ENGINES CRITICAL COMPONENTS/CONCEPTS.

Crankcase.

 Main housing for crankshaft.

 Acts as oil reservoir.
 Made from cast aluminum.
 Cover is removable for access of internal parts.

Main bearings

 Supports crankshaft.
 PTO side is most stressed (side with pulley wheel)
 Flywheel end (FWE) drives the blower and magneto
 Materials have to be soft. (for plain bearings) and press fit.
 Types include bushings, ball bearings and Roller bearings.

Block.

 Integral cast together with cylinder assembly and crankcase.

 Smoothened lines are used.
 Most blowers cast from aluminum for lightness and heat dissipation, others from cast
iron.

Cylinder head.

 Covers the cylinder.

 Secured with cylinder head bolts.

Cylinder head gasket.

 Needed for tight seal of combustion.

Crankshaft.

 Cast iron or forged steel part, machined to close tolerance.

 Have main and con rod journals.
 Has timing gear which drives the camshaft.
 Has oil galleries (holes drifted into the crankshaft).
 Crankshaft can be vertical e.g. for lawnmowers or horizontal e.g. for water pumps.
Pistons.

 Made from light materials

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  Head can be flat, dome, contour or dish
 Groves for fitting rings. Ring land is space between rings.
 Ring belt is area accommodating rings
 Skirt is area below belt.
Rings.

 Compression rings
 Oil control rings

Con-rod.

 Connects piston to crankshaft, has big end with caps connecting to crankshaft and small
end with piston pin connecting to piston head
 Bearings are made of soft material.

Valves.

 Two basic types;

 L head valves located in block commonly called flat head.
 OHV located above the head. These are more efficient at getting gases in and out.
 Two valves, intake and exhaust.
 Coil spring used to hold valve in closed position.
 Retainer keeps valves in lock. They are in form of pins, collars or washer with elongated
holes.

Camshaft

 Has cam lobes, used to open valves at correct time.

 Has tiring gear with marks that is marched with marks on crankshaft.
 Valve timing in the opening and closing of the valves in the relation to crank position.
It’s a specific degree of crank rotation.
 Clearance is the space in the valve train that allows for expansion (also called valve lash

INTERNAL ENGINE SIZE SPECIFICATIONS.

 Bore is the diameter of the cylinder

 Stroke is the distance of piston travel from TDC to BDC
 Swept volume is the equivalent of space covered by the piston movement from BDC to
TDC
 Clearance volume is the space between the piston top and the cylinder head when the
piston is at TDC
 Cylinder Volume is the total of swept volume and clearance volume

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  Engine displacement is the cumulative cylinder volumes of all cylinders in the engine
calculated as cubic centimeters or liters

 Compression ratio is a comparison of the cylinder volume versus clearance volume.

This determines how much the air / fuel mixture taken in during intake can be subjected
to compression at the end of compression stroke
 Torque is turning force, measured in Nm or pounds feet.
 Horsepower is a determinant of engine speed and torque.
 HP=rpm times torque divided by 5252
 1kw-1.34hp
 Efficiency is a measure of how well an engine converts energy to work.
 Thermal efficiency is a percentage of heat energy in fuel (approx. 25%) charged to
power the crankshaft
 Volumetric efficiency is the ease of fill- up of cylinder with air /fuel

ENGINE SELECTION.

 Choose engine of same model with similar replacement parts

 Choose different engine with similar characteristics
 Choose engine with same specs (as presented in specs sheet).
 Consider external dimensions (locating holes, mounting), height, width, length, dry
weight, PTO shaft dimension and orientation.
 Consider Performance.
Number of cylinders, cc, bore and stroke max hp, max torque, ignition, starting,
tank capacity, weight, external dimensions, PTO.
 Consider operating range and conditions.
Consider air quantity, operating temperature and vibrations.

ENGINE SUPPORT.

Fuel system.

 Tank, filler cap & vents, fuel strainer, shut off valve, lines and hoses, fuel filters
 Pumping accomplished by gravity feed systems, mechanical pumps, impulse pumps
(using impulse from intake manifold), and primer.
 Include suction system, gravity system, fuel pump system, pressurized system.
 Carburetor as amixing device for air and fuel.
 Choke valve, throttle valve, venture, reservoir, jets for control of fuel / air quantity
 Governor to keep engine speed at constant rate regardless of load with a set maximum.
There are mechanical and pneumatic governors.
 Air cleaner-device for filtering air.

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 Includes oil bath, pleated paper, foam filter (oil wetted polyurethane)

Ignition system. (Magneto).

 Magnetism, induction, coil windings.

 Armature (set of thin soft iron strips used to create a magnetic path(laminated).
 Two or three leg armatures.
 Primary windings, secondary windings.
 Triggers are either breaker points or solid state devices (transistor and diodes).
 Condenser-stores electric charge and cause rapid collapse and magnetic field.
 Battery ignition.

Spark Plugs

These are ignition system part that gets the high voltage current from the magneto and creates a
spam in the combustion chamber.

Size is determined by the thread diameter.

 Plug reach is the length and threads, determined by thickness of combustion chamber.
Over Head Valve engines use long reach plugs.
 Heat range. The plug electrodes can operate between (582-776) degree Celsius making
the electrodes to glow red. This can result in igniting the fuel mixture prematurely. When
not hot enough will not burn oil deposits in it.Therefore selecting the correct heat range is
critical.
 Heat range determines transfer of heat form spark plug firing end, determined by path of
heat travel if path is long, the plug is hot and vise versa
 Engines have specific spark plug heat ranges.

Types
 Conventional.
 J gap.
 Surfaced.
 Retracted.

MAGNETO.

 Triggered by contact breaker points , transistor triggered and electronic triggered.

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  Spark advance. Facilitating spark to be delivered a little early in the circle as the engine
speed increases to compensate for shortness of time for combustion. This is done by
regulating the time that the spark can occur;
Manually by locking the contact breaker points in an advanced position.
Automatically by a centrifugal mechanism.
 Solid state ignition. Transistors replace contact breaker points. They are referred to as
capacitor discharge, breaker less, transistorized or electronic ignition
 Trigger module contain transistor diodes which rectify AC with a rectifier which acts as
a switch.

COOLING
 Air cooling; Air circulates over the engine parts to remove heating by natural draft or
forced circulation system.
 Have Cooling fins.
 Have flywheel-blades, blower housing.
 Has debris screen
 Liquid cooling; Liquid circulated around hot engine parts through coolant passages.
Coolant is predominantly water but there is also ethylene glycol mixed with water.
 Bigger engines have coolant pump, radiators, thermostats cooling fan.

 Exhaust
 Provide for smooth flow of exhaust gases and prevent back pressure.
 Muffler cools and quiets the exhaust.

LUBRICATION.

Facilitates oil circulation between moving parts and thereby takes care of
friction which is resistance to motion by brushing action of two parts.

Engine oil.

Rating-Thickness/ thinness determined by a rating system developed by the SAE.

Viscosity is the ease of flow;
 High viscosity oil is thick oil , does not flow easily e.g. SAE 80, or 90
 Low viscosity is thin oil, flows easily e.g. SAE 10or 20
 Multiviscosity oils e.g. SAE 10-30 has multiple characteristics at different temperatures

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Types of lubrication Systems

a) Splash lubrication-horizontal crankshaft use the oil dipper attached to the con-rod cap.
Vertical cranks use an oil slinger with paddles driven by camshaft.
b) Pressure lubrication. Pump pressurizes oil, works better than splash because it's able to
supply oil to uppermost parts of the engine especially for vertical crankshaft engines.
c) Two stroke lubrication. Mostly done by premix.-Correct mixture can be found in the
engine owner's manual.-Low oil level alert, automatically stops engine through a level
alert switch.
d) Low oil level alert used to warn operators from imminent engine damage by
automatically stopping the engine when oil level goes to low and lighting an alert lamp.
e) Crankcase breathers prevent pressure buildup in the crankcase.
f) Oil dip stick used to determine quantity of oil available in the crankcase.

ENGINE STARTERS

Engine is started by rotating the crankshaft fats enough to draw air/fuel mixture to cylinder and
fast enough for the magneto to create a spark to ignite the mixture.

 Manual starters are of rewind type that has a spring mechanism that auto rewinds a rope
back to starting position. Common by rewind starters are identified by the type of clutch
used, they include a) Ball clutch. b) Dog clutch. c) Ratchet recoil. d) Gear starter.
 Electrical starters-This system needs a power source. Most small engines use a storage
battery(rechargeable type) complemented by engine charging system. An electric motor
(starter motor) is used to crank the engine for starting. The motor drives a flywheel pinion
gear. The motor is controlled by a magnetic switch(solenoid).
 Starter drives-Inertia drives with spiral groves.
 Overrunning clutch.

ROUTINE CARE

This is done as normal procedures to keep engine at its peak efficiency and to prevent premature
failure. There are four basic areas.

a. Oil supply and condition to be kept at recommended minimum, replaced according to

manufacturer's recommendation or depending in operating Condition. For two stroke,
recommendations are specified on owner's manual or inscribed on engine.

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 b. Cooling system-Must be kept clean.ie Cooling fins, flywheel vanes and shrouds. This
clean-up is depending on engine operating load. For water cooled engines maintain water
level in radiator always. Checks pump functioning.
c. Spark plugs-Clean and re-gap periodically. Check for carbon fouling, burned electrodes
or broken insulation.
d. Air cleaner- Traps particles of abrasives from reaching the cylinder. Should be
periodically cleaned, depending on the working environment.

OTHER INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Automobile engines

 Petrol engines, Diesel engines, LPG engines (Multiple cylinder).

 Small, medium, large sizes
 Turbo or N/A
 Inline, V, Opposed (boxes), Pancake orientations.
 Industrial engines e.g. Generator sets

Jet engines.

 Jet propulsion has been around for centuries. The theory of operation is based on
Newton's third law of motion that states that for every acting force, there is an equal and
opposite reaction force.

 Examples: A balloon filled with air upon release will project itself forward; a riffle when
fired will project itself backward; a cylinder, if the valve is broken, will project itself
backward; a pressure cooker valve rotates as pressure inside increase

 In a jet engine, there is tremendous pressure build up inside the engine during
combustion. Since the only escape route us through back, it produces a reactionary force
of forward motion. The rapid ejection of gases from inside of the engine produces thrust,
the driving force that pushes the engine forward.

 Jet engines are primarily used in aviation. They burn fuel with oxygen available in the
Earth's Atmosphere. This makes these engines to be referred to as air-dependent engines.
They only operate within the Earth's atmosphere.

 Rocket engines are air independent and have their own oxidizers for its fuel. Though both
engines operate in the principle of action and reaction, rocket engines can operate outside
of the atmosphere extremely high altitudes where there is no air.

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  Propeller driven aircraft is limited by altitude since absence of atmosphere diminishes it's
performance.

 Jet fuel is made of a blend of kerosene and gasoline at ratios of 65-70% gasoline and 30-
35% kerosene. These fuels must be of high quality and made to meet rigid specifications.
Jet engines are often designed to operate on specific fuel type.

Gas turbines

The term gas refers to the method used to drive the turbine wheels. Various fuels are used to
create the gas, e.g. natural gas, distillate oil, residual fuel and kerosene. The thermodynamic
cycle of gas turbine is air-fuel mix is ignited creating hot air pressure which is directed against a
surface (turbine blades). This is a continuous process. The large appetite for air is satisfied by
using a compressor driven by a small portion of the output gas. Gas turbines are used for a
variety of applications e.g. for electricity generation, locomotives, process industries, and
multipurpose use. (Even turbo changers).

Advantages
 Smooth, vibration free power.
 No reciprocating parts.
 Can compete favourably with other prime movers.
 Operates well on a wide variety of relatively cheap fuels.
 Prevent no significant maintenance challenges
 Regains little warm up time.

For vehicle applications, additional advantages include:

 No cooling or heating problems.

 Fewer moving parts
 Starts easily
 Combustion very complete so represents less pollution
 Cannot stall due to overload
 Supplies heat to passengers instantly.

Steam Engines

 Steam engines are classified as a heat engine. Chemical energy in the fuel.is released in
the form of heat, and is used to boil water to produce steam confined in a boiler. High

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 steam pressure build up is chambered to move in piston or turbine. This engine is called
the external combustion engine. Turbines function almost like windmills.

 The kinetic force of the steam is diverted to strike the blades of a turbine causing it to
turn. Blades are arranged in series that allow the steam to keep turning the successive
series of blades until its full potential is exhausted, then released at atmospheric pressure
level (or higher) then condensed or cooled by sending the spent steam to a condenser that
converts it into large amounts of water and thereafter reusing the cooled steam again.

ELECTRICAL ENERGY.
To appreciate electricity, imagine a situation where the electricity is not available and how life
can be. Electricity can be generated by several methods

Bodies with excess electrons are negatively charged. Bodies with less electrons are positively
charged.

Negative and positive charged bodies attract. Similarly, same charged bodies repel. Charging is
achieved through induction or through contact. Electrons tend to flow when there is contact or
when there is a difference in charge (electrical potential).

Electric current is the movement of electrons within the conductor. The flow is occasioned by a
difference in electrical potential (voltage). This flow is from negative to positive potential.

Second factor that facilitate the flow is resistance which is the opposition to flow (ohms). Some
materials offer little resistance (good conductors), the larger the diameter the better, others offer
great resistance (insulators).

 Ampere; Unit of measurement of the rate of electrons flow (I)

 Volt; Unit of measurement of electrical potential or pressure (E).
 Ohm Unit of measurement or resistance to flow (R).
Thus; I = E / R,
R = E / I,
E=IR

Electrical Current.

 Classified as DC or AC.
 Two basic circuits- series & parallel.

Magnetism.

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  Most of the electricity produced originates from the principle of magnetism.
 Electromagnetism comes into play when current flows through a conductor.

Electrochemical and other sources of electrical energy

 Automotive Batteries-Secondary cells that are rechargeable.

 Dry cells-primarily cells with single usage.
 Photovoltaic cells-convert sun rays to electrical energy.
 Wind turbines.

Power Transmission

 Mechanical; This involves a connection to the prime mover (engine or motor) through
the following
a) Direct fastening using a series of holes
b) Indirect where speed, torque, directional change of motion.
 Use of gears, pulleys, chains, levers, shafts, feed screws, clutches.
 Employs the principle of levers, inclined planes, wedges, power
train and transmission.
 Fluid power (hydraulics) Uses fluids (oil) to transmit power from one place to another.
The prime mover generates hydraulic force, transmits it to, and converts it into power
which in turn performs a function.
 Pneumatic power- Use of compressed air or nitrogen to transmit power from one place
to another. The pneumatic force from the prime movers is moved to perform a given task.
Both fluid and pneumatic force share some common attributes.
o They take the shape of the container.
o Flow through pipes.
o Can be caused to move by a variety of pumps.
o Liquids are however virtually incompressible while gases are compressible.
 Electrical power through use of conductive wire to deliver electric current.

Alternative Energy Sources

Solar-

 Sun's radiant energy collected and transferred in form of heat through air or water, for
heating or warming homes or appliances.

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  Solar cooling using the same principle as in a refrigerator.
 Passive solar systems by designing homes to face sun path thereby facilitate warming.
 photovoltaic cells that convert solar hear rays to electricity. Example is the Garissa solar
power plant
Wind energy-

 Wind has lot of untapped potential. Wind arises from uneven heating of the Earth's
surface. A minimum of 10km/h wind speed is needed to operate a wind generator. Wind
generators are positioned in areas with high wind velocity and are able to generate
electricity which can be used for homes or fed into the national grid. Example are Lake
Turkana wind power, Ngong hills power.
 Wind power is also used to directly drive water pumps and wind Mills.

Hydroelectric-

 Oldest course of motive power. A significant portion of electrical energy needs comes
from hydro power generation. Water flowing from high elevation is used to drive turbines
that generate electricity. Example Kiambere Hydro Electric plant on Tana river.
 Hydraulic rams, also known as hydrams, uses its own potential energy to pump water to
substantial height.
Biomass;

 Organic material (vegetation). Energy content can be converted by direct burning, or

converted into alcohol-ethanol and methanol.
o Energy can be used in industrial processes and as motor fuel.
o Methanol derived from distillation of biomass has more energy content.
o Methane gas from biomass form decomposing organic matter producing a clean
o combustible gas and a high quality organic fertilizer.

Geothermal

 -The internal hear from the Earth's crust.

o Steam emanating from the ground is harnessed to drive turbines that generate
electricity. Example Olkaria geothermal.

Wood energy-

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  This old traditional method of heating makes use of an assortment of wood resources for
heating for homes and industrial applications eg used in tea processing industries.

Tidal

 Rising and lowering of tidal waves creates a potential for driving electric generating
turbines.

Nuclear energy.

 Energy fission- tremendous by use of a nuclear reactor.

Fossil fuel –

 Coal.

 Petroleum.

 Natural gas

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