Unit 1: Basic Concepts

1. Components of Data Communication:

Sender: The device or entity that originates the message, often referred to as the
source or transmitter.
Receiver: The device or entity that receives the message from the sender, also
known as the destination.
Transmission Medium: The physical path between the sender and receiver. It can
be wired (like coaxial cables, fiber optics) or wireless (like radio waves,
microwaves).
Protocols: A set of rules that determine how data is transmitted over a network.
Protocols ensure that the data is delivered in a secure, reliable, and efficient
manner (e.g., TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP).

2. Distributed Processing:
Concept: Distributed processing refers to the use of multiple computers to
process data. Each computer (node) works on a part of the problem
independently and communicates results with others.
Advantages:

Resource Sharing: Resources like hardware and software can be shared

across multiple systems.
Reliability: If one node fails, the system can continue functioning by
redistributing tasks.
Modularity: Systems can be designed with independent modules, making
them easier to scale and modify.

3. Standards and Organizations:

Importance of Standards: Standards ensure uniformity and compatibility
between different network devices and protocols. They ensure the devices can
communicate with each other, regardless of manufacturer.
Key Organizations:

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers): Develops standards like

IEEE 802 (for Ethernet, wireless).
ISO (International Organization for Standardization): Develops international
standards, including the OSI model.
ITU-T (International Telecommunication Union - Telecommunication
Standardization Sector): Develops global telecommunication standards, such
 as the recommendation for modem protocols.

4. Line Configuration:
Point-to-Point: A communication link between two devices (e.g., a phone call
between two phones).
Multipoint: A communication link involving multiple devices, allowing them to
communicate with one another (e.g., a conference call).

5. Topology:
Bus: All devices share a common communication medium. If the bus fails, all
devices are affected.
Star: All devices are connected to a central hub. If the hub fails, the network is
disrupted.
Ring: Devices are connected in a circular fashion. Data moves in one direction. A
failure in one device can disrupt the whole network.
Mesh: Every device is connected to every other device, providing multiple paths.
This ensures redundancy but is expensive.
Tree: A hybrid topology combining characteristics of star and bus topologies.
Often used in large networks.

6. Transmission Mode:
Simplex: One-way communication. Data flows in only one direction (e.g.,
keyboard to computer).
Half-duplex: Two-way communication, but only one direction at a time (e.g.,
walkie-talkies).
Full-duplex: Two-way communication where both directions can occur
simultaneously (e.g., telephones).

7. Categories of Networks:
LAN (Local Area Network): A network within a small geographical area, such as a
home, office, or building. Typically uses Ethernet.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): A network spanning a city or large campus.
It is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN.
WAN (Wide Area Network): A network that spans large geographical areas, such
as a country or the globe. The internet is the largest example of a WAN.

8. OSI and TCP/IP Models:

 OSI Model: A conceptual framework used to understand network interactions in
seven layers.

Layer 1: Physical (Hardware transmission of data)

Layer 2: Data Link (Error correction, framing)
Layer 3: Network (Routing, IP addressing)
Layer 4: Transport (Error control, flow control)
Layer 5: Session (Synchronization, dialog control)
Layer 6: Presentation (Data translation, encryption)
Layer 7: Application (End-user communication protocols)
TCP/IP Model: The foundational model of the internet, with four layers:

Link Layer: Includes the physical and data link layers.

Internet Layer: Includes the network layer (IP).
Transport Layer: Similar to OSI’s transport layer (TCP, UDP).
Application Layer: Encompasses the functions of the OSI’s application,
presentation, and session layers.

Key Differences: OSI is a theoretical model with more layers, while TCP/IP is
practical and directly implemented in the internet.

Unit 2: Transmission Media

1. Guided Media:
Coaxial Cable: Consists of a central conductor, insulating layer, metal shield, and
outer cover. Used for television and internet connections.
Twisted Pair: Pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together. It is used in
telecommunication systems (e.g., telephone lines).
Fiber Optic: Uses light signals to transmit data through glass or plastic fibers. It
offers high bandwidth and is immune to electromagnetic interference.

2. Unguided Media:
Wireless: Uses air or space for transmission, such as radio waves or microwaves.
Satellite: Communication through satellites in orbit, used for broadcasting,
internet, and military applications.
3. Attenuation:
Signal loss as it travels through a medium. The longer the distance, the more the
signal weakens.

4. Distortion:
The alteration of a signal's original shape due to environmental factors (e.g.,
electrical interference).

5. Noise:
Thermal Noise: Caused by the random motion of electrons in a conductor.
Interference: External signals disrupting the transmission.

6. Throughput:
The actual data transfer rate achieved in a network, often less than the maximum
capacity due to factors like congestion and error rates.

7. Propagation Speed and Time:

Speed of the signal traveling through the medium. Factors such as the material of
the medium and the signal type affect propagation time.

8. Wavelength:
The distance between successive peaks of a wave. In optical communication,
wavelength is crucial for determining the bandwidth and speed of transmission.

9. Shannon Capacity:
The maximum theoretical data rate of a communication channel, based on its
bandwidth and noise level, given by the Shannon-Hartley theorem.

Unit 3: Telephony
1. Multiplexing:
TDM (Time Division Multiplexing): Divides the available time into slots and
allocates each slot to a signal.
FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing): Divides the available bandwidth into
frequency bands for each signal.
 WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing): Uses different wavelengths (colors) of
light to transmit multiple signals simultaneously in fiber-optic networks.

2. Switching:
Circuit Switching: Dedicated communication path is established between sender
and receiver for the duration of the call (e.g., traditional telephone networks).
Packet Switching: Data is split into packets and sent independently, where each
packet can take different routes (e.g., the internet).
Message Switching: Entire message is routed and stored before being forwarded
to the next node. It is slow and less efficient.

3. Data Link Control Protocols:

Flow Control (Sliding Window): Ensures that the sender does not overwhelm the
receiver with data.
Error Control (Checksums, ARQ): Mechanisms to detect and correct errors in
transmission.
Synchronous vs. Asynchronous Transmission: Synchronous uses a clock to
synchronize the sender and receiver; asynchronous sends data without
synchronization, with start and stop bits.

4. PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol):

LCP (Link Control Protocol): Used to establish, configure, and test data link
connections.
NCP (Network Control Protocol): Configures different network-layer protocols.
Authentication: Ensures that the peer is authenticated using PAP or CHAP.

5. ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network):

Provides digital transmission of voice, data, and video over a single network.
Bearer Services: Provides basic communication channels for voice and data.
Teleservices: Services that provide value-added features like video
conferencing.

Unit 4: Devices and Network Layer

1. Network Devices:
 Repeaters: Amplify signals over long distances to overcome attenuation.
Hubs: Basic devices used in LANs that broadcast data to all connected devices.
Bridges: Used to divide networks into segments and reduce traffic by filtering.
Switches: Operate at Layer 2 to forward frames based on MAC addresses, making
more intelligent decisions than hubs.
Routers: Operate at Layer 3 to route packets between different networks using IP
addresses.
Gateways: Act as a bridge between different networks with different protocols.

2. Network Layer:
Routing Algorithms:

Distance Vector: Determines the best route based on the distance to the
destination.
Link State: Each router maintains a map of the network and makes routing
decisions based on the network's current state.
Congestion Control:

Flow Control: Manages the rate of data transmission to prevent congestion.

Traffic Shaping: Regulates the flow of data to ensure the network is not
overwhelmed.

3. Internetworking:
The process of connecting different networks, such as LANs to WANs, using
devices like routers and gateways.

4. Internet Protocol (IP):

IPv4: 32-bit address format used for identifying devices on the network.
IPv6: 128-bit address format, designed to replace IPv4 and provide more address
space.

Unit 5: Transport and Upper Layers

1. Transport Layer:
Functions: Ensures reliable data transmission, error correction, and flow control.
 TCP: Connection-oriented, provides error correction and retransmission.
UDP: Connectionless, faster, but does not guarantee reliability.

2. Session Layer:
Manages sessions or connections between two systems, providing
synchronization, checkpointing, and recovery.

3. Presentation Layer:
Responsible for data format translation, encryption, and compression to ensure
data can be understood by the receiver.

4. Application Layer:
Provides end-user services, such as email (SMTP), file transfer (FTP), web browsing
(HTTP), and domain name resolution (DNS).