14 15

CHAPTER 2 SIMPLE STRAIN tensile load and the stress-strain diagram has a positive slope from C to D. The load eventually reaches its
maximum value and the corresponding stress at point D is called the ultimate stress. Further stretching of the
2-a. Introduction bar is actually accompanied by a reduction in the load, and fracture finally occurs at a point such as E, known as
rupture strength.
The strength of the material is not the only criterion that must be considered in designing structures. The
stiffness of a material is of equal importance. The mechanical properties such as hardness, toughness and
ductility determine the selection of a material. Strain can be thought of as a measure of the deformation
characteristics of a load-carrying member. Any structure will deform when subject to an external load; hence,
strain is always associated with stress.
An axially loaded member undergoes a change in length, becoming longer when in tension and shorter
when in compression. The change in length, called normal or linear strain, is a measure of deformation per unit
length of a member. To obtain the unit deformation or strain, denoted by the Greek letter , we divide the
elongation by the length L in which it was measured, thereby obtaining
Eq. 2.1
L
The strain so computed, however, measures only the average value of strain. The correct expression for strain at
any position is
d
dL Fig. 2-1
where d is the differential elongation of the differential length dL. However, under certain conditions, the
strain may be assumed constant and its value computed from the equation for average stress for the following Lateral contraction of the specimen occurs when it is stretched, resulting in a decrease in the cross-
conditions: sectional area. The reduction in area is too small to have a noticeable effect on the calculated value of stress up
1. The specimen must be of constant cross section. to about point C, but beyond that point the reduction begins to alter the shape of the diagram. The true stress is
2. The material must be homogeneous. larger than the nominal stress because it is calculated with a smaller area. In the vicinity of the ultimate stress,
3. The load must be axial, that is, produce uniform stress. the reduction in area of the bar becomes clearly visible and a pronounced necking of the bar occurs. If the actual
cross-sectional area at the narrow part of the neck is used to calculate the stress, the true stress-strain curve will
Because normal strain is a ratio of two lengths, it is a dimensionless quantity. However, in practice, it is follow the dashed line . The total load the bar can carry diminishes after the ultimate stress is reached (curve
common to use units of meters per meter or inches per inch. DE), but this reduction is due to the decrease in area of the bar and not to a loss in strength of the material itself.
In reality, the material withstands an increase in stress up to failure (point ).
2-b. Stress- Strain Diagram
The mechanical properties of materials used in engineering are determined by tests performed on small 2- : Axial and Shearing Deformations
specimens of the material. The tests are conducted in materials-testing laboratories equipped with testing Most structural materials have an initial region on the stress-strain diagram in which the material
machines capable of loading the specimens in a variety of ways. behaves both elastically and linearly (the region from the origin O up to the proportional limit at point A in Fig.
The most common materials test is the tension test, in which tensile loads are applied to a cylindrical 2-1). When a material behaves elastically and also exhibits a linear relationship between stress and strain, it is
specimen. The ends of the specimen are gripped between the jaws of the testing machine. Values of the load said to be linearly elastic. This type of behavior is extremely important in engineering because many structures
and the elongation in a specified length, called the gage length, are observed simultaneously. These data are and machines are designed to function at low levels of stress in order to avoid permanent deformations from
then plotted on a graph with the ordinate representing the load and the abscissa representing the elongation. yielding or plastic flow. Linear elasticity in the initial region of the stress-strain diagram is a property of many
Fig. 2-1 shows the stress-strain diagram of a typical structural steel in tension. Strains are plotted on the solid materials including metals, wood, concrete, plastics, and ceramics.
horizontal axis and stresses on the vertical axis. The diagram begins with a straight line from the origin O to The linear relationship between stress and strain for a bar in simple tension or compression can be
point A, which means that the stress and strain are proportional. Beyond point A, the proportionality between expressed by the equation
stress and strain no longer exists; hence the stress at A is called the proportional limit. The slope of the straight
E
line from O to A is called the modulus of elasticity. Because stain is non-dimensional, this slope has the same
units as stress. With an increase in the load beyond the proportional limit, the strain begins to increase more in which E is a constant of proportionality known as the modulus of elasticity for the material. The modulus of
rapidly for each increment in stress. The slope of the stress-strain curve then becomes smaller and smaller, until, elasticity is the slope of the stress-strain diagram in the linearly elastic region, and its value depends upon the
at point B, the curve becomes horizontal. Beginning at this point, considerable elongation occurs, with no particular material being used.
noticeable increase in the tensile force (from B to C). This phenomenon is known as yielding of the material, The equation = E is commonly known as Law, named after the famous English scientist
and point B is called the yield point. The corresponding stress is known as the yield stress of the steel. In the Robert Hooke who first investigated the elastic properties of materials, thus establishing the linear relationship
region from B to C, the material becomes perfectly plastic, which means that it can deform without an increase between the applied load and the resulting elongation. Another English scientist, Thomas Young, introduced the
in the applied load. constant of proportionality E
After undergoing the large strains that occur during yielding in the region BC, the steel begins to strain of elasticity.
harden. During strain hardening, the material undergoes changes in its atomic and crystalline structure, resulting
in increased resistance of the material to further deformation. Additional elongation now requires an increase in
 16 17

by its equivalent P
and replacing 3. An 18-m-long steel wire of 5-mm diameter is to be used in the manufacture of a prestressed concrete beam.
A It is observed that the wire stretches 45 mm when a tensile force P is applied. Knowing that E = 200 GPa,
by resulting to the equation determine (a) the magnitude of the force P, (b) the corresponding normal stress in the wire. (Beer, 2012)
L Ans. a) 9.82 kN (b) 500 MPa
PL
or Eq. 2.2
AE E 4. Two gage marks are placed exactly 250 mm apart on a 12-mmdiameter aluminum rod. Knowing that, with
This equation is subject to all restrictions previously discussed in connection with the equation for axial an axial load of 6000 N acting on the rod, the distance between the gage marks is 250.18 mm, determine the
deformation which are modulus of elasticity of the aluminum used in the rod. (Beer, 2012) Ans. 73.7 GPa
1. The load must be axial.
2. The bar must have a constant cross section and be homogeneous.
5. The rod ABC is made of an aluminum for which E = 70 GPa. Knowing that P = 6 kN and Q = 42 kN,
3. The stress must not exceed the proportional limit.
determine the deflection of points A and B. (Beer, 2012) Ans. A B = 0.0919 mm
Shearing forces cause a shearing deformation in which the element subject to shear undergoes a change
in shape from a rectangle to a parallelogram, as shown in Fig. 2-2. The action may be visualized as equivalent
to the infinitesimal sliding and infinitely thin layers past each other, thereby resulting in the total shearing A
deformation s in the length L.

Ps s a
P1

B
L
b
C

Ps
c
Fig. 2-2 P2

The average shearing strain, , is found by dividing s by L; i. e., D

s
P3
L
Fig. 5 Fig. 6
= G 6. A homogeneous prismatic bar is loaded by forces P1, P2, and P3 acting at points B, C, and D, respectively.
in which G represents the modulus of rigidity. The relation between the shearing deformation and applied The dimensions of the bar are as follows: a = 1.0 m, b = 0.4 m, and c = 0.6 m. Assuming that P2 = 15 kN
shearing forces is expressed by and P3 = 9 kN, determine the force P1 so that the lower end D of the bar does not move vertically when the
VL
loads are applied. (Gere, 1991) Ans. 39 kN
s
AsG
7. A bronze bar is fastened between a steel bar and an aluminum bar as shown in the figure. Axial loads are
in which V is the shearing force acting over the shearing area As. applied at the points indicated. Find the largest value of P that will not exceed an overall deformation of
3.0 mm or the following stresses: 140 MPa in the steel, 120 MPa in the bronze, and 80 MPa in the
EXERCISES aluminum. Assume that the assembly is suitably braced to prevent buckling. Use Es = 200 GPa, Ea = 70
GPa, and Eb = 83 GPa. (Pytel, 1987) Ans. 12.8 kN
1. A uniform bar of length L, cross-sectional A, and a unit mass is suspended vertically from one end. Show Bronze
A = 650 mm2
2

that its total elongation is . If the total mass of the bar is M, show also that MgL
. (Pytel, 1987) Steel Aluminum
2 AE P A = 480 mm2 A = 320 mm2 2P
2E
3P 4P
2. A steel rod having a cross-sectional area of 300 mm2 and a length of 150 m is suspended vertically from one
end. It supports a tensile load of 20 kN at the lower end. If the unit mass of steel is 7850 kg/m 3 and E = 200 1.0 m 2.0 m 1.5 m
103 MPa, find the total elongation of the rod. (Pytel, 1987) Ans. 54.33 mm
 18 19

8. The rigid bar ABC shown is hinged at A and supported by a steel rod at B. Determine the largest load P that 11. The length of the 2-mm diameter steel wire CD has been adjusted so that with no load applied, a gap of 1.5
can be applied at C if the stress in the steel rod is limited to 30 ksi and the vertical movement of end C must mm exists between the end B of the rigid beam ACB and a contact point E. Knowing that E = 200 GPa,
not exceed 0.10 in. (Pytel, 1987) Ans. 4833.33 lb determine where a 20-kg block should be placed on the beam in order to cause contact between B and E.
(Beer, 2009) Ans. 92.6 mm

Steel
L = 4 ft
A = 0.50 in2
E = 29 10 6 psi

B C
A
2 ft 3 ft
P
12. As shown in the figure, two aluminum rods AB and BC, hinged to rigid supports, are pinned together at B to
9. The rigid bar AB, attached to vertical rods as shown in the figure, is horizontal before the load P is applied. carry a vertical load P = 6000 lb. If each rod has a cross-sectional area of 0.60 in2 and E = 10 106 psi,
Determine the vertical movement of P if its magnitude is 50 kN. (Pytel, 1987) Ans. 1.878 mm compute the elongation of each rod and the horizontal and vertical displacements of point B. (Pytel, 1987)
Ans H = 0.0277 ; V = 0.192

Steel 10 ft
L=4m
A = 300 mm2
Aluminum E = 200 GPa 30
L=3m B
A = 500 mm2
30
E = 70 GPa
6 ft
P C
A B
3.5 m 2.5 m 13. The steel bars AB and BC are pinned at each end and support the load of 200 kN as shown in the figure. The
P material is structural steel having a yield stress of 200 MPa and safety factors of 2 and 3.5 for tension and
compression, respectively. Determine the size of each bar and also the horizontal and vertical components
of displacement of point B. Take E = 200 GPa. Neglect any possibility of lateral buckling of bar BC.
10. The rigid bars AB and CD shown are supported by pins at A and C and the two rods. Determine the
Ans. AAB = 1732 mm2; ABC = 1750 mm2; h = 0.37 ; v=
maximum force P that can be applied as shown if its vertical movement is limited to 5 mm. Neglect the
weights of the members. (Pytel, 1987) Ans. 76.364 kN

Aluminum
L=2m
A = 500 mm2
E = 70 GPa
A 3m 3m B

Steel
L=2m
A = 300 mm2
E = 200 GPa

C D
14. The two bars AB and AC shown are pinned at each end and subject to a single vertical force P. Bar AB is
P titanium having an area of 1000 mm2, length of 2.4 m, and E = 110 GPa. Bar CB is steel having an area of
400 mm2, length of 2.4 m, and E = 200 GPa. What are the horizontal and vertical components of
displacement of the pin B if P = 600 kN? Ans. h = 2.83 mm; v = 10.4 mm
 20 21

2-d. Statically Indeterminate Members 4. Three parallel and adjacent steel bars (E = 200 GPa) jointly carry a tensile load P = 1300 kN. The cross-
sectional area of each bar is 3900 mm2, and the length is 6 m. If the middle bar is accidentally shorter than
There are certain combinations of axially loaded members in which the equations of static equilibrium
the other two by 0.76 mm, what will be the final stress in the middle bar when the load P is applied?
are not sufficient for a solution. This condition exists in structures where the reactive forces or the internal
Assume that the ends of the bars are pulled into alignment by the rigid end plate when the load is applied.
resisting forces over a cross section exceed the number of independent equations for equilibrium. Such cases are
(Gere, 1991) Ans. 128 MPa
called statically indeterminate and require the use of additional relations that depend on the elastic deformations
of the members; i.e., additional geometric relations between the elastic deformations produced by the loads.

EXERCISES
1. The 1.5 m concrete post is reinforced with six steel bars, each with a 28-mm diameter. Determine the
maximum centric force P that may be applied if the allowable normal stress is 160 MPa in the steel and 18
MPa in the concrete. Use Es = 200 GPa and Ec = 25 GPa. (Beer, 2006) Ans. 3330 kN

5. The assembly in the figure consists of a light rigid bar AB, pinned at O, that is attached to the steel and
aluminum rods. In the position shown, bar AB is horizontal and there is a gap = 5 mm between the lower
end of the steel rod and its pin support at C. Compute the stress in the aluminum rod when the lower end of
the steel rod is attached to its support. (Pytel, 1987) Ans. 130.802 MPa
0.75 m 1.5 m
O
A B

Steel Aluminum
A = 250 mm2 A = 300 mm2
E = 200 GPa E = 70 GPa
L=2m

2. Two cylindrical rods, one of steel and the other of brass, are joined at C and restrained by rigid supports at A
and E. For the loading shown and knowing that Es = 200 GPa and Eb = 105 GPa, determine a) the reactions C D
at A and E, b) the deflection of point C. (Beer, 2012) Ans. a) RA RE
10 3

6. As shown in the figure, a rigid bar with negligible mass is pinned at O and attached to two vertical rods.
Assuming that the rods were initially stress-free, what maximum load P can be applied without exceeding
stresses of 150 MPa in the steel rod and 70 MPa in the bronze rod? (Pytel, 1987) Ans. 107.4 kN
2m 1.5 m 1.5 m
O

Bronze
A = 300 mm2
3. The composite rod in the figure is stress-free before the axial loads P1 and P2 are applied. Assuming that the Steel E = 83 GPa
right wall yields 0.80 mm, calculate the stress in each material if P1= 150 kN and P2 = 90 kN. (Pytel, 1987) P A = 900 mm2 L=2m
E = 200 GPa
Ans. al =12.617 MPa; st = 69.322 MPa; br =190.537 MPa L = 1.5 m
Aluminum Steel Bronze
A = 900 mm2 A =2000 mm A = 1200 mm2
E = 70 GPa E = 200 GPa E = 83 GPa

P1 P2

500 mm 250 mm 350 mm

 22 23

7. Three bars AB, AC, and AD are pinned together as shown in the figure. Initially, the assembly is stress-free. 2-e
Horizontal movement of the joint at A is prevented by the short horizontal strut AE. Calculate the stress in
Another type of elastic deformation is the change in transverse dimensions accompanying axial tension
each bar and the force in the strut AE when the assembly is used to support the load W = 10 kips. For each
or compression. Experiments show that if a bar is lengthened by axial tension, there is a reduction in the
steel bar, A = 0.3 in2 and E = 29 106 psi. For the aluminum bar, A = 0.6 in2 and E = 10 106 psi. transverse dimensions. Simeon D. Poisson showed that the ratio of the unit deformations or strains in these
(Pytel, 1987) Ans. AB = 9.923 ksi; AC = 5.83 ksi; AD = 14.97 ksi; PAE = 378 lb directions is constant for stresses within the proportional limit. Accordingly, this ratio is named after him; it is
denoted by and defined by
B C D
y z

Aluminum x x

10 ft Steel Steel
where x is the strain due only to stress in the x direction and y and z are the strains induced in the
40 20
perpendicular directions. The minus sign indicates a decrease in transverse dimensions when x is positive, as
in the case of tensile elongation.

an element is subjected simultaneously to tensile stresses in the x and y directions, the strain in the x direction
W x
due to the tensile stress x is . Simultaneously the tensile stress y will produce lateral contraction in the x
E
8. Links BC and DE are both made of steel (E = 29 × 106 psi) and are ½ in. wide and ¼ in. thick. Determine
a) the force in each link when a 600-lb force P is applied to the rigid member AF shown; b) the direction of the amount v
y
, so the resultant unit deformation or strain in the x direction will be
corresponding deflection of point A. (Beer, 2012) Ans. a) PBC = 1000 lb; PDE = 400 lb b) 2.21 × 10 3 E

x y
x
E E

Similarly, the total strain in the y direction is

y x
y
E E

If desired, these two equations can be solved to express the stresses in terms of the strains as follows:
x y E y x E
x 2
; y 2
1 1

A further extension of this discussion results in the following expressions for strains caused by the
simultaneous action of triaxial tensile stresses:
1
x x y z
E

1
y y x z
Eq. 2.3
E

All these equations are valid for compressive effects also; it is only necessary to assign positive signs to
elongations and tensile stresses, and conversely, negative signs to contractions and compressive stresses.
An important relation among the constants for a given material is expressed by
E
G
2 1

which is useful for computing values of when E and G have been determined.
 24 25

EXERCISES 5. The block shown is made of a magnesium alloy for which E = 45 GPa and v = 0.35. Knowing that
x = 140 MPa, determine a) the magnitude of y for which the change in the height of the block will be
6
1. A 600-lb tensile load is applied to a test coupon made from 1/16-in. flat steel plate (E = 29 × 10 psi, zero; b) the corresponding change in the area of the face ABCD; c) the corresponding change in the volume
v = 0.30). Determine the resulting change (a) in the 2-in. gage length, (b) in the width of portion AB of the of the block. (Beer, 2006) Ans. a) 49 MPa b) 3.15 × 10 6 m2 c) 110.25 × 10 9 m3
test coupon, (c) in the thickness of portion AB, (d) in the cross-sectional area of portion AB. (Beer, 2012)
Ans. a) 1.324 × 10 3 in. b) 99.3 × 10 6 in. c) 12.41 × 10 6 in. d) 12.41 × 10 6 in2.
y

2. A high-strength steel rod with E = 200 GPa and = 0.3 is compressed by an axial force P. When there is no
axial load, the diameter of the rod is exactly 50 mm. In order to maintain certain clearances, the diameter of
the rod must not exceed 50.025 mm under load. What is the largest permissible load P? (Gere, 1991)
Ans. 654.5 kN
6. A rectangular steel block is 3 in. long in the x direction, 2 in. long in the y direction, and 4 in. long in the z
50 mm
direction. The block is subjected to triaxial loading consisting of three uniformly distributed forces as
follows: 48 kips tension in the x direction, 60 kips compression in the y direction, and 54 kips tension in the
P P z direction. If v = 0.30 and E = 29 106 psi, determine the single uniformly distributed load in the x
direction that would produce the same deformation in the y direction as the original loading. (Pytel, 1987)
Ans. 253.333 kips
3. A thin plate is in a state of plane stress and has dimensions of 8 in. in the x direction and 4 in. in the y z
direction. The plate increases in length in the x direction by 0.0016 in. and decreases in the y direction by
0.00024 in. Compute x and y to cause these deformations. E = 29 106 psi and v = 0.30. Pz
(Buchanan, 1988) Ans. x = 5800 psi; y = 0
y

Px 4
4 x Py Py
y
8
Px
4. A 150-mm long bronze tube, closed at its ends, is 80 mm in diameter and has a wall thickness of 3 mm. It 3
fits without clearance in an 80-mm hole in a rigid block. The tube is then subjected to an internal pressure of x
4 MPa. Assuming v E = 83 GPa, determine the tangential stress in the tube. (Pytel, 1987) 2
Pz
Ans. 8.889 MPa
y

150 mm x

80 mm
 26 27

2-f. Thermal Stresses 4. A 1.2-m concrete post is reinforced by four steel bars, each of 18-mm diameter. Knowing that Es = 200
All engineering materials are affected by temperature change. Changes in temperature cause bodies to GPa, s = 11.7 10-6/ºC and Ec = 25 GPa, c = 9.9 10-6/ºC, determine the normal stresses induced in the
expand or contract because common materials expand when heated and contract when cooled. This steel and in the concrete by a temperature rise of 27ºC. (Beer, 2006) Ans. st = 8.04 MPa; c = 0.21 MPa
phenomenon is characterized by the coefficient of thermal expansion, . For a given material, is the strain due
to a 1-degree temperature change. The amount of linear deformation, T is expressed by the relation
T = L( T) Eq. 2.4
in which L is the length and T is the temperature change.
If a temperature deformation is permitted to occur freely as by the use of expansion joints, no load or
stress will be induced in the structure. But in some cases, it may not be feasible to permit these temperature
deformations; the result is that internal forces are created that resist them. The stresses caused by these internal
forces are known as thermal stresses.

EXERCISES
1. A steel rod with a cross-sectional area of 0.25 in2 is stretched between two fixed points. The tensile load at
70 F is 1200 lb. What will be the stress at 0 F? At what temperature will the stress be zero? Assume = 6.5 5. At room temperature (20ºC) a 0.5 mm gap exists between the ends of the rods shown. At a later time when
10 6 in/(in- F) and E = 29 106 psi. (Pytel, 1987) Ans. 17995 psi; 95.46 F the temperature has reached 140ºC, determine a) the normal stress in the aluminum rod, b) the change in
length of the aluminum rod. (Beer, 2009) Ans. a) 116.2 MPa b) 0.363 mm

2. Calculate the increase in stress for each segment of the compound bar shown if the temperature increases by
100 F. Assume that the supports are unyielding and that the bar is suitably braced to prevent buckling.
(Pytel, 1987) Ans. al =13345.918 psi; st =17794.558 psi

E = 10 10 6 psi E = 29 106 psi

A = 2 in2 A = 1.5 in2
= 12.8 10 6 / F = 6.5 10 6 / F

Aluminum Steel

10 in 15 in

3. The rigid bar ABC is pinned at B and attached to the two vertical rods. Initially, the bar is horizontal and the
vertical rods are stress-free. Determine the stress in the aluminum rod if the temperature of the steel rod is
decreased by 40 C. Neglect the weight of bar ABC. (Pytel, 1987) Ans. 49.14 MPa

Aluminum
Steel L = 1.2 m
L = 0.9 m A = 1200 mm2
A = 300 mm2 E = 70 109 Pa
E = 200 109 Pa = 23 m/(m- C)
= 11.7 m/(m- C)
A B C

0.6 m 1.2 m
 28 29

CHAPTER 3 TORSION Figure 3-2 shows the free-body diagram of the left portion when the shaft is divided into two segments
by the cutting plane M-N.
3-a. Introduction
Torsion refers to the twisting of a structural member when it is loaded by couples that produce rotation
about its longitudinal axis. The moment of the couple is equal to the product of one of the forces and the
perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the forces. Torsion occurs in many physical situations. For
instance, the drive shaft of a vehicle, while it delivers power from one point to another, is being stressed by a
torsional moment. Many times a system of pulleys might be attached to a common drive shaft and will serve to
input various torques to the drive shaft.
The formulas that will be developed in this topic is limited to the stresses and deformations produced in Fig. 3-2
circular bars subjected to torsion. Examples of such bars are axles and drive shafts in machinery, propeller
shafts, drill rods, screwdrivers, and steering rods. A differential area of section M-N at a radial distance from the axis of the shaft carries the differential
resisting load dP = dA. By considering an area infinitesimally small, we may assume the stress to be uniform
3-b. Derivation of Torsion Formulas over such area. Since the function of this resisting load dP is to produce resistance to the applied torque T, the
load must be directed perpendicular to the radius in order to produce the maximum effect.
Consider a bar or shaft of circular cross section twisted by couples T acting at the ends. From To satisfy the condition of static equilibrium, we apply M = 0, or the fact that the applied torque T is
considerations of symmetry, we can show that the cross sections of the circular bars rotate as rigid bodies about equal to the resisting torque Tr. The resisting torque Tr is the sum of the resisting torques developed by all
the longitudinal axis, with radii remaining straight and the cross sections remaining plane and circular. differential loads dP.
During twisting, there will be a rotation about the longitudinal axis of one end of the bar with respect to
the other. In Fig. 3-1, a fiber AB on the outside surface, which is originally straight, will be twisted into a helix T Tr dP dA

AC as the shaft is twisted through the angle . Replacing by its value from Eq. 3.1 gives
G 2
T dA
L
2
or, since dA = J, the polar moment of inertia of the cross section,
G
T J
L
This is usually written
TL
Eq. 3.2
Fig. 3-1 JG
By replacing the product G /L in Equation 3.1 by its equivalent value T/J from Eq. 3.2, we obtain
Consider any internal fiber located a radial distance from the axis of the shaft. Since the projection
T
upon a transverse section of straight radial lines in the section remains straight, the radius of such a fiber also Eq. 3.3
rotates through the angle , causing a total shearing deformation s equal to DE. The length of this deformation J
is the arc of a circle whose radius is and which is subtended by the angle of radians; the length is given by Eq. 3.3 is called the torsion formula.
The formula that determines the maximum shearing stress is a more common form of the torsion
s = DE =
formula. It is obtained by replacing by the radius r of the shaft:
The unit deformation of this fiber is Tr
Max . Eq. 3.4
s J
L L al
limit; also, these formulas are applicable only to circular shafts, either solid or hollow. The values of polar
G moments of inertia for circular shafts are the following:
G Eq. 3.1
L

This equation may be called the equation of compatibility, since the stresses expressed by it are compatible with Solid shaft: Hollow shaft:
the elastic deformations. Note that each of the terms in the parentheses in this equation is a constant that does 2T 16 T 2 TR
not depend on the particular internal fiber chosen for analysis; the product of these terms represents a constant. Max. Max .
3 3 4 4
r d R r
Therefore we conclude that the shearing stress at any internal fiber is determined by the product of a constant
16TD
and a variable radial distance; that is, the stress distribution along any radius varies linearly with the radial
4 4
distance from the axis of the shaft. For the stress variation along the radius OB, the maximum stress occurs at D d
the outside fiber.
 30 31

In many practical applications, shafts are used to transmit power. From dynamics, it is known that the 5. A compound shaft consisting of a steel segment and an aluminum segment is acted upon by two torques as
power P transmitted by a constant torque T rotating at a constant angular speed is given by shown in the figure. Determine the maximum permissible value of T subject to the following conditions; s
=T 83 MPa, a 55 MPa, and the angle of rotation of the free end is limited to 6 . For steel, G = 83 GPa and
for aluminum, G = 28 GPa. (Pytel, 1987) Ans. 679.042 N-m
where is measured in radians per unit time. If the shaft is rotating with a frequency of f revolutions per unit
time, = 2 f, and we have
P=2 fT Eq. 3.5
Thus the torque can be expressed as
P
T
2 f
6. The compound shaft shown in the figure is attached to rigid supports. For the bronze segment AB, the
EXERCISES maximum shearing stress is limited to 8000 psi and for the steel segment BC, it is limited to 12 ksi.
Determine the diameters of each segment so that each material will be simultaneously stretched to its
1. A steel shaft 3 feet long that has a diameter of 4 in. is subjected to a torque of 15 ft-kips. Determine the permissible limit when a torque T = 12 ft-kips is applied. For bronze, G = 6 106 psi and for steel, G = 12
maximum shearing stress and the angle of twist. Use G = 12 106 psi. (Pytel, 1987) Ans. 14.324 ksi; 1.23 106 psi. (Pytel, 1987) Ans. dbr = 4.258 in.; dst = 2.129 in.

2. A solid steel shaft 5 m long is stressed to 80 MPa when twisted through 4 . Using G = 83 GPa, compute the T
shaft diameter. What power can be transmitted by the shaft at 20 Hz? (Pytel, 1987) Bronze
Steel
Ans. 138 mm; 5.195 MW B
A C
3. The electric motor exerts a 500 N-m torque on the aluminum shaft ABCD when it is rotating at a constant
6 ft 4 ft
speed. Knowing that G = 27 GPa and that the torques exerted on pulleys B and C are as shown, determine
the angle of twist between B and D. (Beer, 2006) Ans. 3.22º T
7. In a rivet group subjected to a twisting couple T, show that the torsion formula = can be used to find
J
2
the shearing stress at the center of any rivet. Let J = A , where A is the area of a rivet at the radial
distance from the centroid of the rivet group.

8. A plate is fastened to a fixed member by four 20-mm diameter rivets arranged as shown. Compute the
maximum and minimum shearing stress developed. (Pytel, 1987) Ans. max = 40.107 MPa; min = 13.369
MPa

4. An aluminum shaft with constant diameter of 50 mm is loaded by torques applied to gears attached to it as
shown in the figure. Using G = 28 GPa, determine the relative angle of twist of gear D relative to gear A.
(Pytel, 1987) Ans. 6.33
9. Six -in-diameter rivets fasten the plate in the figure to the fixed member. Determine the average shearing
stress caused in each rivet by the 14-kip loads. (Pytel, 1987) Ans. max = 13.991 ksi; min = 7.761 ksi
 32

10. The plate shown in the figure is fastened to the fixed member by five 10-mm-diameter rivets. Compute the
value of the loads P so that the average shearing stress in any rivet does not exceed 70 MPa.
(Pytel, 1987) Ans. 8915.025 N