE
THE TISSUE THAT CONDUCT
WATER IN PLANT
 AIM: To determine the tissue that conduct water in plants
 MATERIALS: young seedlings, knife, red ink, water, beaker and
microscope or hand lens
 METHOD: Collect the young seedling and wash the roots under
water to remove soil. Place the seedling in a beaker with the roots
completely covered by a solution of red ink (Eosin solution) and
allow to stand for two hours. Then cut the stem above the solution
and examine under the hand lens or microscope
 OBSERVATION: the red ink will be seen only on the xylem tissue
 CONCLUSION: this shows that the xylem vessels conduct water
from roots to leaves of plants.
 Processes that aid flow of
water continues
Flow of water through the xylem
tissues;
 Capillary action: the upward
movement of water through the
xylem vessel is achieved through
capillary action. The xylem vessels
form a capillary tube from the root
to the leaves. The capillary action
is due to the attraction of the
water molecules and the walls of
the xylem vessels
 Transpiration pull
The continuous flow of water from the
roots to the leaves forms transpiration
stream. When water evaporates from the
leaf cells and more sugar produced from
photosynthesis, the osmotic pressure in
the leaf is increased with respect to that
of the xylem cells. Causing more water to
flow into the leaves from the xylem
vessels creating a pull on the water
column in the xylem and water is drawn
up in the plant
Comparison between root
pressure and transpiration pull
 Turgor Pressure Root Pressure

It is the pressure under which water

It is the pressure of the cell contents of
passes from the living cells into the
a turgid cell on its cell wall.
xylem of root.

It is caused when a cell becomes It is caused due to alternate turgidity

turgid. and flaccidity of root cells.
 TRANSPIRATION

TRANSPIRATION is the removal of excess water from plants into

the atmosphere in form of water vapour.
 Transpiration can occur through the stomata of leaves – stomatal
transpiration,
 Through the lenticels – lenticular transpiration,
 Through the cuticle of leaves – cuticular transpiration.
Transpiration does not occur at night when the stomata is closed
but absorption of water continues at night at a reduced rate.
 Factors that affect
transpiration
 Size of the stomata pore
 Humidity
 Temperature
 Light
 Wind
 Soil water.
 How the factors affect
transpiration
ThePLANT FACTOR
size of the stomatal pores – Turgidity of the
guard cells opens the stoma to enable transpiration,
while the flaccidity of the guard cells closes the
stoma and prevents transpiration. Xerophytes,
have sunken stomata, thick cuticles, thick cell
walls, compact mesophyll and at time a layer of
dead epidermal cells. These adaptive structures
reduce transpiration rate in them. Plants like
whistling pine have needle-like leaves and cactus
does not have any leaves at all. These adaptive
features prevent excessive water loss in the plants.
Sunken stomata
Leaf area

Leaf area – The larger the area of a

leaf, the more the water loss vice
versa.
How the factors affect
transpiration
SOIL FACTOR
Level of soil water – The higher the level of soil
water, the more plant roots absorb and the higher
the rate of transpiration.
How the factors affect
transpiration
ATMOSPHERIC FACTORS
 High light intensity - Sunlight is responsible for the opening of
the stomata. So, the higher the level of sunlight, temperature
increases, photosynthesis takes place which gives rise to high
rate of transpiration.
 Humidity – The higher the humidity of the atmosphere, the
slower the rate of transpiration vice versa.
 Wind – The higher the speed of wind, the higher the rate of
transpiration.
 Temperature – An increase in temperature gives rise to increase
in transpiration vice versa.
 Importance of
transpiration

 Itenables plants to absorb water and mineral salt from the

soil
 It facilitate movement of soil water
 The evaporation of water from the plants due to
transpiration helps to cool the plant
 It removes excess water from the plant.
 Experiment to demonstrate
transpiration in plants
AIM: to demonstrate transpiration in plant
MATERIALS REQUIRED: Bell jar, leafy plant, polyethene
bag, rubber band, pot or beaker, glass sheet and Vaseline paste.
METHOD: Set up the experiment as shown above the rubber
sheet is used to cover the pot and part of the part of the stem of
the potted plant to prevent water from evaporating from the
soil and stem. The potted plant is placed on a Vaseline glass
plate and covered with dried bell jar and the set up placed
under sunlight for about 2 to 5 hours. The control experiment
will contain plant without leave.
OBSERVATION: droplets of
liquid will be observed on the inner
surface of the bell jar in the main
experiment while the control will
not have such liquid.
CONCLUSION: Green plant
transpire.
Precautions to take while carrying out
the experiment
Invert the bell jar over a flat Vaseline glass sheet in
which the potted plant is placed to prevent the
leakage of air into and out of the bell jar to prevent
loss of vapour into the atmosphere
cover the pot and part of the part of the stem of the
potted plant to prevent water from evaporating from
the soil and stem
 EXPERIMEMT TO DEMONSTRATE THE RATE OF
TRANSPIRATION IN PLANT USING A POTOMETER

AIM: To demonstrate the rate of transpiration in

plant using potometer
MATERIALS: Potometer, water, leafy shoot
cut under water, graduated scale and capillary
tube
METHOD: The experiment is set up as shown
below. A leafy shoot is cut under water so that
no air bubbles enter the xylem cell and
inserted as shown in the diagram. As water is
lost from the leaves by transpiration, it is drawn
up from the end that is cut causing to be drawn
into the open end of the capillary tube. All joints
should be air tight and sealed with Vaseline
OBSERVATION: the air bubbles moves
along the capillary tube. Increase in the
speed of wind or high temperature tends
to increase the rate of movement of air
bubbles along the capillary tube.
CONCLUSION: The presence and
movement of air bubbles in the capillary
tube can be used to compare the
transpiration rate under different
conditions
 HOW TO TAKE PHOTOMETER READING
as the plant loses water by transpiration;
- more water is absorbed to maintain the
transpiration stream;
- which causes the air bubble to move;
- from one point to another;
- in the tube;
- the distance travelled by the bubble;
- in a given time interval is read on the scale;
- this reading is taken several times;
- during the duration of the experiment;
- the rate of transpiration is calculated by
average distance travelled per unit time.
Precautions and limitations of the
instrument
 precautions
 The shoot must be cut under water to prevent the
blocking of the xylem vessels by air.
The air bubbles should not move out of the graduated
region, this is controlled by refilling the
- reservoir.

Limitations of the instrument

- The instrument measures the rate of water absorption;
- The instrument does not measure the amount of water
transpired.
Translocation

TRANSLOCATION: this is the

transport of manufactured food from
the leaves of plant to other parts of
the plant. The substances translocated
are sugar, fatty acids, oils, auxins
and alkaloids. Translocated materials
can be traced to the sieve tube of the
phloem tissue.
EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT TRANSLOCATION TAKES
PLACE IN PLANT (RINGING OR GIRDING EXPERIMENT)

AIM: To show that translocation takes place in plant

through the phloem tissue
MATERIALS: Two plants marked X and Y, knife
PROCEDURE: the knife is used to remove the bark and
phloem round one of the plant marked X while only the
bark of the plant marked Y is removed. The plant
marked Y is used as control and both plants are left for
about 2-5
 Image of experimental set –
up (translocation)
OBSERVATION: it will be observed that
swellings begins to appear gradually in the
bark along the ring in the plant marked X but
no such swelling in the plant marked Y. This
swelling in X is due to the accumulation of
food substance passed down from the leaves.
After some time, tree X will finally die
because the manufactured food cannot get to
the roots.
CONCLUSION; Phloem is responsible for
the translocation of food in plants.
 Guttation

Is the loss of water in liquid form through the

margin of plant leaves that grow in humid
atmosphere. It occurs at the early hours of the
morning, especially in grasses. Such plants possess
a special structure at the tip of their veins called
hydathodes. A plant that grows in a warm, humid
atmosphere absorbs water at a faster rate than its rate
of transpiration. Hence the excess water absorbed is
removed as liquid through the hydathodes and not
through the stomata. Do you know that palm wine
is brought to the top of the tree by the influence
of guttation initiated by the root pressure?
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
TRANSPIRATION AND
SWEATING
Transpiration Sweating

Occurs in plants through stomata/lenticels. Occurs in mammals through the skin/ sweat pores

Transpiration involve only loss of water It involves the loss of water, excess salts and nitrogenous
wastes.

Water is lost in form of vapour Water is lost in liquid form.

Occurs during the day Occurs both day and night.

 Differences between guttation and
transpiration
The respiratory system

Respiration is defined as a biochemical activity of

the cell in which glucose is broken down by series of
reaction controlled by enzymes to release energy. Or
it is the oxidation of food substances in the
mitochondria of the cell to release energy, carbon
dioxide and water (aerobic) or energy, carbon dioxide
and alcohol (anaerobic)
 Phases of respiration
External respiration (breathing): This
involves the exchange of gases between
the environment and the respiratory
organs. External respiration is the
breathing in of air (oxygen) into the
lungs called inspiration or inhalation and
the breathing out of air (carbon dioxide
and water vapour out of the lungs) called
exhalation or expiration. There are two
types of external respiration they are
 DIRECT EXTERNAL RESPIRATION

Direct external respiration:

here dissolved oxygen from
the environment diffuse into
the cells. These organisms
does not have specialize
respiratory organ
INDIRECT EXTERNAL RESPIRATION

Indirect external respiration:

these organisms require
specialized respiratory
organs as they become more
complex and diffusion is not
sufficient to cater for their
high oxygen demand
INTERNAL OR TISSUE
RESPIRATION
Internal respiration (tissue
respiration): This is the oxidation of
food substances within the cells to
release energy carbon dioxide and
water. Or it takes place when the
oxygen breathed in is used by the
cells and tissues to break down food
to release energy.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
RESPIRATORY SURFACES
 They have a large surface area to facilitate high rate of gaseous exchange
 The surfaces are thin to shorten the distance in which diffusion will take place
 They are always moist to enable the oxygen to dissolve before entering the blood
or body fluid
 They are permeable so that oxygen and carbon dioxide can pass freely
 The surfaces are well ventilated so that supply of oxygen to the surface and
removal of carbon dioxide from the surface can be efficient
 They must be highly vascularized that is they must be equipped with capillaries to
bring in or take away diffused gases
 They must have adequate supply of transport media like blood.
Some organisms and their
respiratory organs
ORGANISMS RESPIRATORY SYSTEM/ORGAN

Unicellular organism like amoeba and paramecium Body surface

Hydra and tape worm Cell membrane

Earth worm Moist skin or body surface

Fishes Gill filament

Insects Tracheal system

Arachnide e.g. spider Lung book

Tadpole Gills

Reptiles Lungs

Toad and frog Mouth, skin and lungs

Aves Lungs

Mammals Lungs

Flowering plants Stomata and lenticels

Mechanism of respiration

1.UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS (AMOEBA,

PARAMECIUM, CHLAMYDOMONAS,
EUGLENA VIRIDIS): They carry out gaseous
exchange through their body surface. They have
no specialized organ as such the oxygen that
dissolves in water diffuses into their body while
carbon dioxide diffuses out of the body. This is
because the concentration of oxygen is higher in
the water than in their body so it is able to diffuse
into the body while the concentration of carbon
dioxide is higher in their body so it diffuses out
into the surrounding water
INSECTS

Insects uses the tracheal system for

respiration. The tracheal system consists of
a tiny opening in their abdomen called
spiracle through which oxygen diffuse into
the body and carbon dioxide diffuse out of
the body. The spiracle then lead into tube
called the tracheae (singular trachea)
which further divide to form the
tracheoles.
.
 MECHANISM OF GASEOUS
EXCHANGE IN INSECTS
For them to carry out gaseous exchange,
oxygen for respiration is supplied from the
surrounding atmosphere. The abdomen and
thoracic segment expand and contrast causing
the abdomen to increase in size. Air is then
drawn by diffusion into the body through the
spiracle, tracheae, air sac and tracheoles then
to the fluid of the tracheoles. The dissolved
oxygen then diffuse into the cells. The carbon
dioxide and water formed are diffused out
through the reverse route when the thoracic
segment and abdomen relax
FISH

They use their gill for gaseous exchange. They

are arranged in gill chamber they are three of
four. Each gill consists of gill filament (where
gaseous exchange takes place), gill raker (which
prevents particles from entering the gill chamber)
and the gill arch on which the gill filaments are
built. The gill is closed externally by the
operculum.
For the fish to breath,
Mechanism of gaseous exchange
in fish 1. The operculum is closed
2.The mouth is opened
3.The floor of the mouth is lowered
4.Water containing dissolved oxygen rushes into the mouth
of the fish
5.The mouth is the closed
6.The floor of the mouth is raised
7.Water rushes into the gill chamber and moves across the
gill filament
8.Oxygen in the water then diffuses into the gill filaments
while carbon dioxide diffuses out of the body into the
water
9.The operculum is now opened and the water containing
dissolved carbon dioxide is expelled out of the body
through the operculum
TOAD AND FROG: Toad or frog has three method of
carrying out gaseous exchange these methods are
Skin or cutaneous respiration: the adult toad is able to carry
out cutaneous respiration when on land or water. This is
possible because the skin has a large surface area, it is thin
and always moist due to the mucus secreted from the mucus
gland. The skin is also well vascularized. As such the
oxygen in water or land diffuses into the body where it
enters the blood capillaries and mixes with the blood to form
oxyhaemoglobin where it is transported to all body parts
while the carbon dioxide from all body parts diffuses
through the skin
Mouth or buccal respiration
Mouth or buccal respiration: the adult toad respire
with the mouth when on land. For it to carry out
gaseous exchange through the mouth, the
following sequence occur
1.The mouth is closed
2.The nostrils are opened
3.The floor of the buccal cavity is lowered. This
action creates depression a low pressure within the
buccal cavity
4.Air is then forced from outside through the
nostril to occupy the depression.
5.The nostrils are then closed while the mouth
remains closed
6.Oxygen then diffuse into the blood capillaries in
the mouth and carried to all parts of the body
7.Carbon dioxide and water vapour from the body
then diffuses into the capillaries of the buccal
cavity.
8.The floor of the mouth is then raised while the
mouth is still closed
9.Creating a high pressure, the nostrils are then
opened to allow the carbon dioxide and water pass
out to the atmosphere
Pulmonary respiration in toad

Pulmonary or lung respiration in frog and

toad: The adult toad uses the lungs to
respire on land and the process of gaseous
exchange is as follows
1.The mouth is closed
2.The nostrils are opened
3.The floor of the buccal cavity is lowered
4.Atmospheric air is drawn from outside to
occupy the space in the buccal cavity.
5.The floor of the mouth is raised with air
6.The mouth and nostrils are closed
7.The glottis is now opened
8.Air then passes into the lungs where the
oxygen diffuses into the lungs capillaries to
the general circulation
9.Carbon dioxide and water vapour
diffuses from the blood into the lungs and
out through the nostrils to the atmosphere
Respiratory system in mammals
The respiratory system of mammal
consists mouth/ nose, pharynx, larynx or
voice box, trachea or wind pipe, the
bronchus, bronchioles and the alveoli.
The alveoli is also called the air sac.
They are richly supplied with blood
capillaries as such it is the surface where
gaseous exchange takes place. It
communicates with the atmosphere
through a continuous passage of air from
nose/ mouth, pharynx, larynx. Trachea,
bronchi and the bronchioles.
How the alveoli is adapted for
carrying out gaseous exchange

1.The wall are very thin (one cell thick) and elastic to
facilitate exchange of gases between the air sac and
capillaries
2.It has a moist inner surface in which oxygen can
easily dissolve
3.They are rich in blood capillaries as such they
receive oxygenated blood all the time
4.It has large surface area to volume ratio to facilitate
diffusion
How the alveoli works
The lung

It is a spongy organ consisting mainly of

bronchioles, alveoli, network of blood
vessels and capillaries. The organ occupy the
thoracic cavity from the shoulder down to
the diaphragm except the area occupied by
the trachea, blood vessels and heart. The
lung is surrounded by an elastic membrane
called the pleural membrane which makes it
to stretch
 Breathing mechanism
Breathing occur as a result of
movement of ribs, diaphragm and
intercostal muscles resulting in
decrease or increase in volume of
the lungs.
Process of inhalation
1. The thoracic cavity increase in size
2. The diaphragm contract and
becomes flattened
3. The intercostal muscles contract
4. The sternum is moved forward
5. The ribs are moved upward and
outward
6. The volume of the thoracic cavity
increases while the pressure
decreases
7. Air is drawn from outside through
the respiratory system and the size of
the lungs increase
Process of exhalation
1.The thoracic cavity decreases in volume
2. The diaphragm relaxes and assume its dome
shape
3. The intercostal muscle relaxes
4. The sternum moves inward
5. The ribs move downward and inward
6. The thoracic volume decreases while the
pressure increases
7. Air leaves the lungs and the lungs decrease in
size.
Percentages of inhaled and
exhaled air
COMPARISM OF BREATHING MECHANISM IN A
WORKING MODEL WITH MAMMALIAN LUNGS
A breathing mechanism in an experimental set
up can be compared with the working of the
mammalian lungs. From the diagram below the
labelled parts of the model represent the
following in the human breathing mechanisms.
Glass tube represent the trachea
Bell jar represent the lungs
The balloon represent the lungs
The rubber sheet represent the diaphragm
Latter A represent bronchus
Letter B represent thoracic chamber
The process in diagram 1 is inhalation while
diagram 2 is expiration
RESIDUAL AIR

During breathing out/expiration/exhalation; not all

the air is removed from the lungs; the air left inside
the lungs during breathing out is residual air.
Importance of Residual Air
Air is left in the lungs so that the lungs do not
collapse;
Air is always left inside the lungs so that more
oxygen can be removed (diffuse) into the blood
stream.
OXYGEN DEBT

The buildup of lactic acid; during strenuous exercise is

poisonous and makes the muscles ache; oxygen is needed to
break down/get rid of the lactic acid; that is why athletes
continue breathing heavily even after the exercise is over; the
oxygen needed to get rid of the lactic acid is known as
oxygen debt.
Activities that can result in oxygen debt
Running; boxing; swimming
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM IN PLANTS

Plants do not have special respiratory organs for

gaseous exchange. But gases move in and out of the
cells through the stomata on the leaves and lenticels
on the stem.
STOMATA

these are thin opening found

on the leaf epidermis. It is
surrounded by a beans
shaped structure called the
guard cell which controls its
opening and closing.
Stomata are more in the
lower epidermis than in the
upper epidermis.
STRUCTURE OF THE STOMATA
 MECHANISM OF OPENING OF
STOMATA
During the day, sugar manufactured
during photosynthesis increases the
concentration of the cell sap. Water moves
from the adjacent epidermal cell into the
guard cell by osmosis making the guard cell
turgid. This causes the thinner outer cell
wall to bulge out and press into the
adjacent epidermal cells there by causing
the thicker inner cell wall to assume a
crescent shape there by opening the
stomata.
MECHAISM OF CLOSING OF
STOMATA
At night, when photosynthesis has ceased,
the sugar in the guard cells is converted to
starch. The concentration of the cell sap of
the guard cells is now lower than the
adjacent epidermal cell. Water then moves
by osmosis from the guard cells to the
adjacent epidermal cell. This makes the
guard cells to shrink and becomes flaccid
due to loss of water causing the inner cell
wall to straighten and close the stomata.
FACTORS AFFECTING
OPENINGAND CLOSING OF
STOMATA
1. Concentration of carbon dioxide: when carbon dioxide is more than 0.04%
in concentration, the stomata closes but opens when it is less than 0.04%
2. Dry weather: when the weather is dry and hot, the rate of transpiration
increases stomata pores has to close to conserve water for the plant
3. Acidity: High acidity in the guard cells prevent or inhibits the action of
enzymes that digest starch. However, starch in the guard cells makes the guard
cells to lose water and become flaccidity. Stomata therefore closes up. Low
acidity stimulates the action of enzymes to convert starch. Increase in sugar
content increases water volume of the guard cells by osmosis. The guard cells
swells and stomata pores are open
LENTICEL

These are tiny openings found in the bark of

older stem. It consist of thin wall cells to
permit diffusion of gases. Under each lenticels
are cork cells that are loosely arranged with
many intercellular spaces between them.
Cork cambium gives rise to cork cells. The
cork cells are dead and lined with waxy
material called suberin which reduces loss of
water from the plant. Lenticel remains open
throughout the life of the plant.
MECHANISM OF GASEOUS
EXCHANGE IN PLANTS
The shoot system of flowering plants gets oxygen from the atmosphere and
give out carbon dioxide and water vapour through the stomata of the leaves and
lenticels of the stem through diffusion. As a result in difference in
concentration gradient, oxygen is taken in through the stomata and lenticel
especially at night to give out carbon dioxide and water.
But during the day, oxygen and water vapour from photosynthesis diffuse out
to the exterior through the stomata and lenticels.
NOTE: turgidity of guard cell quicken the opening of the stomata while
flaccidity of the guard cells causes the closing of the guard cell. Gaseous
exchange is made possible when the guard cell is open so gaseous exchange
takes place in plant when the plant is turgid.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
RESPIRATION AND
PHOTOSYNTESIS
REPIRATION PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Occurs in all living cells Takes place only in green plants (autotrophs)

Takes place at all times Takes place in the presence of sunlight

It is a catabolic process It is an anabolic process

High energy containing food are used Food substance are built up

The bye product are carbon dioxide and water The bye product is oxygen

Respiration releases energy It uses up energy

It result in decrease in weight It results in increase in weight.

Excretory system

Excretion is defined as the process by which waste product

of metabolic activities are removed from the body of living
organisms.
Note: egestion and secretion are not the same as excretion.
While egestion is the removal of undigested food from the body
in form of solid through the anus which are not bye products of
metabolic activities, secretion is the production of useful
substances like enzymes and hormones by metabolic processes
in the body.
Excretory mechanisms in some
organisms 1.Contractile vacuole of unicellular organisms
like amoeba and paramecium: this is found in
fresh water protozoa like amoeba. The cytoplasm
of these organisms has a higher solute
concentration than their environment as such
water molecule will move into the cell by
osmosis. If the excess water is not removed, the
cell will swell and burst (cytolysis). But the
excess water gradually enters the contractile
vacuole until it is filled with water. The ions are
pumped back into the cytoplasm by active
transport. The water is then removed from the
contractile vacuole through a pore in the cell
membrane to the exterior.
Flame cell in flatworm

These are two excretory canals which run along the

length of the body which consist of a network of
branched tubules which terminate in excretory cells
called the flame cell.
Waste materials like ammonia and carbon dioxide
moves from the interstitial fluid into the flame cell
where the rapid beating of flagella and cilia move
liquids containing the waste material along the tubule.
The tubule opens externally through nephropores
which is an opening on the dorsal surface of the body
where waste materials are excreted to the exterior .
Nephridium in earthworm

This is an excretory tubule that function like the kidney to

remove waste from the body. It is found in earth worm.
In earth worm, a pair of nephridia is found is located at every
segment of the body. One end of the Nephridium consist of s
ciliated funnel called the nephrostom while the rest consist of
a coiled and muscular tube. Waste product from the blood
enters the nephridum through the blood capillaries or the body
fluid. As the material moves along the tubule, some useful
substances like glucose and salt are reabsorbed into the
circulation through the walls of the tube. The waste is then
stored temporarily in a muscular tube like bladder before it is
removed from the body through the nephridiopore. The
excreted fluid contains mainly water and nitrogenous waste.
Malpighian tubule in insect
This tubule extends from the alimentary system and
are located between the mid and hind gut. It is lined
by a single epithelial layer and has a proximal end
which opens into the gut and a distal end which close
and project into the heamocoel (body cavity with
blood). Nitrogenous waste and water which enters the
heamocoel are absorbed at the distal end of the tubule
where the nitrogenous waste are converted to uric
acid and passed along the Malpighian tubule towards
the gut. Lot of water is also reabsorbed here so that
by the time the uric acid gets to the proximal end if
the tubule it becomes a solid crystal. In the hind gut,
more water is reabsorbed by rectal glands. Thus the
urine with faeces which eventually leaves the body is
very concentrated i.e almost a dry solid.
Excretion in mammals

There are four excretory organs used by mammals and these

include
 Lungs which excrete water vapor and carbon dioxide
 Skin which excretes water, salt and urea
 Liver which excrete bile pigment called bilirubin
 Kidney excretes water, mineral salt, urea, uric acid and
creatinine. In mammal the major excretory organ is the
kidney.
Structure of the kidney

The kidney are two and numbers and they

are shaped like a bean. It is reddish brown
and located in the posterior end of the
abdomen. The kidney has two regions which
are the outer cortex and the inner medulla. It
consist of millions of fine narrow tubules
called urinary tubules or nephrons which
passes through both regions. The kidney has
many blood capillaries as well as renal vein
which takes blood away from and renal
artery which takes blood to the kidneys.
Structure of the nephron
Structure of the nephron

Each kidney tubule begins in the cortex as a cup-like structure

called the Bowman’s capsule. The capsule leads into a short
convoluted tubule (coiled tubule) which straightens out as it
passes into the medulla. In the medulla, the tubule makes a U-
turn and passes back into the cortex where it becomes a
convoluted again. It then opens into the collecting tubule which
runs straight through the medulla and eventually opens into the
renal pelvis. The U-shaped portion of the tubule is known as
the loop of Henle.
The Malpighian corpuscles

The Malpighian corpuscle is named after the

Italian scientist, Malpighian who discovered it
and other known structures in the early days
of the microscope. The afferent arteriole
brings blood into the glomerulus while the
efferent arteriole conveys blood away. The
circumference of the afferent arteriole is wider
than the circumference of the efferent
arteriole. Ultrafiltration occurs in the
glomerulus.
Mechanism of urine formation

The process involved in urine formation occurs in three

stages which are
 Ultrafiltration
 Selective reabsorption
 Tubular secretion
 Blood from the renal artery enters the bowman’s capsule; through
the afferent arteriole; ultra filtration occurs in the Bowman’s
capsule; high pressure in the glomerulus causes the filtration of
small molecules/amino acids/ glucose/ minerals salts/ water/ urea;
out of the blood plasma into the cavity of the capsule; the
filtrate/glomerular filtrate passes through the nephron; where
selective reabsorption of useful metabolites/glucose/amino acids
take place;

in the descending/first/proximal convoluted/coiled tubule; the

reabsorption of salts and water is regulated in the loop of Henle; and
the ascending/second/distal convoluted tubule/large waste
molecules like creatinine secreted at loop of Henle; depending on
blood concentration; the filtrate continues into the main collecting
duct/tube; where further reabsorption of water and salt takes place;
the remaining fluid in the duct becomes urine.
1. Ultrafiltration

The blood from the body parts is carried

to the kidney by the renal artery which
blood then enters the glomerulus of the
nephron at high pressure where protein
and blood cells are retained but urea,
nitrogenous compounds, mineral salts,
sugar, water and glucose are filtered
from the glomerulus into the
BOWMAN’S capsule this process is
called ultrafiltration.
How high pressure is created in
the Bowman’s capsule
1. The afferent arteriole (small blood
vessel leading into the glomerulus)
has a much larger diameter than the
efferent arteriole (small blood vessel
leaving the glomerulus). This creates
a build up of pressure, forcing the
small molecules in the plasma like
water and urea out of the glomerulus
and into the Bowman's capsule
2. Proximity of the renal artery to the
heart
Selective reabsorption

When the fluid gets to the proximal

convoluted tubule and the Henle’s loop
some water, sugar, amino acid and salt
which are useful to the body are
reabsorbed into the blood against
concentration gradient or active transport.
This process is of reabsorbing material
back into the blood is called selective
reabsorption.
Hormonal secretion

The fluid in the tubule which is now

concentrated flows through the distal tubule
where more water is reabsorbed by the action of
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and urine is finally
formed. The urine gradually trickles down the
renal pelvis then to the ureter and to the bladder.
When the bladder is full, the urine is discharged
through the urethra.
How does the structure of the
kidney relates to its function
The kidney consists of a huge number of functional units called
nephrons where urine is formed
1. It has glomerulus within the nephron here ultrafiltration takes
place that is small molecules are filtered out of the blood
2. There is a proximal convoluted tubule which gives it a high
surface areas where substances that are needed in the body are
selectively reabsorbed
3. The collecting duct and distal convoluted tubule responds to
hormones like ADH which helps in osmoregulation of he blood
4. It is supplied with blood containing waste material by the renal
artery which branches into the renal arterioles
The urinary tubule
The dialysis machine (artificial
kidney)
This machine consists of a long cellulose
tube coiled up in a water bath. The patients
blood is led from a vein in the arm and
pumped through the cellulose (dialysis)
tubing. The small pores in the dialysis tubing
allows small molecules like salt, glucose and
urea to leak out into the water bath. Blood
cells and proteins are too large to leak into
the water bath. This stage is similar to the
filtration process in the glomerulus.
To prevent a loss of glucose and essential
salts from the blood, the liquid in the water
bath consists of a solution of salts and sugar
of the correct composition so that only the
substances above this concentration can
diffuse out of the blood into the bathing
solution thus urea, uric acid and excess salt
are removed. The bathing solution is also
kept at body temperature and changed
constantly as unwanted blood solute
accumulates in it
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EXCRETORY
ORGAN OF EARTHWORM AND MAMMAL
EXCRETORY SYSTEM OF EARTHWORM EXCETORY SYSTEM OF MAMMAL

It has a ciliated funnel called nephrostone There is no ciliated funnel

A pair of nephridia is arranged in each segment Nephrons are not arranged in segments

Each segment has its own pair of excretory organ All nephrons unite to form a main collecting tubule which
called nephridia which discharge waste products empties into renal pelvis and is discharged through a single
outside the body opening.
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN EXCRETORY ORGAN IN
EARTHWORM AND MAMMAL

 1.Both are made of complicated network of long coiled

tubule and well supplied with blood vessels
 2. Both filter their excretory products
 3. Both reabsorb useful materials in the tubule.
 4. Both excrete urea.
 5.Both have bladder for temporary storage of excretory
products.
Excretion in flowering plants
 Flowering plants have no special excretory organs. Waste materials are disposed of
through various parts of the plants. The main excretory organs are stomata and lenticels.
 Carbon dioxide is excreted by diffusion through the stomata and lenticels.
 Water: Water is excreted by diffusion out of the stomata or lenticel and through
transpiration or guttation.
 Oxygen produced during photosynthesis is removed or eliminated by diffusion via the
stomata or the lenticels.
 Oils and resins: These are stored in the cell cytoplasm where they are kept from the
system until they are eliminated.
 Latex: latex is stored in tube-like system in tissues and kept in harmless until they ooze
out of the plant when part of it is damaged.
 Tannins, mucilage, gum, crystals, alkaloids and anthocyanin – These pigments are
converted into insoluble compounds and deposited in dead tissues like the bark of stems,
leaves and petals which are shed periodically.