I.

Physics
Measurement/Unit Details of Fundamental units :
S.No. Physical Quantity S.I. Unit Abbreviation
Notes
1. Length Metre m
• A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a quantity, 2. Mass Kilogram kg
defined and adopted by convention or by law. 3. Time Second s
• It is used as a standard for measurement of the same kind 4. Temperature Kelvin K
of quantity. 5. Luminous Intensity Candela cd
• Any other quantity of that kind can be expressed as a 6. Electric Current Ampere A
multiple of the unit of measurement. 7. Amount of Substance Mole mol
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• To measure physical quantities four systems are in

Definition of Units of SI System :
application as follows :
1. Metre (m) :
1. CGS System (Centimetre - Gram - Second System) : • The path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval
• It is a variant of the metric system based on the of 1/299,792,458 second. It is defined by taking the fixed
numerical value of the speed of light in vacuum 'c' to be
Centimetre - unit of length
299,792,458 m/s.
Gram - unit of mass
2. Kilogram (kg) :
Second - unit of time • The mass of Platinum - Iridium prototype kept at Sevres
2. FPS System (Foot - Pound - Second system) : (Paris). Generally, at 4ºC, the mass of 1 litre pure water
is 1 kilogram.
• It is also known as the British System of measurement.
According to revised definition (which came into force on
• It relates to measuring - 20th May, 2019), the kilogram is now defined in terms of the
Foot - unit of length Planck constant. It is defined by taking the fixed numerical
value of the Planck constant 'h' to be 6.62607015 × 10–34 kg
Pound - unit of mass
m2/s. Thus,
Second - unit of time
 h 
1 kg =  −34 
m −2 s
Note : 1 Pound is equal to 453.59 grams.  6.62607015 × 10 
3. MKS system (Metre - Kilogram - Second system) :
3. Second (s) :
• It relates to measuring - • One second equals the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods
Metre - unit of length of the radiation corresponding to the transition between
Kilogram - unit of mass the two hyperfine levels of the unperturbed ground state
of Caesium (Cs-133) atom. It is defined by taking the
Second - unit of time fixed numerical value of the caesium frequency to be
4. SI system (International System of Units) : 9,192,631,770 Hz, which is equal to s–1.
• It is the modern form of the metric system of measurement. 4. Ampere :
• It is the most widely used system of measurement. • Given two parallel, rectilinear conductors of negligible
circular cross-section positioned 1 metre apart in vacuum,
• It was adopted during the conference on International
one ampere is the electric current which passes through
Weight and Measures, held at Paris (France) in 1960. both of them makes them attract each other by the force
• It has seven fundamental or base units. of 2 x 10-7 Newton per metre of length.

General Science General Studies G–9

 According to revised definition (which came into force 7. Amount of Substance - Mole (mol) :
on 20th May, 2019), the ampere is defined by taking • The amount of substance composed of as many specified
the fixed numerical value of the elementary charge 'e' to elementary units (molecules)/atoms as there are atoms in
be 1.602176634 × 10–19 As (ampere second). Thus, one 0.012 kg of C-12.
ampere is the electric current corresponding to the flow of
1/(1.602176634 × 10–19) elementary charges per second. According to revised definition (which came into force on
20th May, 2019), the mole is the amount of substance of a
5. Kelvin :
system that contains 6.02214076 × 1023 specified elementary
• One degree K equals 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic
entities. This number is the fixed numerical value of the
temperature of the triple point of water.
Avogadro constant 'NA', when expressed in the unit mol–1
According to revised definition (which came into force on and is called the Avogadro number.
20th May, 2019), the kelvin is defined by taking the fixed
numerical value of the Boltzmann constant 'k' to be 1.380649 Derived units :
× 10–23 kg m2s–2K–1. Thus, • These units of measurement are derived from the 7 base
units, specified by the International System of Units.
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1.380649 
1 K =  −23 2 −2
×10 kg m s
 k 
• These are either dimensionless or can be expressed as a
That means one kelvin is equal to the change of thermodynamic
product of one or more of the base unit, possibly scaled
temperature that results in a change of thermal energy kT by
by an appropriate power of exponentiation.
1.380649 × 10–23 Joule (kgm2s–2).
• Some of the coherent derived units in the SI are given
6. Candela (cd) :
special names. Below table lists 22 SI units with special
• The candela is the luminous intensity in a given direction
of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of names. Together with the seven base units, they form
frequency 540 × 1012 hertz and has a radiant intensity in the core of the set of SI units. All other SI units are
that direction of 1/683 w/sr. combinations of some of these 29 units.
The 22 SI derived units with special names and symbols
Derived quantity Special name of unit Unit expressed in terms Unit expressed in
of base units terms of other SI units
plane angle radian rad = m/m -
solid angle steradian sr = m /m
2 2
-
frequency hertz Hz = s –1
-
force newton N = kg m s –2
-
pressure, stress pascal Pa = kg m s –1 –2
-
energy, work, joule J = kg m2 s–2 Nm
amount of heat
power, radiant flux watt W = kg m2 s–3 J/s
electric charge coulomb C=As -
voltage/electric volt V = kg m2 s–3 A–1 W/A
potential difference
capacitance farad F = kg–1 m–2 s4 A2 C/V
electric resistance ohm Ω = kg m s A 2 –3 –2
V/A
electric conductance siemens S = kg m s A
–1 –2 3 2
A/V
magnetic flux weber Wb = kg m s A 2 –2 –1
Vs

G–10 General Studies General Science

 magnetic flux density tesla T = kg s–2 A–1 Wb/m2
inductance henry H = kg m2 s–2 A–2 Wb/A
Celsius temperature degree Celsius ºC = K -
luminous flux lumen lm = cd sr cd sr
illuminance lux lx = cd sr m –2
lm/m2
activity referred to becquerel Bq = s–1 -
a radionuclide
absorbed dose, kerma gray Gy = m2 s–2 J/kg
dose equivalent sievert Sv = m s 2 –2
J/kg
catalytic activity katal kat = mol s –1 -

Some derived units in the SI expressed in terms of base units vii . Astronomical Unit -
Derived quantity Derived unit expressed • Astronomical unit is usually used to measure distances
in terms of base units within our solar system.
area m2 • An astronomical unit (AU) is the average distance between
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Earth and Sun.

volume m3
• It equals to approximately 150 million kilometre or
speed, velocity m s–1
1 AU = 1.496 x 1011 metre.
acceleration m s –2
viii . Light-year -
wavenumber m –1
• A light-year is a distance that light travels in vacuum in
density, mass density kg m–3 one Julian year.
surface density kg m–2 • It is a unit of length used to express astronomical distances.
specific volume m kg
3 –1
• 1 light-year is equal to
current density Am –2
= 3 x 108 m/s × 365.25 × 24 × 60 × 60s
magnetic field strength A m–1 = 9.461 × 1015 metre.
amount of substance concentration mol m–3 • Julian year - In Astronomy, a Julian year is a unit of
measurement of time defined as exactly 365.25 days of
mass concentration kg m –3
86400 SI seconds each.
luminance cd m–2
ix. Parsec -
Other measures of Length unit :
• A Parsec is an astronomical term used to measure large
i. 1 milimetre = 10-3 metre distances to astronomical objects outside the solar system.
ii. 1 centimetre = 10-2 metre
• A Parsec is defined as the distance at which one
iii. 1 kilometre = 1000 metre astronomical unit subtends an angle of one arcsecond,
iv. 1 Angstrom (Å) = 10-10 metre which corresponds to 648000/π astronomical units.
• A unit of length to measure very small distances like • 1 Parsec is equal to 3.0857 × 1016 metre, or
wavelength, atomic and ionic radius or size of molecules
and spacing between planes of atoms in crystals. • 1 Parsec is equal to 3.26 light-years.
v . Nanometre -
• 1 nanometre is one billionth of a metre, equal to 10-9 metre.
Question Bank
• It is used to measure extremely small objects such as 1. In the following which is fundamental physical
atomic structures or transistors found in modern CPUs. quantity?
vi . Micron - (a) Force (b) Velocity
• It is the previous name of micrometre. (c) Electric current (d) Work
• 1 micron is equal to 10-6 m. (e) None of the above/More than one of the above
• It is represented by (μ). 66th B.P.S.C. (Pre) (Re. Exam) 2020
• It is used to measure cell size. Ans. (c)

General Science General Studies G–11

 Measuring Devices and Scales Cathetometer An instrument to measure vertical distance.
Cryometer A type of thermometer used to measure the
Notes very low temperature of an object.
Different Scientific Apparatus and its Applications Cyclotron An apparatus that accelerates charged
particles outwards from the centre along a
Apparatus Application
spiral path.
Altimeter An instrument used to measure the altitude Crescograph A device used to measure the growth in
of an object, mainly in an aeroplane. plants.
Ammeter An instrument used to measure the electric Dilatometer An instrument that measures volume
current in a circuit. changes caused by a physical or chemical
process.
Anemometer A device used for measuring wind speed and
Dip Circle A device used to measure the angle between
wind pressure.
the horizon and the Earth's magnetic field
Actiometer A device used to measure the heating power (the dip angle).
or intensity of solar radiation. Dynamo An instrument which converts mechanical
A device used for measuring the rate of water energy into electrical energy.
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Atmometer
evaporation. Dynamometer A device used for measuring force, Torque
or power of the engine.
Audiometer An instrument used for measuring or
Electroencepha- An instrument used for recording the
evaluating hearing acuity.
lograph (EEG) electrical activity of the brain.
Barograph A type of Barometer that records the
Electrometer An electrical instrument for measuring
atmospheric pressure over time in graphical electric charge or electrical potential
form. difference.
Barometer A device used for measuring atmospheric Electroscope An instrument used to detect the presence
pressure. and magnitude of electric charge on a body.
Bolometer A device to measure the power of incident Evaporimeter An instrument used for measuring the rate
of water evaporation from a wet surface to
electromagnetic radiation via the heating
the atmosphere.
of a material with a temperature dependent
Endoscope An instrument used in medicine to look
electrical resistance.
inside the body.
Calipers A caliper is a device used to measure the Fathometer An apparatus to measure the depth of the sea.
distance between two opposite sides of an
Fluxmeter An instrument used to measure the magnetic
object. flux.
Calorimeter A calorimeter is an object used for Galvanometer An electrical instrument for detecting and
calorimetry, or the process of measuring indicating electrical current.
the heat of chemical reactions or physical Gravimeter An instrument used for measuring
gravitational acceleration.
changes as well as heat capacity.
Gyroscope A device used for measuring angular
Cardiograph An instrument for recording graphically the velocity.
movements of the heart. Hydrometer An instrument for measuring the relative
Chronometer It is a specific type of mechanical timepiece density of liquids.
tested and certified to meet certain precision Hydrophone An instrument used for recording or listening
to under-water sound.
standards. It is used by navigators in the sea.
Hygrometer An instrument for measuring the relative
Colorimeter A device used to measure the absorbance of humidity of the atmosphere.
particular wavelengths of light by a specific Hygroscope An instrument which gives an indication of
solution. the humidity of air.

G–18 General Studies General Science

 Hypsometer A device for calibrating thermometers at Pycnometer A laboratory device used for measuring
the boiling point of water at a known height the density or specific gravity of materials
above sea level or for estimating height (liquids or solids).
above sea level by the finding temperature Pyrheliometer It is an instrument for the measurement of
at which water boils. direct beam solar irradiance.
Kymograph A device to record muscular motion, changes Pyrometer A type of remote-sensing radiation
in blood pressure and other physiological thermometer used to measure the high
phenomena. temperature of the surface.
Lactometer An instrument used to check the purity of Psychrometer An apparatus used to measure the relative
milk by measuring its density. humidity of the atmosphere.
Luxmeter An equipment that measures the brightness Rain Gauge (Udometer, Pluviometer or Ombrometer) It
of light falling on an object at a particular gathers and measures the amount of liquid
area. precipitation over a set of period.
Lysimeter A device used to measure the amount of Radiometer It is a device for measuring the radiant flux
actual evapotranspiration which is released of electromagnetic radiation.
by the plant.
Refractometer A device used for the measurement of an
Magnetometer It is also known as Magnetic sensor. It is an index of refraction.
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instrument that measures magnetism-either

Salinometer An instrument used for measuring the
by magnetization of a magnetic material
salinity of water.
like a ferromagnet or the direction, strength
or relative change of a magnetic field at a Saccharimeter An instrument used for measuring the
particular location. concentration of sugar solutions.
Manometer A device to measure pressure of liquids or Sextant An instrument which measures the angular
gases. distance between two visible objects. It is
Microphone Its nickname is mic or mike. It is a transducer used to know the height of celestial bodies.
that converts sound waves into electrical Sphygmo- An apparatus used to measure the blood
signals. manometer pressure.
Microtome It is a tool used for cutting extremely thin Stethoscope A medical device used for listening to the
slices of materials, known as sections. Used sounds of the heart.
especially in Biology to observe the sections
under a microscope or electron microscope. Speedometer It measures & displays the instantaneous
Nephoscope An instrument for measuring the altitude, speed of a vehicle.
direction and velocity of clouds. Tachometer An instrument used for measuring rotation
Odometer An instrument for measuring the distance of the speed of a shaft or device. It is widely
travelled by a wheeled vehicle. used in automobiles & planes etc.
Ondometer An instrument for measuring the frequency/ Viscometer An instrument used to measure the viscosity
wavelength of electromagnetic waves. of a fluid.
Periscope It is an instrument for observation over, Wind vane An instrument for showing the direction of
around or through an object or condition that the wind.
prevents direct line of sight observation from
SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging) - A
the observer's current position.
technique that uses sound propagation
Phonograph A device for mechanical recording &
(usually underwater, as in submarine
reproduction of sound.
navigation) to navigate, communicate with
Photometer An instrument for measuring the intensity or detect objects on or under the surface of
of light. the water, such as other vessels. It uses the
Potentiometer An instrument for measuring voltage by echo principle by sending out sound waves.
comparison of an unknown voltage with a
RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging) - Radar is
known reference voltage or to measure the
electromotive force (emf) - a differential an object - detection system that uses radio
potential that tends to give rise to an electric waves to determine the range, angle or
current. velocity of objects

General Science General Studies G–19

 • The difference between speed & velocity is that speed has
Mechanics the only magnitude without any specific direction, while
Mass, Motion, Force, Acceleration, velocity has both magnitude & direction. Speed is scalar
& velocity is a vector quantity.
Momentum, Work, Power, Energy
Acceleration :
Notes • Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity of an object
• Mechanics : Mechanics is that area of science concerned with respect of time.
with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected to
∴ Acceleration
force or displacements and the subsequent effects of the
bodies on their environment.
• Weight : Weight is the force exerted in a body by gravity. ⇒ Acceleration

• Mass : Mass represents the amount of matter in a particle If the initial velocity of object is u & after time t its velocity
or object. The mass of matter is constant at every place. is v, then
It is denoted by 'm'.
acceleration (a)
Difference between Weight and Mass
Its SI unit is m/sec2 or m.sec-2.
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S.N. Weight (W) Mass (m)

1. Gravitational force of Earth A measurement of Newton's Laws of Motion :
the amount of matter • Newton's laws of motion are three physical laws that,
something contains together, laid the foundation for classical mechanics. They
2. It is a vector quantity. It is a scalar quantity.
describe the relationship between a body and the forces
3. Weight varies according It is constant at every
to places. place. acting upon it and its motion in response to those forces.
4. Its unit is newton. Its unit is gram or 1. Newton's First Law of Motion -
kilogram.
• Newton's first law states that every object will remain
Distance & Displacement : at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless
compelled to change its state by the action of an external
• In daily language Distance & Displacement are used in the
force.
same sense but in Physics both have a different meaning.
• Inertia is a tendency of matter by which it continues in its
• The length of a specific path travelled between two points
by an object is distance. existing state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line
unless that state is changed by an external force.
• A displacement is a vector whose length is the shortest
distance between the initial to the final position of a point. • The tendency of an object to resists changes in its state of
• Travelled distance has only magnitude, while displacement motion varies with mass. Mass is that quantity which is
has magnitude along with the direction. It is clear that solely dependent upon the inertia of an object. The more
distance is a scalar quantity and displacement is a vector inertia that an object has the more mass that it has. The
quantity. The travelled distance by an object is not zero, light object has less inertia.
but the final displacement may be zero. Displacement of 2. Newton's Second Law of Motion -
an object will be zero when the moving object comes to • The second law states that the acceleration of an object
its initial point. depends upon two variables - the net force acting upon
Speed & Velocity : the object and the mass of the object.
• Speed is the distance travelled per unit of time. • Thus, the acceleration of an object subject to a force is
So, speed directly proportional to the net force, in the same direction
as the net force, and inversely proportional to the mass of
It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is metre/second. the object i.e. a = F/m
• Velocity is the distance travelled by an object per unit time
Where a is acceleration, F = force & m = mass
in a particular direction.
or F = m × a ⇒ Force = Mass × Acceleration
∴ Velocity
SI unit of force is newton.

G–26 General Studies General Science

 • 1 newton is equal to 1 kilogram metre per second square Work :
or 1 newton of force is the force required to accelerate • A force is said to do work if, when acting, there is a
an object with a mass of 1 kilogram, 1 metre per second, displacement of the point of application in the direction
every second. of force. If no displacement occurs after applying force,
no work is done.
3. Newton's Third Law of Motion -
The value of work is equal to -
• For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
work = Force × displacement in the direction of force
• The Force imposed by the first object to other object is
or W = F × S where, W = work
known as an action while the force imposed by the second
F = force
object on the first object is known as reaction. The size of
the force on the first object equals the size of the force on S = displacement
second object. Newton's third law of motion is also known If the force (F) is not in direction of displacement, forming
as 'Action-Reaction' Law. θ angle with it, then

Momentum : work done (W) = F cos θ × S

where, F cos θ is the component of force in the direction
• Momentum is the product of the mass & velocity of an
of displacement
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object.
∴ Momentum (P) = Mass (m) × Velocity (v)
• It is a vector quantity possessing a magnitude and
a direction. It's SI unit is kilogram metre per second
(kg.m/sec.)
Change in momentum -
• The rate of change in momentum of an object is
proportional to the imposed force on an object.
• Work is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is joule. One joule is
• The change in momentum occurs always in the direction
defined as the amount of energy exerted when a force of
of the force. It is the other form of newton's second law
1 newton is applied over a displacement of one metre.
of motion.
1 Joule = 1 newton × 1 metre.
Force α Power :
• Power is the rate of doing work by machine or anybody.
If an object of m mass has its initial velocity u, then its
initial momentum = mu ∴ Power
Its last velocity became v, after the imposing of force (F) • Its SI unit is joule/sec. It is also called watt.
for time (t). So, the final momentum of the object = mv • Another unit of Power is Horse Power.
∴ change in momentum = mv – mu 1 Horse Power = 746 watt.
So, F Energy :
• Energy is the capacity for doing work. Different forms of
⇒ F energy are Mechanical energy, Heat energy, Light energy,
Sound energy, etc.
⇒ F α ma
• It is a scalar quantity. Its SI Unit is joule.
So, F = Kma
Mechanical Energy :
In SI units, value of constant K is 1
• Mechanical energy is the sum of kinetic & potential energy
∴ F = 1ma in an object that is used to do work. The sum of potential
⇒ F = ma and kinetic energy is called mechanical energy.
It is the Newton's second law of motion. • So, mechanical energy = kinetic energy + potential energy

General Science General Studies G–27

 Kinetic Energy :
Question Bank
• The kinetic energy of an object is the energy that it
1. A simple machine helps a person in doing :
possesses due to its motion. If the mass of the body is m
kg and speed v m/sec. then (a) Less work
(b) The same amount of work with lesser force
K.E. mv2 (c) The same amount of work slowly
(d) The same amount of work much faster
Potential Energy : I.A.S. (Pre) 1996
• Potential energy is the energy in a body due to its position. Ans. (b)
It is clear that if any object under a force is shifted from
A simple machine helps a person in doing the same amount
one position to another position, then during it, done work
of work with less force. Few examples of simple machines
is stored as the potential energy of the object.
are pulley, lever, wheel, screw etc.
P.E. = mgh where, m = mass of the object
2. A man is standing on a sensitive balance. If he inhales
g = gravitational acceleration
deeply, the reading of the balance –
h = height (a) Increases
• Elastic potential energy, gravitational potential energy,
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(b) Decreases
electrical potential energy etc. are different forms of (c) Remains unaffected
potential energy. (d) May increase or decrease depending on the
Transformation of Energy by Apparatus atmospheric pressure
U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2013
S.No. Name of Apparatus Transformation of Energy
Ans. (a)
1. Dynamo Conversion of mechanical
energy into electrical energy. The reading of the balance increases if the person inhales
deeply. One litre of air weighs about 1.225 g. A maximal
2. Electric motor Conversion of electrical
energy into mechanical 4.8 litre breath (average vital capacity for males) weighs
energy. approximately 5.88g. Inhaled air will add to the mass of the
man and thus his weight goes up slightly.
3. Microphone Conversion of sound energy
into electrical energy. 3. Which of the following is not a vector quantity?
4. Loudspeaker Conversion of electric energy (a) Displacement (b) Velocity
into sound energy. (c) Force (d) Volume
5. Solar cell Conversion of solar energy 45th B.P.S.C. (Pre) 2001
into electrical energy. Ans. (d)

6. Tubelight Conversion of electric energy The scalar quantity is defined as the quantity that has only
into light energy. got magnitude, but not directions whereas, vector quantity
7. Electric bulb Conversion of electric energy comprises of both magnitude and directions. Displacement,
into heat energy and light velocity and force are the examples of vector quantity while
energy. volume is a scalar quantity.
8. Electric cell Conversion of chemical 4. Which of the following is a vector quantity ?
energy into electric energy. (a) Time (b) Speed
9. Candle Conversion of chemical (c) Displacement (d) Distance
energy into light & heat U.P.R.O./A.R.O. (Mains) 2014
energy. Ans. (c)
10. Sitar Conversion of mechanical
See the explanation of above question.
energy into sound energy.
Note : During photosynthesis in green plants, solar energy 5. Which one of the following is a scalar quantity?
is converted into chemical energy. (a) Force (b) Pressure

G–28 General Studies General Science

 acting on the moving ball opposing its motion. If there is no Motion Under Gravity
frictional force then the ball will roll continuously.
Notes
29. What is the correct equation for finding the acceleration?
The Motion of Planets :
(a) a =
• All the planets including the earth, move around the sun
(b) a = u + vt in their orbits.
(c) a = • A natural satellite is a celestial body in space that orbits
around planets.
(d) a =
• Mercury and Venus planets have no natural satellites.
U.P.P.S.C. (Pre) 2003
• Earth has one natural satellite.
Ans. (a)
• Mars has two little satellites.
As we know v = u + at or at = v - u
• Jupiter has 79 known satellites.
• Saturn has maximum numbers of satellites i.e. 82 (After
the announcement of the discovery of 20 new moons of
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where, v = final velocity of the particle

Saturn in October, 2019).
u = initial velocity of the particle
Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion :
a = acceleration, t = time
• Johannes Kepler, a German astronomer, propounded three
30. The working principle of a washing machine is : laws about planetary motion around the sun.
(a) Centrifugation • These laws are as follows :
(b) Dialysis First Law -
(c) Reverse osmosis
• All planets move around the sun in an elliptical orbit,
(d) Diffusion
having the sun at one of the two foci.
I.A.S. (Pre) 1997
Second Law -
U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2004
• A radius vector joining any planet to the sun sweeps out
Uttarakhand Lower Sub. (Pre) 2010
equal areas in an equal length of time.
Ans. (a)
• The second law clears that closest planet to the sun moves
The working principle of a washing machine is based on fastest and farthest planet moves slowest.
centrifugation. Centrifugation is a technique which involves
Third Law -
the application of centrifugal force to separate particles from
• The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly
a solution according to their size, shape, density, viscosity of
proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.
the medium and rotor speed.
• Kepler's third law states P2 ∝ a3. It is a mathematical
31. The separation of cream from milk by churning is formula. It means that if you know the planet orbit (P =
due to – how long it takes the planet to move around the sun) then
(a) Gravitational force you can determine that planet distance from the sun (a =
(b) Cohesive force the semi-major axis of the planet's orbit).
(c) Centrifugal force Newton's Law of Gravitation :
(d) None of the above • Newton had an opinion that all the bodies of the Universe
Jharkhand P.C.S. (Pre) 2013 attract each other by a force.
Ans. (c) • This ubiquitous force is called the gravitational force.
The separation of cream from milk by churning is due to • On this basis, Newton propounded following law about
centrifugal force. gravitation -

General Science General Studies G–33

 "The attracting force between two objects is directly • Value of 'g' does not depend upon the mass of the object.
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely • If two objects of different mass are dropped freely (in
proportional to the square of the distance between their absence of air) from the same height, equal acceleration
centres." will produce in both objects, they will reach at the same
• Newton's Law of Gravitation can be expressed time to surface of the earth.
mathematically as follows -
• Although, in the presence of air their acceleration will
If two objects whose masses are m1 and m2 respectively, vary due to upthrust force and viscosity.
and they are positioned at a distance r, then the attraction
• In this condition, the heavy object will reach prior on earth.
of force between them will be
• The value of 'g' differs at different places of Earth surface.
• The value of 'g' is minimum at equator and maximum at
poles.
• The value of 'g' also varies by going upward or downward
where G is a proportional constant known as Gravitational
from the earth surface. In both cases, it decreases.
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constant.
Circular Motion of Satellites :
• If the objects mass is unit and distance between them is
• When a satellite revolves around Earth in an orbit, a
unit, then-
centripetal force acts on it.
• This force is gravitational force imposed by Earth on
F=G satellite.
It means that Gravitational constant is the force of
attraction between two objects with unit mass and
positioned at a unit distance.
• In SI System its value is 6.674 × 10-11 newton.metre2kg-2.
• Its value was first calculated by scientist Cavandish.
Gravity and Gravitational acceleration of Earth :
• Gravity is attraction force by which Earth attracts any If a satellite of m mass is orbiting around the Earth with r
object towards its centre. radius and by Vo speed, centripetal force on satellite will
be -
• It is a peculiar form of gravitation.
=
• When an object is thrown or dropped freely, it falls
towards the Earth due to the gravity of Earth and its falling gravitational force is centripetal force
rate is continuously increasing due to the production of
acceleration, which is known as gravitational acceleration.
It is represented by 'g'. Its unit is metre/second2.
.......... (i)
Relation between 'g' & 'G' :
where G = Gravitational constant
• Gravitational acceleration of Earth
Me = Mass of Earth
where, G = Gravitational constant we know -
Me = Mass of Earth
g=
Re = Radius of Earth

G–34 General Studies General Science

 .......... (ii) Circular Motion and Escape Velocity relation :
By equation (i) & (ii) • If the circular motion of a satellite revolving nearby to
Earth is Vo and the escape velocity of an object thrown
from earth surface is Ve, then-
Ve = Vo
• It is clear that a satellite revolving nearby to earth, if by any
reason, its speed exceeds by (or about 1.414) times, it
Escape Velocity : will escape into space, leaving its orbit.

• Generally when we throw an object above, it after reaching Simple Periodic Motion :
to a certain height, comes down due to the gravitational • When an object moves both sides in a straight line from
force of Earth. its equilibrium state, then this motion is called simple
periodic motion, e.g. the movement of an object hanged
• Escape velocity is the minimum speed needed for a free
with spring and motion of the simple pendulum.
object to escape from the gravitational influence of Earth
Simple Pendulum -
and object never comes back to Earth.
• An ideal pendulum consists of a point mass suspended
• The kinetic energy required for escape velocity is known
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by a weightless, inextensible, perfectly flexible thread and

as escape energy. free to vibrate without friction.
if Mass of Earth = Me • Applied pendulum in the lab is a solid sphere of any metal
Radius of Earth = Re tight with light & thin thread with a rigid base.
• The solid sphere of metal is called bob, and the length
Then, Escape velocity Ve =
between point of suspension and gravity centre of the
where G = Gravitational constant sphere is called effective length.

From the above equation, it is clear that escape velocity Periodic Time of Simple Pendulum -
does not depend upon the mass of the object. • Periodic Time of any simple pendulum is represented by
following formula -
• If the gravitational acceleration of Earth is 'g'

where l = effective length of simple pendulum

g = gravitational acceleration
• From the above formula, it is clear that periodic time does
not depend upon the mass of the sphere.
• Time period (T) of the pendulum is directly proportional
to under root of effective length.
• If the effective length of pendulum increases by four times,
periodic time will be increased by two times.
Gravitational acceleration (g) = 9.8 m/second2
• Time period (T) of the pendulum is inversely proportional
Radius of Earth = 6.37 × 106 metre to under root of gravitational acceleration (g).
By placing these values in equation - For example - when a pendulum clock is carried on the
mountain or in any mine, 'g' value decreases, time period
Ve = = 11.2 × 103 metre/second increases and the clock becomes slow.
= 11.2 km/second • The time period of a simple pendulum whose length tends
• It is clear that if any object is thrown above the surface of to infinity is 84.6 minutes. It is the maximum limit of a
the earth at the minimum speed of 11.2 km/second, that simple pendulum.
object will move in space and never comes back to the • A second pendulum is a pendulum whose time period is
Earth. precisely 2 seconds.

General Science General Studies G–35

 (c) It revolves around the earth.
Physical Properties of Matter
(d) The escape velocity of gas molecules on it is less than
the root mean square velocity here. Notes
U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2012 • Generally, there are three states of matter -
Ans. (d) (i) Solid, (ii) Liquid, and (iii) Gas.
• The three states of matter have some special properties,
Moon has no atmosphere because the value of acceleration which are as follows -
due to gravity 'g' on the surface of the moon is small. 1. In solid - Elasticity.
Therefore, the value of escape velocity on the surface of the 2. In liquid - Pressure, Surface Tension, Capillarity and
moon is small. The value of root mean square velocity of Floating.
the molecules of different gases is much above the value of 3. In Gas - Atmospheric Pressure.
escape velocity on the moon. That is why all the molecules Elasticity :
of gases escaped and there is no atmosphere on the moon. • Generally, the meaning of a rigid substance is a hard solid
which has definite shape and size.
37. Given below are two statements- • But actually these can be stretched, compressed and
Assertion (A) : Lighting a candle in space does not deformed.
Even though a rigid steel rod can be deformed by applying
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•
produce a flame.
sufficient external force.
Reason (R) : A flame exists due to the pull of gravity.
• When an external force is applied on any substance, its
In the context of above, which one of the following is both shape or size are deformed.
correct? • After withdrawing force, it gains its normal shape or size.
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct • The property of any substance by which it tries to gain its
normal shape after being stretched or compressed is called
explanation of (A).
elasticity.
(b) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct "Ability of an object or material to resume its normal shape
explanation. after being stretched or compressed" is elasticity.
(c) (A) is true but (R) is false. • On the basis of the property of elasticity, matters are of
(d) (A) is false but (R) is true. two types :
1. Perfectly elastic substance - Matter which resumes
U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2009
perfectly its normal state after withdrawing the applied
Ans. (a) force.
NASA made it clear by his experiment that gravitation is 2. Perfectly plastic substance - Matter which does not
must for lighting up a candle. In the case of microgravity resume its normal state after withdrawing the external
force, but deformed forever.
in the spacecraft, we are able to light up the flame but it
• Really no matter is perfectly elastic nor perfectly plastic
is not possible in an actual vacuum. In fact, the flickering
but lies between the limit of these two properties.
frequency of a flame is proportional to the square root of
• On whole quartz can be considered as perfectly elastic
the acceleration due to gravity to the diameter of the candle matter and wax is perfectly plastic matter.
and due to the lack of gravitational force in space, it is zero. Stress :
Thus, the correct Answer is (a). • During the application of external force on a matter to
38. In the state of weightlessness, the size of candle's flame change its shape or size, an internal reaction force of equal
amount is produced in the opposite direction on every
will be-
section.
(a) Longer (b) Smaller • This force tries to resume a normal state of matter and it
(c) Spherical (d) Constant is known as stress.
R.A.S./R.T.S. (Pre) 2005 • If force (F) is applied vertically on a transverse section
Ans. (c) with the area (A) of matter,
then
In the state of weightlessness or microgravity, the size of Stress = F/A
candle's flame will be spherical in shape. Its SI unit is newton/metre2.

G–42 General Studies General Science

 Strain : • For example - when the capillary tube is kept stand
• When the shape or size of a matter is changed by applying in mercury, the mercury surface falls down in tube in
an external force, it is known as strain. Since, it is a ratio, comparison to the surface of external mercury.
hence it is without any unit. Examples of capillarity -
Hooke's Law - • Water and minerals absorbed by plant roots reached to
• If the strain in the matter is nominal, applied stress on the leaves and twigs through xylem tissues - which act as
matter is directly proportional to strain developed in it. capillary tubes.
The ratio of stress and strain is a constant value, known • Drawing of ink to the nib from bottom in a fountain pen.
as elasticity coefficient (E). The nib is slitted in the middle, which acts as a capillary
tube. However, refill pen writing is possible by gravity
and it does not depend upon surface tension.
Surface Tension : • Lighting candles and lamp wicks.
• Surface Tension is the elastic tendency of a fluid surface • Blotting paper used to absorb spilled liquid.
which makes it to acquire the least surface area possible. Viscosity :
It is measured in force per unit length.
• Its SI unit is - newton/metre.
• The value of surface tension of any liquid depends upon
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its nature, temperature and the medium present on another

side of the liquid surface.
• Surface tension decreases with rise in temperature.
• It becomes zero at the critical temperature.
• If the liquid has negligible weight, its shape will be
completely spherical. For example - rainwater drops and
• A liquid is flowing in a rigid horizontal surface AB as
soap bubbles.
shown in the figure. The liquid layer which is in contact
• The reason is drops occupy that form, in which its potential
with the bottom remains constant but the velocity of the
energy is minimum.
upper layers are increasing. The uppermost layer flows
• It only surface tension is acting on drop, its potential
with maximum velocity.
energy will be minimum with less area. The rain- water
• In three horizontal layers a, b and c, a is with minimum
drop will become spherical.
velocity, b has more than a and c is with maximum
Cohesive and Adhesive Force :
velocity.
• According to molecular theory, every matter is made up
• The consequent layers, from bottom to surface try to slow
of small particles, known as molecules. These molecules
down the velocity of the layer which is just above it.
attract each other.
• An internal force acts on different layers, try to slow down
• Cohesive force is the force of attraction between molecules
of the same matter. the velocity of the layer which is just above it.
• Adhesive force is the force of attraction between molecules • An internal force acts on different layers which tries to
of different matter. oppose their relative velocity.
• The adhesive force between oil & water is less than the • This force is known as the viscous force.
cohesive force of water but higher than cohesive force of • To maintain the flow of liquid, the external force is applied
oil, so when the water dropped on oil surface, its drops against viscous force.
occupy spherical shape by shrinking, while when oil • The property of liquid which opposes the relative
dropped on the water surface, it spreads widely in form movement among different layers of liquid is known as
of the thin film. viscosity.
Capillarity : • Concentrated liquids like honey and glycerine have greater
• The capillary tube is a glass tube with a very small viscosity, so their flow stops rapidly, than a low viscosity
diameter, opened at both ends. fluid.
• The tendency of a liquid to rise or fall as a result of surface • When temperature increases, the viscosity of liquid
tension in the capillary tube is known as capillarity. decreases.
• Liquids which wet the glass, rise up and liquids which • The viscosity of gas increases by increasing in temperature.
does not wet the glass, fall down in the capillary tube. • Solids lack viscosity.

General Science General Studies G–43

 Pressure :
Question Bank
• The pressure is a force applied perpendicularly on per unit
area surface of an object. 1. Spherical form of raindrop is due to –
(a) Density of liquid
Pressure =
(b) Surface tension
SI unit of Pressure - newton/metre2 (c) Atmospheric pressure
Pressure within liquid at any point - (d) Gravitational force
• Pressure at a point, situated at h depth from the free surface Chhattisgarh P.C.S. (Pre) 2003
of the liquid is - 39th B.P.S.C. (Pre) 1994
P=h×d×g Uttarakhand P.C.S. (Mains) 2002
where, d is density of liquid Ans. (b)
g is gravitational acceleration.
Upthrust Force : The shape of a drop of rain is constrained by the surface
• When a solid is put into the liquid, loss in weight of object tension, which tries to give it the shape for which the surface
appears. This apparent loss is due to a force which is area is minimum for the given volume. The spherical shape
exerted by the liquid on the matter in the upper direction. has the minimum surface area. That's why rain drops acquire
This force is known as the upthrust force. spherical shape.
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• The centre of upthrust of a matter is the centroid of the

2. A drop of water is spherical in shape. This is due to :
displaced volume of liquid.
(a) Surface tension (b) Low temperature
Archemedes' Principle :
• It states that the upward force that is exerted on a body (c) Air resistance (d) Viscosity of water
immersed in a liquid, whether fully or partially submerged, Uttarakhand Lower Sub. (Pre) 2010
is equal to the weight of the liquid that the body displaces Ans. (a)
and it acts in the upward direction at the centre of mass of See the explanation of above question.
the displaced liquid.
Law of Floatation : 3. The rain drops are spherical because –
• When a solid is in liquid, the following two forces act on it- (a) They fall from big height
1. The weight of solid acts perpendicularly inwards. (b) The air has resistance
2. Upthrust force of liquid acting upwards on solid, in (c) The water has surface tension
perpendicular direction. (d) None of the above
• The value of F (upthrust) is equal to the weight of the U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2005
liquid displaced by the solid. Ans. (c)
• The sinking or floating of any object in liquid depends
upon the relative values of these two forces. conditions See the explanation of above question.
are as follows -
4. The tendency of a liquid drop to contract and occupy
(i) If W > F - resulting force (W – F) it will act inwards -
minimum area is due to :
object will sink.
(a) Surface tension (b) Viscosity
(ii) If W = F - object will float.
(c) Density (d) Vapour pressure
(iii) If W < F - leaving object free, it will start to come upward.
• How much portion of solid will remain in liquid, it depends I.A.S. (Pre) 1997
upon the relative density of liquid and solid which can be Ans. (a)
calculated as follows - See the explanation of above question.

5. Oil spreads on water surface because –

• From the above equation, it is clear that solid will sink less (a) Oil is denser than water
in liquid with high density and will sink more in liquid (b) Oil is less dense than water
with less density. (c) Surface tension of oil is more than water
• If the density of both solid and liquid are equal, solid will (d) Surface tension of oil is less than water
float. U.P.P.S.C. (GIC) 2010
• The liquid which is having less density will float on the U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 1994
liquid having more density. Ans. (d)

G–44 General Studies General Science

 43. Why it is easier to swim in the sea than in a river?
(a) The sea water is salty
Optics
(b) The sea water is deep
Notes
(c) The sea water is heavier
(d) The sea water is lighter • Light is an electromagnetic radiation within a certain
U.P. Lower Sub. (Pre) 2002 portion of electromagnetic spectrum. It lies between the
Ans. (a) infrared (with longer wavelengths) and the ultraviolet
It is easier to swim in sea water than in a river because, the (with shorter wavelengths).
sea water contains salts which increase the density of water • Its wavelength ranges from 3900 to 7800 or about
and also increase its upthrust so, the chances of sinking get 4 × 10 to 7 × 10 metre.
–7 –7

reduced and one can easily swim in such water.

• It is invisible in itself but helps in visibility of matter.
44. A body-weight is highest in which among the following? • It travels in a straight line.
(a) Air (b) Water • It can travel through vacuum (sound waves cannot do so).
(c) Hydrogen (d) Nitrogen
• Light has dual nature :
U.P. P.C.S. (Mains) 2017
(a) Particle nature- behaves in the form of particles.
Ans. (c)
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(b) Wave nature- behaves in the form of waves.

The upthrust force or buoyant force in Hydrogen will be less Speed of light in different mediums
than other matters because it is the lightest gas. So, option
(c) is the correct answer. Sl.No. Medium Speed of light in m/s

45. When a ship enters a sea from a river, what happens? 1. Vaccum 3×108
(a) It rises a little 2. Water 2.25×108
(b) It remains at the same level 3. Glass 2×108
(c) It sinks a little 4. Diamond 1.24×108
(d) It immersed in the bottom of the sea. • Above chart shows that light speed differs in different
U.P. Lower Sub. (Pre) 2004 mediums.
U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 1992
• Light speed is maximum in vacuum.
Ans. (a)
Refractive Index :
When a ship enters a sea from a river, the ship is elevated • Light speed is less in a medium with the high refractive
due to the higher density of salty sea water than the river. index.
46. Assertion (A) : When a ship enters a sea from a river, • If the refractive index of a medium is μ and light speed is
it rises a little. u and c in that medium and vacuum respectively then
Reason (R) : The density of sea water is greater than
that of river water.
In the context of the above statements, which of the • Thus, the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to its
following is true : velocity in a specified medium is known as the refractive
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct index of that medium.
explanation of A. (a) Refractive index of water -1.33
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct (b) Refractive index of glass-1.50
explanation of A. • It is represented by Greek letter - (μ)
(c) A is true but R is false. • Since the light speed is maximum in vacuum, so the value
(d) A is false but R is true. of the refractive index of any medium is always more than
U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2003 1 in relation to vacuum.
U.P.U.D.A./L.D.A. (Pre) 2002
• Refractive index is also called optical density.
Ans. (a)
• Minimum the speed of light in a material, maximum is its
See the explanation of above question. optical density.

General Science General Studies G–51

 Refraction of Light : Refraction of light in a Prism :
• Light rays travel in a straight line in a homogenous • Prism is a homogenous transparent medium surrounded
medium. by plane surface at an acute angle.
• When light rays enter from one transparent medium to • Generally it is made up of glass.
another transparent medium it deviates from its original
path.
• This phenomenon is called refraction.
• The light rays passing in the first medium is called incident
rays.
• Light rays which enter into next medium is called
refractive rays.
• Incident point is the point at which a light ray enters in an • In the above figure, light ray AB after falling on refractive
optical system. surface PQ of the prism, refracted in BC direction bending
• The angle of incidence is the angle between a ray incident towards normal line EBF. Refracted ray BC on surface
on a surface and the line perpendicular to the surface at emerges out in the air in CD direction going away from
the point of incidence, called the normal. normal line GCF. Thus, ABCD is the path of light in Prism.
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• Angle of refraction is the angle between the normal line Dispersion of Light :
and refractive ray on the surface. • White light of the sun is a mixture of seven (7) different
• By experiments it has been observed that when light colors.
ray enters from low-density medium to higher density • These are violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange & red
medium it bends towards the normal line while entering (VIBGYOR).
from higher density medium to low-density medium it • The separation of visible light into its different colors is
goes far from the normal line. known as dispersion.
• In spectrum violet color is at lower position and the red
color is at the upper position.
• It shows that violet ray dispersed maximum and dispersion
of red ray is minimum.
• Speed of different colors of light are same in vacuum and
in the air but differs in matters.
• Thus the refractive index of any matter differs for different
colors of light.
• Speed of violet light is minimum and speed of red light is
maximum in the glass.
• So the refractive index of glass is maximum for violet light
and minimum for red light and the violet light deviates
most and red light deviates least.
• Violet ray is with lowest wavelength and highest frequency
while red ray is with highest wavelength and lowest
frequency.

Examples of Refractive Phenomenon :

(i) An immersed rod in water seems small and bent at the
surface when it is observed from outside.
(ii) A coin within a pot with water seems above from its
original position.
(iii) Twinkling of stars.

G–52 General Studies General Science

 Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection : • Mirrors are of two types-
• Critical angle (θc) is the angle of incidence beyond which (i) Plane Mirror
rays of light passing through a denser medium to the (ii) Spherical Mirror
surface of a less dense medium are no longer refracted Plane Mirror -
but totally reflected. • A plane mirror is a thin, flat and smooth sheet of glass
• Its value depends upon the nature of both mediums and with a shining layer of silver on one side.
color of rays. • The mirror used to see the face is a plane mirror.
• Our face image formed in the plane mirror can not be
• For critical angle light must pass from a denser medium
obtained on screen, it can only be observed in the mirror.
to rarer medium.
• So, the image formed in a plane mirror is an example of
• For glass-air surface the value of the critical angle is
virtual image.
approximately 42º and for the water-air surface it is 48.6º.
• Such an image is also known as imaginary or unreal image.
• The size of the image formed in the mirror is just equal
to the size of the object.
• The image and objects are at the same distance from the
mirror at opposite sides.
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• The image is a laterally inverted mirror image of the object.

θc If a person is reflected in a plane mirror, the image of his
right hand appears to be the left hand of the image.
Spherical Mirror -
• The complete reflection of light ray reaching an interface • A spherical mirror is a mirror which has the shape of a
with a less dense medium when the angle of incidence piece cut out of a spherical surface.
exceeds the critical angle is known as total internal • These are of two types -
reflection. (i) Concave Mirror
(ii) Convex Mirror
Concave Mirror
• Concave mirrors have inwards curved reflecting surface.

θc

• Mirage formation is a result of the refraction and the total • Dentists use concave mirror for the examination of
patient’s teeth producing big images of teeth.
internal reflection of light in the air.
• Concave mirror are used as a reflector, for obtaining a
• Optical fibres and Endoscope function on the principle of sharp beam of light in torches, headlight of vehicles and
total internal reflection. searchlights.
Reflection : • Concave mirrors are also used for shaving to get clear
• When light falls on the surface it may be absorbed, image of face, etc.
Convex Mirror
transmitted or reflected.
• Convex mirrors have outward curved reflective surface.
• Reflection is when light bounces off an object.
• Matters with polished and shining surface reflects more
light than the rough surface of the matter.
• Silver is the better reflector of light.
Mirror :
• A smooth well polished reflecting surface is called the
mirror. • It is used as rear - view side mirrors in vehicles.

General Science General Studies G–53

 Lens :
Question Bank
• Lens is a homogenous medium surrounded by two curved
surfaces or one curved and another plane surface. 1. Which of the following radiations has the highest
• Curved surface may be spherical, cylindrical or elliptical, energy per quantum?
but these are mostly spherical. (a) 320-400 nm (b) 200-280 nm
• Lens is of two types- (c) 280-320 nm (d) 400-600 nm
(i) Convex Lens Uttarakhand P.C.S. (Pre) 2012
(ii) Concave Lens Ans. (b)
Convex Lens - Photon energy is directly proportional to the wave frequency
• Convex lens is thick in center but thin at corner. and inversely proportional to the wavelength.
where, E = energy of photon
h = Planck's constant
c = speed of light in a vacuum
= wavelength
• Convex lens is also known as a converging lens because Thus, among the given options 200-280 nm radiation
it converges the parallel light rays at one point. Its focal
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has the highest energy per quantum. Ultraviolet radiation

length is positive. Objects appear closer and larger and contains sufficient energy per quantum to damage living
their images are real and inverted through a convex lens. cells. The ultraviolet spectrum is divided into UV-A (320-
• Convex lens is used to correct far-sightedness/ 400 nm) responsible for tanning the skin; UV-B (280-320
hypermetropia, an eye defect in which near objects are nm) responsible for skin cancer and vitamin D synthesis;
not clearly visible but long-distance objects are clearly and UV-C (below 280 nm), potentially the most harmful
visible. waveband but absorbed almost completely by molecular
oxygen in the stratosphere.
Concave Lens -
• Concave lens is thin at the centre but thick at the corner. 2. The visible range of solar radiation is-
(a) 100-400 nm (b) 400-700 nm
(c) 740-10000 nm (d) None of the above
53rd to 55th B.P.S.C. (Pre) 2011
Ans. (b)

• It is also known as a divergent lens because it diverges The electromagnetic spectrum encompasses all type of
radiations. The part of the spectrum that reaches earth from
the parallel light rays. Its focal length is negative. Objects
the sun is between 100 nm to 106 nm. This band is broken
appear smaller and farther through the concave lens and
into three ranges - Infrared (above 700 nm), Visible (400 to
their images are virtual. 700 nm), Ultraviolet (below 400 nm).
• Concave lens is used to correct near-sightedness/ myopia,
3. The wave length extension of visible light is -
an eye defect in which far objects are not clearly visible
(a) Between 200-900 nm (b) Between 250-850 nm
but near objects are clearly visible. (c) Between 300-800 nm (d) Between 390-780 nm
Scattering : U.P.P.C.S.(Mains) 2005
• Scattering is the phenomenon by which a beam of light is Ans. (d)
redirected in many different directions when it interacts
Visible light is that part of electromagnetic radiation which
with a particle of matter. can be seen by human eyes. Visible light is usually defined as
• Scattering occurs when a particle of light is fully absorbed having wavelengths in the range of 400-700 nm (4000-7000Å),
and then emitted, while reflection is when a wave/particle between the infrared and ultraviolet. A typical human eye will
is simply reflected off the surface without interacting. respond to wavelengths from about 380 to 750 nm. Thus,
• Light of shorter wavelength is scattered much more than among the given options, option (d) will be the right answer.
the light of longer wavelength. 4. The wavelength of visible spectrum is in the range :
• Color of sky appears to blue due to the scattering of light. (a) 1300 Å - 3900 Å (b) 3900 Å - 7600 Å

G–54 General Studies General Science

 If we mix red, green and blue colour, we get the white colour. Heat and Thermodynamics
Red, green and blue is referred to as the primary colors.
Similarly cyan, magenta and yellow are referred to as the Notes
primary pigment colors. If we mix magenta and yellow we
get the red colour. Hence, statement 1 is correct. Similarly Heat :
if cyan and magenta colours are mixed together we get blue • Heat is that energy which transfers from one system
color. Thus, statement 2 is also correct. If we mix cyan and to another system as a result of their difference in
yellow we get the green colour. temperature.
142. The number of colours contained in the sunlight is – • Its SI unit is Joule.
(a) 3 (b) 5 • Generally, calorie is also used as a unit of heat.
(c) 6 (d) 7 Temperature :
U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2015
• Temperature is a thermal state of an object, which
Ans. (d)
expresses the direction of flow of heat.
As we all know the sunlight is a white light and it consists • Heat always transfer from a substance of higher
of seven colours. The splitting of light into its different temperature to a substance of lower temperature.
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components (VIBGYOR) i.e. violet, indigo, blue, green,

Measurement of temperature :
yellow, orange and red is called the dispersion of light. A
prism is used to disperse light into its different components. • Thermometer is an apparatus used for measuring the
temperature.
143. Find out the odd colour from the following options-
• To measure temperature, following thermometers are in
(a) Green (b) Brown
use-
(c) Red (d) Yellow
R.A.S./R.T.S. (Pre) 1999 (i) Celsius (Centigrade) Scale :
Ans. (b) • A scale of temperature in which 0ºC represents the melting
point of ice and 100ºC represents the boiling point of water.
The brown color is an odd colour. It is because of the concept
of VIBGYOR. As we know that white light is the mixture (ii) Kelvin Scale :
of seven colours- red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo • On Kelvin Scale, ice melting point is 273K while the
and violet. Thus brown doesn't belong to this combination. boiling point of water is 373K.
• It is clear from above that 0ºC temperature on the Celsius
144. Consider the following phenomena
scale is equal to 273 K on the Kelvin scale.
1. Size of the Sun at dusk
2. Colour of the Sun at dawn • So, temperature on Kelvin scale = temperature on Celsius
3. Moon being visible at dawn scale + 273
4. Twinkle of stars in the sky K = C + 273
5. Polestar being visible in the sky (iii) Fahrenheit Scale :
Which of the above are optical illusions?
• On this scale melting point of Ice is 32ºF and boiling point
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 3, 4 and 5
of water is 212ºF is mentioned.
(c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 5
I.A.S. (Pre) 2013 Relation between Celsius and Fahrenheit Scale
Ans. (c) • A Temperature C is at the Celsius scale & F on Fahrenheit

The size of the sun at dusk is an optical illusion. The sun scale then
appears smaller during noon but longer at dawn or more
clearly at dusk. At dawn, the sun is seen with other objects Temperature effects on matter :
on the horizon and looks big. The colour of the sun at dawn • By the increase in temperature solid state converts into
is also an optical illusion. Finally twinkling of stars is also liquid state and liquid state converts into a gaseous state
an optical illusion caused by the refraction of light while while a decrease in temperature, gaseous form converts
moving through various layers of atmosphere. into liquid form and liquid converts into a solid form.

General Science General Studies G–73

 (i) Melting : • Latent heat is of two types -
• A process in which solid converts into liquid by heating. (i) Latent heat of melting.
• The temperature at which solid matter melts and converts (ii) Latent heat of vaporization.
into a liquid at atmospheric pressure is known as its Latent Heat of Melting -
melting point. For example - ice melts at 0ºC into water. • Required energy converting for solid into liquid phase is
So, the melting point of ice is 0ºC. called latent heat of melting. The value of latent heat of
• Different solids have a different melting point. For ice is 3.34 x 105 joule / kg.
example- Latent Heat of Vaporization -
The melting point of ice - 0ºC • Required energy converting for liquid into vapour is called
The melting point of wax - 63ºC latent heat of vaporization. The value of latent heat of
The melting point of Iron - 1535ºC water is 22.5 x 105 joule / kg.
• When water turns into vapour, it absorbs the latent heat.
• The melting point of any solid shows the extent of the force
By experiments, it has been observed that burning from
of attraction between their particles (atoms or molecules).
steam is more unendurable painful than burning from
The high melting point of solid shows that it has a high
boiling water, although both are at the same temperature
force of attraction between particles.
i.e. at 100ºC.
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(ii) Boiling :
• Steam has more latent heat in compare to boiling water.
• Process in which Liquid converts into vapours fastly by So when steam falls on the skin it forms water after
heating is known as boiling. condensation, it releases 22.5 x 105 joule / kg heat more
• The temperature at which liquid boils and converts into than boiling water. Due to emitting more heat by steam
vapours very fastly at atmospheric pressure is termed as than boiling water, steam creates more unendurable pain.
boiling point. Sublimation :
• Different liquids have different boiling points. • On heating when a solid changes directly into vapour
For example - and on cooling when vapour changes directly into solid
Alcohol - 78ºC then that phenomenon is known as sublimation. Some
substances having this property are Ammonium chloride,
Water - 100ºC
Iodine, Camphor and Nephthalene, etc.
Mercury - 357ºC
Evaporation :
(iii) Condensation :
• The process in which liquid turns into vapours below its
• The condensation process is the change of physical boiling point is termed as evaporation. It may occur at
condition of matter from gas to liquid and it is the contrast room temperature.
phenomenon of vaporization.
• Wet clothes dry due to evaporation of water.
(iv) Freezing :
• The pond water dries up by evaporation of water.
• It is a phase transition in which a liquid turns into a solid • Temperature increase enhances the rate of evaporation.
when its temperature is lowered below its freezing point
• The rate of evaporation of any liquid is maximum at its
and this process is the contrast of melting.
boiling point.
• On cooling a liquid, the temperature at which it turns into
• In case of low humidity in the air, the evaporation rate
a solid is known as its freezing point. is high and water evaporates very soon, while higher
• The freezing point of water is 0ºC. humidity in the air, results into a low rate of evaporation.
• The freezing point of the liquid and the melting point of Cooling by Evaporation :
solid is the same. For example - water freezes at 0ºC and • A liquid filled in the pot when evaporates, it receives latent
ice melts at 0ºC i.e. both points are same. heat of evaporation and the pot becomes cool.
Latent Heat : • A good example of cooling by evaporation is cooling of
• The heat required to turn a solid into a liquid or vapour earthen pots.
or a liquid into vapour, without change of temperature is • The earthen pitcher has many minute pores in its wall.
known as latent heat. The water diffuses out from the pores and evaporates

G–74 General Studies General Science

 continuously. The required heat for evaporation is taken Steam at 100oC causes more severe burns than the water at
from the water itself, it leads to a lowering of temperature
the same temperature because steam provides more heat.
in the remaining amount of water.
The boiling point of water is 100 degree celsius. At this
• The sweating process is more in the summer season. temperature, the water will begin to change from the liquid
Cotton clothes are the best absorbent of water. It absorbs state to the gaseous state. For this change to take place,
the sweat of our body. Evaporation of sweat provides
additional energy is required. In fact, every gram of liquid
cooling to our body.
water requires 540 calories of heat energy to convert it to
• Synthetic clothes such as polyesters are unable to absorb steam. This is called the latent heat of vaporization or latent
water in excess quantity, so these are unable to provide heat of steam. So while they both would exist at the same
cooling to our body. Due to this reason, cotton clothes are
temperature, the steam would have a lot more heat energy
given priority in the summer season.
due to the addition of 540 calories per gram of heat energy
• The fan increases the rate of evaporation of sweat so we that has been absorbed. This is why steam burns are worse
feel the cooling. than water burns.
• In Desert Room Cooler, the cooling effect is produced due
to evaporation of water. It cools more in hot and dry days 4. The hand burns more by steam comparatively to
because in hot days, higher temperature increases the rate boiling water, because –
of evaporation. (a) The steam has latent heat
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(b) Steam sneaked into the body

Question Bank (c) The steam has more power
(d) Steam is gig
1. Transfer of heat by convection can take place in
U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 1993
(a) Solids and liquids (b) Solids and vacuum
Ans. (a)
(c) Gases and liquids (d) Vacuum and gases
M.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2017 See the explanation of above question.
Ans. (c) 5. The heat required in calories to convert one gram of
Convection is a mode of heat transfer by actual motion of ice at 0° C to steam at 100° C is approximately
(a) 80 (b) 336
matter. It is possible only in fluids and gases. Convection can
(c) 720 (d) 620
be natural and forced.
Uttarakhand Lower Sub. (Pre) 2010
2. A liquid remains hot or cold for a long time in thermos Ans. (c)
flask because there is no loss or gain of heat by Latent heat of Melting = 80 calorie/gram
(a) Conduction (b) Convection and radiation The heat required for ice at 0ºC to convert in water
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of the above = 80 calorie
U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2019 Required heat to enhance the temperature of water from 0ºC
Ans. (c) to 100ºC = 100 calorie
Thermos flasks have a vacuum gap between the inner Latent heat of vaporization = 540 calorie/gram
chamber and the outer wall, so there is no loss or gain of Hence the energy required to convert water into vapour at
heat by conduction, convection and radiation. Thus, a liquid 100ºC = 540 calorie.
remains hot or cold for a long time in thermos flask. Total heat required = 80 + 100 + 540
= 720 calorie.
3. Steam at 100ºC causes more severe burns than the
6. At what temperature are the reading of a Centigrade
water at the same temperature, because :
and Fahrenheit thermometer the same?
(a) Steam is a gas
(a) – 40 (b) 212
(b) Steam provides more heat (c) 40 (d) 100
(c) Steam is highly combustible U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2015
(d) Steam exerts more pressure U.P. U.D.A/L.D.A. (Pre) 2003
Chhattisgarh P.C.S. (Pre) 2008 I.A.S. (Pre) 1993
Ans. (b) Ans. (a)

General Science General Studies G–75

 • The distance between one wave crest to next wave crest
Wave Motion or one trough to next trough is known as wavelength.
• Wavelength is represented by Greek word 'λ'.
Notes
Wave :
• Wave involves the transfer of energy without the transfer
of matter. In conclusion, a wave can be described as a
disturbance that travels through a medium, transferring
energy form one location (its source) to another location
without transfer of matter.
(ii) Longitudinal Waves :
• Waves are of two types :
• Longitudinal waves are waves in which the displacement
1. Mechanical Waves.
of the medium is in the same direction as, or the opposite
2. Electromagnetic Waves.
direction to, the direction of propagation of the wave.
1. Mechanical Waves :
• In longitudinal waves, the oscillations occur in the
• Mechanical wave is a wave that is an oscillation of matter,
direction of the wave.
and therefore transfers energy through a medium.
• While waves can move over long distances, the movement • After stretching if spring is left, longitudinal waves
of the medium of transmission - the material - is limited. originate in it.
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• So, the oscillating material does not move far from its • The places where the circles of spring are very near called
initial equilibrium position. compression and the places where circles of spring are far
• Mechanical waves transport energy which propagates in away are called rarefaction.
the same direction as the wave. • The distance between two consecutive compressions
• Mechanical waves can be produced only in media which or rarefactions is called wavelength of longitudinal
possess elasticity and inertia. waves.
Types of mechanical waves -
• During transmission of a mechanical wave through a
medium, the medium particles start to vibrate. On the basis
of the direction of particle vibration, mechanical waves
are of two types - • Longitudinal waves are originated in all mediums i.e.
(i) Transverse waves solid, liquid & gas.
(ii) Longitudinal waves • A sound wave (in air and in any fluid medium) is the
(i) Transverse Waves : standard example of a longitudinal wave.
• A transverse wave is a moving wave that consists of • Along with propagating transverse waves on the surface
oscillations occurring perpendicular (right angled) to the of the liquid, longitudinal waves can be propagated inside
direction of energy transfer (or the propagation of the the liquid.
wave). • Longitudinal waves are always mechanical waves.
Examples - Time Period :
a. Vibration in stretched rope : When one end of the rope is • In case of a wave propagating in a medium, time taken by
bound with hook and another free end is vibrating upward particle to complete one vibration is known as the time
and downward, the produced vibration in rope particle is period of the wave. It is denoted by 'T'.
perpendicular to the wave direction. • Increase in frequency of waves, results into a decrease of
b. Waves produced on the water surface. time period.
• Transverse waves commonly occur in elastic solids. Frequency :
• Transverse waves do not originate in gases. • During propagation of the wave in the medium, frequency
• It originates only on the surface layer of liquids. is the number of occurrences of repeating event per unit
• Electromagnetic waves such as light are also transverse of time by particle.
waves. • It is represented by 'n'.
• In transverse wave, maximum displacement in upward Relation between Frequency, Speed & Wavelength-
side from the equilibrium state is termed as crest while If a vibrating particle is with
maximum displacement in the downward side is termed Time period - T
as trough. The crest is the top of the wave and trough is Frequency - n and
the bottom. Wavelength - λ

G–88 General Studies General Science

 then, • Examples of electromagnetic waves are X-rays, light,
Speed of wave (v) = nλ radio waves etc.
or speed = frequency × wavelength • The speed of all electromagnetic waves are the same and
all travel equal speed to the speed of light in a vacuum.
since Frequency = • The electromagnetic spectrum covers electromagnetic
waves with frequencies ranging from below one hertz
∴
to above 1025 hertz, corresponding to wavelengths from
thousands of kilometres (108m) to a fraction of the size
2. Electromagnetic Waves :
of an atomic nucleus (10-14 m).
• Contrast to mechanical waves, some waves need no • Electromagnetic waves with the shortest range of
medium for propagation. wavelength have higher energy while with longest
• These waves are called electromagnetic waves. wavelength range have less energy.
Chart of Electromagnetic Waves
Sl. No. Name of Wave Discoverer Wavelength range Applications
1. Gamma Rays Henry Becquerel 10–14 to 10–10 m It has maximum penetrating power. Its application is
Paul Villard in nuclear reaction and artificial radioactivity. Gamma
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rays can kill living cells, they are used to kill cancerous
cells. This technique is called Radiotherapy.
2. X-Rays Wilhelm Rontgen 10–10 to 3×10–8 m Its application is in the field of medical and in
industries.
3. Ultraviolet Rays Johann Ritter 10–8 to 4×10–7 m Hospitals use UV lamps to sterilise surgical equipment
and the air in operating theatres. Food & drug
companies also use UV lamps to sterilize their
products. Suitable doses of ultraviolet rays cause the
body to produce Vitamin D.
4. Visible – 4×10–7 m to It is the visible spectrum that is visible to the human
Radiation (light) 7.8×10–7 m eyes and is responsible for the sense of sight.
5. Infrared Rays William Herschel 7.8×10–7 m to These waves are responsible for heating of any object.
10–3 m These are used in night vision cameras and in TV
remote control.
6. Shortwave Heinrich Hertz 10–3to 1 m These are used for the transmission of radio &
Radio or television signals. The microwaves used in RADAR
Hertizan waves and microwave oven also use Radio waves. Many
(Microwaves) celestial objects, such as pulsars emit radio waves.
7. Longwave Marconi 1 to 104 m Applied in the transmission of radio & televisions
Radio Programmes.

Question Bank 2. An example of longitudinal wave is :

(a) Radio wave
1. Which of the following is a mechanical wave?
(a) Radio-waves (b) X-rays (b) Sound wave
(c) Light waves (d) Sound waves (c) X-ray
Uttarakhand P.C.S. (Pre) 2016
(d) Gamma ray
Ans. (d)
(e) None of the above/More than one of the above
Sound waves are characterized by the motion of particle 66th B.P.S.C. (Pre) (Re. Exam) 2020
in the medium and are longitudinal (in air and in any fluid
Ans. (b)
medium) mechanical waves while Radio-waves, X-rays and
light waves are electromagnetic waves. See the explanation of above question.

General Science General Studies G–89

 CT scan or computed tomography are special X-rays tests Sounds speed in Different Mediums
that produce cross-sectional images of the body using
S.No. Medium Sound Speed / Second
X-rays and a computer.
36. Which of the following was invented by Wilhelm 1. Air (at 0ºC) 331 m/sec.
Rontgen? 2. Air (at 22ºC) 344 m/sec.
(a) Radio (b) X-Ray Machine
(c) Electric Bulb (d) None of the above 3. Hydrogen (at 25ºC) 1284 m/sec.
U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2018
4. Seawater (at 25ºC) 1531 m/sec.
Ans. (b)
X-ray, a type of electromagnetic waves was discovered by 5. Aluminium (at 25ºC) 6420 m/sec.
Wilhelm Rontgen, with wavelengths in the range of 0.01 to
6. Iron (at 25ºC) 5950 m/sec.
10 nanometres. These rays are extensively used in the field
of medical and industries. 7. Steel (at 25ºC) 5960 m/sec.

Sound Frequency range of Sound :

• Sound waves have been classified into three types
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Notes on the basis of their frequency range. These are as

Sound : follows :
• Sound is that form of energy which produces a hearing (i) Audible sound Waves :
sensation. • Our ear is only capable to hear such sound waves.
• Sound travels in the form of waves. • Frequency range of such sound waves lies between 20 Hz
• Vibrating matters produce sound. to 20000 Hz.
• The substance through which sound travels is called
(ii) Infrasonic Waves :
medium.
• Frequency of such sound waves is below the frequencies
• Sound waves are mechanical waves.
of audible sound i.e. below 20 hz.
• Medium (solid, liquid or gas) is necessary for their
propagation. • Sources of infrasound in nature include volcanoes,
• Sound is transmitted through gases, plasma, and liquids avalanches, earthquakes and meteorites.
as longitudinal waves. Through solids, however, it can be • Many animals can hear infrasound like whales, elephants,
transmitted as both longitudinal waves and transverse waves. rhinos, hippos, giraffes, alligators, squid/cuttlefish/octopus
Speed of Sound : and even pigeons.
• Sound speed depends upon the nature of the medium • Generally, it has been observed that, before the earthquake
through which it propagates. some animals become abnormal. Actually, earthquake
• Sound speed varies in different mediums. produces infrasounds of low frequency before producing
• Sound propagates very slow in gas. main shock waves, which probably alert the animals.
• Sound propagates faster than gas in a liquid. (iii) Ultrasonic Waves :
• Sound speed is fastest in solids. • Ultrasonic waves are such sound waves whose frequency
• Sound does not propagate in vacuum. is more than 20,000 Hz.
• Sound speed in steel is more than 15 times to speed of
• Such sound waves are beyond the normal hearing range
sound in air.
of human.
• Sound speed depends upon temperature.
• A number of animals are capable of emitting ultrasonic
• Increase in temperature results to increase in the speed of
frequencies and use it for several purposes such as - bats,
sound (in summer season the speed of sound is more than
whales, dolphins, mice, etc.
that of winter season).
Applications of Ultrasonic Waves :
• Humidity of air plays a very important role in the speed
of sound. • A dog whistle (Galton whistle) is a whistle that emits
• The sound speed in humid air is more than that of dry air. ultrasound used for training and calling dogs.

G–94 General Studies General Science

 • Ultrasonic waves are widely used in the field of industries
Question Bank
and medicines.
1. Put in ascending order of speed of sound in the
• Image of the heart is obtained by reflecting the ultrasonic
mediums
waves from different angle/part of the heart. This
I . Water, II . Steel, III . Nitrogen :
technique is known as Echocardiography (Echo Test). (a) III, II, I (b) III, I, II
• Ultrasound waves are used to breakdown the kidney stone (c) I, III, II (d) II, I, III
into smaller pieces. These pieces are excreted through U.P.P.C.S. (Spl) (Mains) 2008
urine outside of the body. Ans. (b)

• Ultrasound is used for cleaning a zig-zag tube. The speed of sound is different for different type of mediums.
• SONAR (Sound Navigation & Ranging) device is helpful The speed of sound is maximum in solids while minimum in
in determining the distance of any object positioned in gases. The speed of sound depends upon the density of the
water and to measure the direction and speed of any object medium through which it is travelling. The medium which
by using ultrasonic waves. has higher density, the sound will travel faster in that medium.

Sound Intensity : 2. The sound will have the highest velocity in

• Sound intensity is defined as the power carried by sound (a) Vacuum (b) Air
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(c) Water (d) Steel

waves per unit area in a direction perpendicular to that
U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2018
area. Ans. (d)
• The SI Unit of intensity, which includes sound intensity,
The speed of sound varies from medium to medium. Sound
is watt/square metre (w/m2).
travels most slowly in gases, it travels faster in liquids and
• The unit of sound intensity is bel, but 1/10th part of bel is fastest in solids. For example - sound travels at 331 m/s in
commonly used, which is termed as decibel (dB). air, it travels at 1531 m/s in sea water and at 5950 m/s in iron.
Echo :
3. The velocity of sound in air is approximately-
• A sound or sounds caused by the reflection of sound waves (a) 10 km./sec. (b) 10 mile/min.
from a surface back to the listener is known as an echo. (c) 330 m/sec. (d) 3 × 1010/sec.
• The impulse of sound remains in existence for 0.1 second 42nd B.P.S.C. (Pre) 1997
in mind. So, to hear clear echo there must be a time interval Ans. (c)
of at least 0.1 second between the original sound and See the explanation of above question.
reflected sound.
4. The velocity of sound is maximum in –
• At least 16.5 metre distance between listener and reflector (a) Air (b) Liquid
is necessary to hear the clear echo. (c) Metal (d) Vacuum
Mach Number : U.P. Lower (Spl) (Pre) 2008
Uttarakhand P.C.S. (Pre) 2010
• It is the ratio of the speed of a body to the speed of sound
Ans. (c)
in the surrounding medium.
• It is often used with numerals as Mach 1, Mach 2 etc. See the explanation of above question.

5. If Va, Vw and Vs respectively are the speed of sound

• Mach Number = in air, water and steel, then-
(a) Va < Vw < Vs (b) Vs < Vw < Va
• Subsonic Aircraft : An aircraft whose speed is less than (c) Vw < Vs < Va (d) Vs < Va < Vw
the speed of sound. U.P. U.D.A./L.D.A. (Spl) (Mains) 2010
• Supersonic Objects : The objects with Mach Number Ans. (a)
between 1-5, e.g. missiles. As we know that the speed of sound is different for different
• Hypersonic Objects : The objects whose Mach number types of medium. In general, sound travels faster in liquid
is more than 5, e.g. Brahmos-II missile. than gases and faster in solid than in liquid.

General Science General Studies G–95

 Resistance :
Electric Current • Resistance is a physical quality of conductor which resists
Notes the flow of electric current in the conductor.
• Its unit is Ohm (Ω).
Electric Current :
• It is represented by ‘R’.
• The rate of flow of electric charge in a conductor is termed
as electric current. Ohm’s Law :
• The direction of the flow of positive charge is considered • Ohm’s Law states that the current through a conductor
the direction of flow of electric current. between two points is directly proportional to the voltage
• Thus, the direction of flow of electric current is just across the two points.
opposite to that the direction of flow of electrons. • If V potential difference is applied at both ends of
• SI unit of electric current is Ampere. conductor and flow of electric current is I then,
1 Ampere = 1 coulomb/second.
Types of Electric Current :
• It is of two types-
(i) Direct current Where R is a constant, known as the resistance of
conductor.
(ii) Alternating current
Factors Affecting the Resistance :
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(i) Direct Current (DC) -

• An electric current flowing in one direction only. (i) By experiments, it has been observed that resistance of
conductor (R) is directly proportional to its length.
• A battery is a suitable example of DC power supply.
(ii) Alternating Current (AC) - or R L ----------------- (i)
• An electric current that reverses its direction many times a (ii) The resistance of conductor (R) is inversely proportional
second at regular intervals, typically used in power supply. to its cross-sectional area (A).
• Main advantage of AC than DC is that AC can be or ----------------- (ii)
transmitted to a long distance without much electric energy
loss. Combining (i) & (ii) equations
Electromotive Force (emf) :
• Electromotive force is the electrical intensity or pressure
developed by a source of electrical energy such as a battery
or generator.
Voltage (Electric Potential) :
• The work done to bring a unit positive charge from an Where p is a proportional constant which is known as
position to any point in the electric field is termed as the Specific Resistance or resistivity.
voltage of that particular point. • Resistivity p of any conductor depends only upon the
• Its SI Unit is Volt. nature of matter.
Potential Difference : • Its SI unit is Ohm-meter.
• The difference in electric potential between two points in Electric Power :
an electric field; the work has to be done in transferring • It is defined as the rate of consumption of electric energy
unit positive charge from one point to other. in an electrical circuit.
• Its SI unit is also Volt. Electric Power = Electric current × Potential difference
• If work W joule is done to flow q charge between ⇒ P = VI
two points, then the potential difference between these • The SI unit of electric power is Watt.
points is-

⇒ Electric energy = Power × time

• If we calculate electric power in watt and time in hour,
then the unit of electrical energy will be, watt-hour.

G–102 General Studies General Science

 • For commercial purposes-kilowatt-hour- a big unit of
electrical energy is used. Energy Consumption of 100 watt electric bulb which is used
• This is known as Unit. for 10 hours = 100 ×10
• In other words- = 1000 watt hour
"1 Unit electricity is the amount of electrical energy = 1 kilowatt hour
consumed by a load of 1 kilowatt power rating in 1 hour". = 1 unit.
According to question the cost of 1 unit of electricity = Rs 5.

2. If a bulb of 100 watt burns for 10 hours, the expenditure

of electricity will be –
(a) 0-1 unit (b) 1 unit
Electric Generator : (c) 10 units (d) 100 units
• Electric Generator is a device which converts mechanical 41st B.P.S.C. (Pre) 1996
energy into electrical energy.
Ans. (b)
• Its application depends upon electromagnetic induction.
Transformer : See the explanation of above question.
• It is a device based on electromagnetic induction.
3. Five bulbs each of 100 watt capacity in a tunnel
• It increases or decreases the voltage of alternating current.
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are illuminated continuously for twenty hours. The

• Transformers are of two types :
consumption of electricity will be:
(i) Step-up Transformer- it converts low voltage to high
(a) One unit (b) Two units
voltage of alternating current.
(c) Ten units (d) Twenty units
(ii) Step-down Transformer- it converts the high voltage into
the low voltage of alternating current. U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2017
• Transformers are used for such electric devices which Ans. (c)
functions on voltage differing from main's voltage. Consumption of electricity by one bulb
Electric Motor :
• An electric motor is a device that converts electrical
energy into mechanical energy, usually by employing
electromagnetic phenomena.
• Electric motors are used in electric fans, washing
machines, mixer, grinder, water pumps and many other = 2 unit
devices. Thus consumption of electricity by 5 bulbs =2×5
• Electric motors can be powered by DC sources, such = 10 units
as from batteries, motor vehicles or rectifiers, or by 4. The value of 1 kilowatt hour is -
AC sources, such as power grid, inverters or electric
(a) 3.6 × 106 J (b) 3.6 × 103 J
generators.
(c) 103 J (d) 105 J
Dynamo :
U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2006
• A dynamo is an electrical generator that creates direct
Ans. (a)
current using a commutator.
• It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy 1 Kilowatt hour = 1 (kilowatt) (1 hour)
through electromagnetic induction. = (1000 joule/sec.) (3600 sec.)
= 36 × 105 Joule
Question Bank
= 3.6 × 106 Joule
1. A 100 watt electric bulb is used for 10 hours. What will Thus, option (a) is correct.
be the cost of electricity consumed, if the consumption
5. An electric bulb of 100 watt is used for 4 hours. The
cost is Rs. 5 per unit ? unit of electric energy used is-
(a) Rs. 5 (b) Rs. 10 (a) 400 (b) 25
(c) Rs. 25 (d) Rs. 50 (c) 4 (d) 0.4
R.A.S./R.T.S.(Pre) 2012 U.P. Lower Sub. (Pre) 2009
Ans. (a) Ans. (d)

General Science General Studies G–103

 Conductivity Superconductivity :
• It is a phenomenon of exactly zero electrical resistance
and expulsion of magnetic flux fields occurring in certain
Notes materials called superconductors, when cooled below a
Electric Conductivity : characteristic critical temperature.
• Within the atom, electrons nearest to the nucleus are • The temperature at which resistance of a matter suddenly
strongly bound to positive ions (protons) of the nucleus becomes zero is known as 'Transition Temperature'.
by attractive force. • Following matters show the property of super- conductivity.
• The electrons far from the nucleus have poor attractive
force.
• Due to poor attractive force, such electrons are easily S.No. Name of Matter Transition Temperature (Tc)
removed from their original state.
• Such electrons are known as free electrons or conduction i. Mercury 4.2 K
electrons. ii. Tungsten 0.01 K
• The electrons which are not bound to the nucleus of an
atom and free to move when external energy is applied iii. Cadmium 0.56 K
are called free electrons.
• In General Physics, any electron that is not attached to iv. Aluminium 1.19 K
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an ion, atom or molecule and is free to move under the

influence of an applied electric or magnetic field is called v. Stanus (Tin) 3.7 K
free electron.
• A metal with a good number of a free electrons is a good vi. Lead 7.2 K
conductor of electricity. • When superconductivity was discovered by Dutch
• Silver is the best conductor of electricity. physicist Heike Onnes in 1911, it was found only at
• Other metals - copper, gold and aluminium are respectively temperatures close to absolute zero (– 273.15°C). But
good conductors of electricity. since then, researchers have steadily uncovered materials
• Electric conductivity is also found in some liquids and that superconduct at higher temperatures. In recent years,
gases. scientists have accelerated that progress by focusing on
• In metals, electric conductivity is due to the movement hydrogen-rich materials at high pressure.
of free electrons, while in liquid & gases it is due to the • In 2019 it was discovered that lanthanum hydride (LaH10)
movement of positive and negative ions.
becomes a superconductor at around 250-260 K under a
• In gases, electric conductivity takes place only at a definite pressure of 170 gigapascals.
pressure range (approx. 10 mm Hg to 10–3 mm Hg). Above
the maximum limit of pressure (10mm Hg) and below the • In October 2020, a near room-temperature superconductor
minimum limit (10-3 mm Hg) of pressure, gases are a bad (around 15°C or 288 K) made from hydrogen, carbon
conductor of electricity. and sulphur (Carbonaceous sulphur hydride) under
Non-conductor : pressure of around 270 gigapascals was described in a
• The matter having very low or zero numbers of free paper in research magazine Nature. This is currently
electrons are known as non-conductor of electricity. the highest temperature at which any material has shown
• Such matter is also known as an insulator. superconductivity.
• The flow of charge in such matters is not possible due to Application of Superconductivity :
the absence of free electrons.
a. Powerful superconducting electromagnet used in maglev
Semiconductor :
trains.
• The matter whose electric conductivity lies between
conductor and non-conductor (insulator) is known as b. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
semiconductor. c. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) machines.
• The conductivity of such matter is due to the addition of d. Magnetic confinement fusion reactors (e.g. tokamaks).
an impurity or due to temperature effect.
e. Beam steering and focusing magnets used in particle
• The process of adding controlled impurities to a semi- accelerators.
conductor is known as doping. Doped Semi- conductors
are referred to as extrinsic. f. Low loss of power cables.
• Their resistance decreases as their temperature increases, Maglev :
which is a behaviour opposite to that of a metal. • Maglev is a short form of 'Magnetic Levitation' in which
• Examples of semiconductors are - Germanium, Selenium, trains float on a guideway using the principle of magnetic
Silicon and Carbon. repulsion.

G–116 General Studies General Science

 (c) Osmium (d) Radium
U.P. R.O./A.R.O. (Pre) 2016
Nuclear Physics
Ans. (b)
Notes
See the explanation of above question.
Nuclear Fission :
17. Which of the following are semiconductors ? • When bombardment of neutrons are done on an element's
1. Silicon 2. Quartz atom, lighter particles such as α-particles, β-particles,
3. Ceramics 4. Germanium protons etc. are emitted due to artificial disintegration of
Choose the correct answer from the following alternatives: the atom's nucleus.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 • Sometimes neutrons are absorbed by the nucleus resulting
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 3 and 4 to form its own isotopes.
U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2005 • In this process, energy is released in the form of gamma
photons.
Ans. (c)
• Nuclear fission is a process in which a heavy nucleus after
In solid state electronics, either pure silicon or germanium accepting a neutron breaks down in two lighter nucleus of
may be used as the intrinsic semiconductor which forms the comparable masses.
starting point for fabrication. Each has four valence electrons • In this process -
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but germanium at a given temperature has more free electrons a. some very fast-moving neutrons;
and higher conductivity. Silicon is by far the more widely b. kinetic energy of broken segments; and
used semiconductor for electronics because it can be used at c. a huge amount of energy in the form of gamma rays are
much higher temperatures than germanium. released.
• The atom bomb and nuclear reactor's principle depends
18. Which of the following is a semiconductor ? upon the process of nuclear fission.
(a) Plastic (b) Aluminium • The main fact relating to nuclear fission is that huge
(c) Wood (d) Germanium amount of energy is released. This energy is known as
U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) (Re. Exam) 2015 'Nuclear Energy'.
Ans. (d) • During this process on fission of 1 gram Uranium,
5 × 1023 MeV energy is released which is equal to the energy
See the explanation of above question. produced by exploding 20 tonne Trinitrotoluene (TNT).
19. Which of the following elements is a semiconductor? Atom Bomb :
(a) Aluminium (b) Silicon • Nuclear Bomb is a more suitable name for Atom Bomb.
(c) Silver (d) Lead • It is such a device in which uncontrolled chain reaction is
U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2018 maintained in the fissile matter by fast- moving neutrons.
• As a result of this process in a very short time, a huge
Ans. (b)
amount of energy is released.
See the explanation of above question. • In atom bomb, two segments of uranium235 or Plutonium239
are used.
20. The Government of India has totally banned the export
• These segments mass is less than their critical mass and
of burnt coal (Jhama) because it contains recoverable
are kept separately. Critical mass is the smallest amount
amount of a metal/element which is used in transistors. of fissile material needed for a sustained nuclear chain
Which one of the following is that element? reaction. The critical mass of a fissile material depends
(a) Phosphorus (b) Germanium upon its nuclear properties, its density, its shape, its
(c) Silicon (d) Tungsten enrichment, its purity, its temperature and its surroundings.
I.A.S. (Pre) 1993 • The temperature range of 107 0C and pressure equivalent to
Ans. (b) lakhs of atmospheric pressure is produced on the explosion
of the atom bomb.
Germanium, a brittle silvery white semi-metallic element Nuclear Reactor or Atomic Pile :
is typically obtained from smelting zinc or as a by- product • A plant in which self-sustained controlled chain reaction
of burnt coal (Jhama). This element is used in transistors. is maintained and at a fixed rate, energy is obtained.

General Science General Studies G–119

 • Such energy is utilized for several purposes such as to Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) :
produce electricity and for research works. • The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
• A modern reactor has the following main parts- (commonly known as the Non-Proliferation Treaty or
NPT) is the centrepiece of global efforts to prevent the
(i) Fuel :
spread of nuclear weapons, to promote cooperation in
• It is the main part of the reactor.
the peaceful uses of nuclear energy and to further the
• The matter which undergoes for fission reaction. goal of nuclear disarmament and general and complete
• For this purpose 92U235 or 94Pu239 is used. disarmament.
(ii) Moderator : • The NPT was opened for signature in 1968 and entered
• It reduces the speed of fast neutrons, thereby turning them into force on 5 March 1970. On 11 May 1995, the Treaty
into thermal neutrons capable of sustaining a nuclear chain was extended indefinitely.
reaction. • 189 UN member states as well as two observers, namely
• Light water or normal water (H2O), Heavy water (D2O), the Holy See and the State of Palestine, have become
Graphite or Beryllium oxide are used as a moderator. Light parties to the NPT. However, one of these states (North
water is the most commonly used moderator. Korea) submitted a notice of withdrawal.
• NPT is the most widely adhered to treaty in the field of
(iii) Coolant :
nuclear non-proliferation, peaceful uses of nuclear energy
• A large amount of energy is released during fission
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and nuclear disarmament.

which results in an increase of the plant's temperature. To
• The treaty defines nuclear-weapon states as those that
decrease the temperature of the plant, coolants such as air,
have built and tested a nuclear explosive device before
water or carbon dioxide is flown through the reactor.
1 January 1967; these are the United States, Russia, the
(iv) Control Rods : United Kingdom, France, and China.
• These absorb the slow-moving neutrons. • North Korea, which acceded in 1985 but never came into
• When these rods are pushed into the reactor, the fission compliance, announced its withdrawal from the NPT in
rate slows down and when they are withdrawn from the 2003, following detonation of nuclear devices in violation
reactor, fission rate increases. of core obligations.
• For this purpose Cadmium or Boron rods are used. • Four UN member states have never accepted the NPT,
Nuclear Fusion : three of which possess or are thought to possess nuclear
weapons : India, Israel, and Pakistan. In addition, South
• When two or more light nucleus, moving with very high
Sudan, founded in 2011, has not joined.
speed, mutually fused to form a heavy nucleus, this process
is termed as nuclear fusion. • The treaty defines nuclear-weapon states as those that
have built and tested a nuclear explosive device before
• The mass of the nucleus formed after fusion reaction is
1 January 1967; these are the United States, Russia, the
less than that of the masses of original fusing nuclei.
United Kingdom, France, and China.
• The loss in mass is converted into energy.
Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty :
• For example - when two deuterons (1H2 - heavy hydrogen
• The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT)
nucleus) fused with each other, a triton (1H3 - nucleus of
is a multilateral treaty that bans nuclear weapons test
tritium) is formed.
explosions and any other nuclear explosions, for both
• Energy released by fusion of heavy hydrogen nuclei is civilian and military purposes, in all environments.
much more than the energy released by the fission of equal
• It was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly
mass of uranium235.
on 10 September 1996, but has not entered into force, as
Hydrogen Bomb : eight specific nations have not ratified the treaty.
• It is a nuclear fusion bomb. • Of the 44 States included in Annex 2 (of the Treaty)
• It is based on the fusion of heavy hydrogen nuclei. required for entry into force of the CTBT, all have signed
• Since the fusion takes place at very high temperature and with the exceptions of the Democratic People's Republic
high pressure, an atom bomb is used as ignitor along with of Korea (DPRK-North Korea), India, and Pakistan. Five
fusion bomb. of the 44 Annex 2 States have signed but not ratified the
• In the hydrogen bomb, the process of fusion is uncontrolled CTBT; they are China, Egypt, Iran, Israel, and the United
reaction whose application may be proved only destructive. States.
• In fact, the source of the boundless energy of the sun is • The United States and China are the only remaining NPT
the fusion of light nuclei. Nuclear Weapon States that have not ratified the CTBT.

G–120 General Studies General Science

• The amount of heat produced in a wire depends on its material, length & thickness.
• Wires made from some special materials melt quickly & break when large electric currents are passed
through them. These wires are used for making electric fuses.
• One reason for excessive currents in electrical circuits is the direct touching of wires.
• This may happen if the insulation on the wires has come off (causing short circuit).
• Another reason for excessive current can be the connection of many devices to a single socket (overload).
• These days Miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) are increasingly being used in place of fuses.
• MCBs are switches which automatically turn off when current in a circuit exceeds the safe limit.
• The fuse is placed in series with the device.
• The fuses used for domestic purposes are rated as 1 A, 2 A, 3 A, 5 A, 10 A, etc.
• For an electric iron which consumes 1 kW electric power when operated at 220 V, a current of (1000/220) A,
that is, 4.54 A will flow in the circuit. In this case, a 5 A fuse must be used.

2. Magnets

• The substances having the property of attracting iron are now known as magnets.
• Artificial magnets are magnets made from pieces of iron.
• Magnet shapes: bar magnet, horse-shoe magnet, cylindrical or a ballended magnet.

• The materials which get attracted towards a magnet are magnetic – for example, iron, nickel or cobalt.
22

• Magnets lose their properties if they are heated, hammered or dropped from some height.
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• Also, magnets become weak if they are not stored properly.

• To keep them safe, bar magnets should be kept in pairs with their unlike poles on the same side.
• They must be separated by a piece of wood while two pieces of soft iron should be placed across their ends.
• For horse-shoe magnet, one should keep a piece of iron across the poles.
Magnetic field & field lines

• A compass needle gets deflected when brought near a bar magnet.

• A compass needle is, in fact, a small bar magnet.
• The ends of the compass needle point approximately towards north & south directions.
• The end of the magnet that points towards North is called its North seeking end (North pole) of the magnet.
• The other end that points towards the South is called South seeking end (South pole) of the magnet.
• All magnets have two poles whatever their shape may be.
• Like poles repel, while unlike poles of magnets attract each other.

• The magnet exerts its influence in the region surrounding it. 23

• Therefore, the iron filings around a magnet experience a force.

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• The force thus exerted makes iron filings to arrange in a pattern along the field lines.
• The region surrounding a magnet, in which the force of the magnet can be detected, is said to have a mag-
netic field. The lines along which the iron filings align themselves represent magnetic field lines.
• Magnetic field is a quantity that has both direction & magnitude.
• The direction of the magnetic field is taken to be the direction in which a north pole of the compass needle
moves.
• Therefore, it is taken by convention that the field lines emerge from north pole & merge at the south pole.
• Inside the magnet, the direction of field lines is from its south pole to its north pole. Thus, the magnetic field
lines are closed curves.
• The relative strength of the magnetic field is shown by the degree of closeness of the field lines.
• The field is stronger, that is, the force acting on the pole of another magnet placed is greater where the field
lines are crowded.

Magnetic effect of electric current

• An electric current through a metallic conductor produces a magnetic field around it.
• If the current flows from north to south, the north pole of the compass needle would move towards the east.
• Replacing the cell connections in the circuit would result in the change of the direction of current through
the copper wire, that is, from south to north.
• You will see that now the needle moves in opposite direction, that is, towards the west. It means that the
direction of magnetic field produced by the electric current is also reversed.

24
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A simple electric circuit in which a straight copper wire is placed parallel to & over a compass needle. The de-
flection in the needle becomes opposite when the direction of the current is reversed.
Magnetic Field due to a Current through a Straight Conductor

• The direction of the north pole of the compass needle would give the direction of the field lines produced
by the electric current through the straight wire at point P.

• A pattern of concentric circles indicating the field lines of a magnetic field around a straight conducting wire.
• The arrows in the circles show the direction of the field lines.
• The magnitude of the magnetic field produced at a given point increases as the current through the wire
increases.
• The magnetic field produced by a given current in the conductor decreases as the distance from it in-
creases.

Right-Hand Thumb Rule

• A convenient way of finding the direction of magnetic field associated with a current-carrying conductor
is Right-hand thumb rule.

25
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• Imagine that you are holding a current-carrying straight conductor in your right hand such that the thumb
points towards the direction of current.
• Then your fingers will wrap around the conductor in the direction of the field lines of the magnetic field. This
is known as the right-hand thumb rule.

A current through a horizontal power line flows in east to west direction. What is the direction of magnetic
field at a point directly below it & at a point directly above it?

• The current is in the east-west direction. Applying the right-hand thumb rule, we get that the direction of
magnetic field at a point below the wire is from north to south.
• The direction of magnetic field at a point directly above the wire is from south to north.

Magnetic Field due to a Current through a Circular Loop

Magnetic field lines of the field produced by a current-carrying circular loop

• The magnetic field produced by a current-carrying straight wire depends inversely on the distance from it.
• Similarly, at every point of a current-carrying circular loop, the concentric circles representing the magnetic
field around it would become larger & larger as we move away from the wire.
• At the centre of the circular loop, the arcs of these big circles would appear as straight lines.
26

• Every point on the wire carrying current would give rise to the magnetic field appearing as straight lines at
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the centre of the loop.

• By applying the right-hand rule, it is easy to check that every section of the wire contributes to the magnetic
field lines in the same direction within the loop.
• This rule is also called Maxwell’s corkscrew rule. If we consider ourselves driving a corkscrew in the direction
of the current, then the direction of the corkscrew is the direction of the magnetic field.
 Magnetic field produced by a current carrying circular coil

• We know that the magnetic field produced by a current-carrying wire at a given point depends directly on
the current passing through it.
• Therefore, if there is a circular coil having n turns, the field produced is n times as large as that pro-
duced by a single turn.
• This is because the current in each circular turn has the same direction, & the field due to each turn then just
adds up.

Magnetic Field due to a Current in a Solenoid

• A coil of many circular turns of insulated copper wire wrapped closely in the shape of a cylinder is
called a solenoid.

27
The pattern of the magnetic field lines around a current-carrying solenoid
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• One end of the solenoid behaves as a magnetic north pole, while the other behaves as the south pole.
• The field lines inside the solenoid are in the form of parallel straight lines. This indicates that the magnetic
field is the same at all points inside the solenoid. That is, the field is uniform inside the solenoid.
• A strong magnetic field produced inside a solenoid can be used to magnetise a piece of magnetic material,
like soft iron, when placed inside the coil. The magnet so formed is called an electromagnet.
 A current-carrying solenoid coil is used to magnetise steel rod inside it - an electromagnet.

Question: The magnetic field inside a long straight solenoid-carrying current

a) is zero.
b) decreases as we move towards its end.
c) increases as we move towards its end.
d) is the same at all points.

Explanation: In case of a current carrying coil, the magnetic field of each loop adds up to produce a net magnetic
field. But in case of solenoid each loop is separated by a distance & the magnetic field at the centre of each loop
is same.

Solenoid acts as a simple bar magnet

Ans: d) is the same at all points.

Application of Electromagnets

When the electric current is switched off, the wire or coil generally loses its magnetism. Such wires or coils
28
•
are called electromagnets.
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• The electromagnets are used on the track for a maglev train.

• The electromagnets can be made extraordinarily strong & can lift very heavy loads.
• Electromagnets are used in electric bell.
 The coil in the bell acts as an electromagnet when electricity is passed through it.

Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851)

• Hans Christian Oersted, one of the leading scientists of the 19th century, played a crucial role in understand-
ing electromagnetism.
• In 1820 he accidentally discovered that a compass needle got defected when an electric current passed
through a metallic wire placed nearby.
• Through this observation Oersted showed that electricity & magnetism were related phenomena.
• His research later created technologies such as the radio, television & fiber optics.
• The unit of magnetic field strength is named the Oersted in his honour.

Force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field

• Electric current flowing through a conductor produces a magnetic field.

• The field so produced exerts a force on a magnet placed in the vicinity of the conductor.
• French scientist Andre Marie Ampere (1775-1836) suggested that the magnet must also exert an equal &
opposite force on the current-carrying conductor.
• The direction of the force on the conductor depends upon the direction of current & the direction of the
magnetic field.
• The direction of the force on the conductor can be found by applying Fleming’s left-hand rule.
29
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• According to this rule, stretch the thumb, forefinger & middle finger of your left hand such that they are
mutually perpendicular.
• If the first finger points in the direction of magnetic field & the second finger in the direction of current,
then the thumb will point in the direction of motion or the force acting on the conductor.
• Devices that use current-carrying conductors & magnetic fields include electric motor, electric generator,
loudspeakers, microphones & measuring instruments.
• When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field such that the direction of current is perpen-
dicular to the magnetic field, it experiences a force. This force causes the conductor to move.

Q. An electron enters a magnetic field at right angles to it. The direction of force acting on the electron
will be

a) to the right.
b) to the left.
c) out of the page.
d) into the page.
• Answer is option (d). The direction of force is perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field & current as
given by Fleming’s left-hand rule. Recall that the direction of current is taken opposite to the direction of
motion of electrons. The force is therefore directed into the page.

Q. Which of the following property of a proton can change while it moves freely in a magnetic field? 30
(There may be more than one correct answer.)
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a) mass
b) speed
c) velocity
d) momentum
Ans: Velocity of the proton (+ve charge = direction of current) increases & hence its momentum (momentum =
mass x velocity).

Q. A positively charged particle (alpha-particle) projected towards west is deflected towards north by a
magnetic field. The direction of magnetic field is

a) towards south
b) towards east
c) downward
d) upward

Direction of current (middle finger) is towards west.

The direction of force (thumb) is towards north.
According to Fleming’s left-hand rule, the direction of magnetic field (index finger) will be d) upwards.

Magnetism in medicine

• An electric current always produces a magnetic field.

• Even weak ion currents that travel along the nerve cells in our body produce magnetic fields.
• When we touch something, our nerves carry an electric impulse to the muscles we need to use. This impulse
produces a temporary magnetic field.
• These fields are very weak & are about one-billionth of the earth’s magnetic field.
• Two main organs in the human body where the magnetic field produced is significant, are the heart & the
brain.
• The magnetic field inside the body forms the basis of obtaining the images of different body parts.
• This is done using a technique called Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
• Analysis of these images helps in medical diagnosis. Magnetism has, thus, got important uses in medicine.

Electric motor
31

• An electric motor is a rotating device that converts electrical energy to mechanical energy.
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• An electric motor consists of a rectangular coil ABCD of insulated copper wire.

• The coil is placed between the two poles of a magnetic field.
 A simple electric motor

• The ends of the coil are connected to the two halves of a split ring (P & Q).
• The inner sides of these halves are insulated & attached to an axle.
• The external conducting edges of P & Q touch two conducting stationary brushes X & Y, respectively.
• Current in the coil ABCD enters through conducting brush X & flows back to the battery through brush Y.
• That is, the current in arm AB flows from A to B. In arm CD it flows from C to D.

32
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• On applying Fleming’s left hand rule, we find that the force acting on arm AB pushes it downwards while the
force acting on arm CD pushes it upwards. Thus, the coil & the axle rotate anti-clockwise.
• At half rotation, Q makes contact with the brush X, & P with brush Y.
• Therefore, the current in the coil gets reversed & flows along the path DCBA.
• A device that reverses the direction of flow of current through a circuit is called a commutator.
• In electric motors, the split ring acts as a commutator.
• The reversal of current also reverses the direction of force acting on the two arms AB & CD.
• Thus, the arm AB of the coil that was earlier pushed down is now pushed up & the arm CD previously pushed
up is now pushed down.
• Therefore, the coil & the axle rotate half a turn more in the same direction.
• The reversing of the current is repeated at each half rotation, giving rise to a continuous rotation of the
coil & to the axle.
• The commercial motors use:
a) an electromagnet in place of permanent magnet;
b) large number of turns of the conducting wire in the current carrying coil; &
c) a soft iron core on which the coil is wound.
• The soft iron core, on which the coil is wound, plus the coils, is called an armature.
• This enhances the power of the motor.

Electromagnetic induction

• A galvanometer is an instrument that can detect the presence of a current in a circuit. 33

• The pointer remains at zero (the centre of the scale) for zero current flowing through it.
• It can deflect either to the left or to the right of the zero-mark depending on the direction of current.
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• Let us imagine a situation in which a magnet’s north pole is moving towards end B of the conductor coil.
• There is a momentary deflection in the needle of the galvanometer.
• This indicates the presence of a current in the coil AB.
• The deflection becomes zero the moment the motion of the magnet stops.
• If the south pole of the magnet is moved towards the end B of the coil, the deflections in the galvanometer
would just be opposite to the previous case.
• It is, thus, clear from this activity that motion of a magnet with respect to the coil produces an induced
potential difference, which sets up an induced electric current in the circuit.
• This phenomenon was first studied by English physicist Michael Faraday.
• In 1831, Faraday made an important breakthrough by discovering how a moving magnet can be used to
generate electric currents.
• Let us now replace the moving magnet by a current-carrying coil & the current in the coil can be varied.

• Coil-1 is called the primary coil & coil-2 is called the secondary coil. As the current in the first coil changes,
the magnetic field associated with it also changes.
• Thus, the magnetic field lines around the secondary coil also change.
• Hence the change in magnetic field lines associated with the secondary coil is the cause of induced electric
current in it.
• This process, by which a changing magnetic field in a conductor induces a current in another conductor, 34
is called electromagnetic induction.
In practice we can induce current in a coil either by moving it in a magnetic field or by changing the
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•
magnetic field around it. It is convenient in most situations to move the coil in a magnetic field.
• The induced current is found to be the highest when the direction of motion of the coil is at right angles
to the magnetic field.
• In this situation, we can use a simple rule to know the direction of the induced current: Stretch the thumb,
forefinger & middle finger of right hand so that they are perpendicular to each other.
• If the forefinger indicates the direction of the magnetic field & the thumb shows the direction of motion of
conductor, then the middle finger will show the direction of induced current. This simple rule is called Flem-
ing’s right-hand rule.

Michael Faraday (1791-1867)

• Michael Faraday was an experimental physicist. He had no formal education.

• Faraday made several path-breaking discoveries that include electromagnetic induction & the laws of elec-
trolysis.

Electric generator

35
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• Electromagnetic induction is also employed to produce large currents for use in homes & industry.
• In an electric generator, a conductor is rotated in a magnetic field to produce electricity.
• An electric generator consists of a rotating rectangular coil ABCD placed between the two poles of a per-
manent magnet.
• The two ends of this coil are connected to the two rings R1 & R2.
• The inner side of these rings are insulated.
• The two conducting stationary brushes B1 & B2 are kept pressed separately on the rings R1 & R2, respectively.
• The two rings R1 & R2 are internally attached to an axle.
• The axle may be mechanically rotated from outside to rotate the coil inside the magnetic field.
• Outer ends of the two brushes are connected to the galvanometer to show the flow of current in the circuit.
• The axle attached to the two rings is rotated such that the arm AB moves up (and the arm CD moves down)
in the magnetic field produced by the permanent magnet (ABCD is rotated clockwise).
• By applying Fleming’s right-hand rule, the induced currents are set up in these arms along the directions AB
& CD.
• Thus, an induced current flows in the direction ABCD.
• This means that the current in the external circuit flows from B2 to B1.
• If there are larger numbers of turns in the coil, the current generated in each turn adds up to give a large
current through the coil.
• After half a rotation, arm CD starts moving up & AB moving down. As a result, the directions of the induced
currents in both the arms change, giving rise to the net induced current in the direction DCBA.
• The current in the external circuit now flows from B1 to B2.
• Thus, after every half rotation the polarity of the current in the respective arms changes.
• Such a current, which changes direction after equal intervals of time, is called an alternating current
(abbreviated as AC). This device is called an AC generator.
• To get a direct current (DC, which does not change its direction with time), a split-ring type commutator
must be used. The generator is thus called a DC generator.
• The difference between the direct & alternating currents is that the direct current always flows in one
direction, whereas the alternating current reverses its direction periodically.
36

• Most power stations constructed these days produce AC.

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• In India, the AC changes direction after every 1/100 second, that is, the frequency of AC is 50 Hz.
• An important advantage of AC over DC is that electric power can be transmitted over long distances
without much loss of energy.
Q. A rectangular coil of copper wires is rotated in a magnetic field. The direction of the induced current
changes once in each

a) two revolutions
b) one revolution
c) half revolution
d) one-fourth revolution

Answer: 1/2

Domestic electric circuits

• In our homes, one of the wires in the supply, usually with red insulation cover, is called live wire (or posi-
tive).
• Another wire, with black insulation, is called neutral wire (or negative).
• In our country, the potential difference between the two is 220 V. (220 V & 50 Hz AC current)
• At the metre-board in the house, these wires pass into an electricity meter through a main fuse.
• Often, two separate circuits are used, one of 15 A current rating for appliances with higher power ratings
such as geysers, air coolers, etc.
• The other circuit is of 5 A current rating for bulbs, fans, etc.
• The earth wire, which has insulation of green colour, is usually connected to a metal plate deep in the
earth near the house.
• This is used as a safety measure, especially for those appliances that have a metallic body, for example, electric
press, toaster, table fan, refrigerator, etc.
• The metallic body is connected to the earth wire, which provides a low resistance conducting path for the
current.
• Thus, it ensures that any leakage of current to the metallic body of the appliance keeps its potential to
that of the earth, & the user may not get a severe electric shock.
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A schematic diagram of one of the common domestic circuits

• Electric fuse is an important component of all domestic circuits. A fuse in a circuit prevents damage to the
appliances & the circuit due to overloading.
• Overloading can occur when the live wire & the neutral wire come into direct contact. (This occurs when the
insulation of wires is damaged or there is a fault in the appliance.)
• In such a situation, the current in the circuit abruptly increases. This is called short-circuiting.
• The use of an electric fuse prevents the electric circuit & the appliance from a possible damage by stopping
the flow of unduly high electric current.
• The Joule heating that takes place in the fuse melts it to break the electric circuit.
• Overloading can also occur due to an accidental hike in the supply voltage. Sometimes overloading is caused
by connecting too many appliances to a single socket.

Summary

• An electromagnet consists of a core of soft iron wrapped around with a coil of insulated copper wire.
• A current-carrying conductor when placed in a magnetic field experiences a force.
• If the direction of the field & that of the current are mutually perpendicular to each other, then the force
acting on the conductor will be perpendicular to both & will be given by Fleming’s left-hand rule. This is
the basis of an electric motor.
• The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction is the production of induced current in a coil placed in a
region where the magnetic field changes with time. If the coil is placed near to a current-carrying conductor,
the magnetic field may change either due to a change in the current through the conductor or due to the
relative motion between the coil & conductor. The direction of the induced current is given by the Fleming’s
right-hand rule.
• In our houses we receive AC electric power of220 V with a frequency of 50 Hz.

Q. Which of the following correctly describes the magnetic field near a long straight wire?

a) The field consists of straight lines perpendicular to the wire.

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b) The field consists of straight lines parallel to the wire.

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c) The field consists of radial lines originating from the wire.

d) The field consists of concentric circles centred on the wire.

Q. The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction is

a) the process of charging a body.

 b) the process of generating magnetic field due to a current passing through a coil.
c) producing induced current in a coil due to relative motion between a magnet & the coil.
d) the process of rotating a coil of an electric motor.

Q. The essential difference between an AC generator & a DC generator is that

a) AC generator has an electromagnet while a DC generator has permanent magnet.

b) DC generator will generate a higher voltage.
c) AC generator will generate a higher voltage.
d) AC generator has slip rings while the DC generator has a commutator.

Answer: option four

Q. When is the force experienced by a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field largest?

• Ans: when the magnetic field & electric current are perpendicular to each other (Fleming’s left-hand rule).

Q. Imagine that you are sitting in a chamber with your back to one wall. An electron beam moving hori-
zontally from back wall towards the front wall, is deflected by a strong magnetic field to your right side.
What is the direction of magnetic field?

• Ans: An electron beam moving horizontally from back wall towards the front wall == electric flowing from
front wall towards back wall (Middle Finger).
• Is deflected by a strong magnetic field to your right side (thumb)
• Direction of magnetic field (index finger) = downwards direction (Fleming’s left-hand rule).

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Q. State the rule to determine the direction of a

a) magnetic field produced around a straight conductor-carrying current (Right-Hand Thumb Rule),
 b) force experienced by a current-carrying straight conductor placed in a magnetic field which is perpendic-
ular to it (Fleming’s left-hand rule), &
c) current induced in a coil due to its rotation in a magnetic field (Fleming’s right-hand rule).

Electric Motor ➔ Fleming’s left-hand rule

Electric Generator ➔ Electromagnetic Induction ➔ Fleming’s right-hand rule

3. Motion

• When objects move along a straight line it is called rectilinear motion.

• Motion of a pendulum & motion on strings of a guitar are examples of periodic motion.
• In periodic motion an object repeats its motion after a fixed interval of time.
• Galileo Galilie (A.D. 1564 –1642) discovered that the time period of a given pendulum is constant.
• That is, a pendulum of a given length always takes the same time to complete one oscillation.
• This observation led to the development of pendulum clocks.

Force

• Forces applied on an object in the same direction add to one another.

• If the two forces act in the opposite directions on an object, the net force acting on it is the difference between
the two forces.

Contact Forces

• Muscular Force
• Friction: The frictional force exerted by fluids is also called drag.

Non-contact Forces
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• These forces come into play even when the bodies are not in contact.
• Magnetic Force
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• Electrostatic Force: The force exerted by a charged body on another charged or uncharged body is known
as electrostatic force.
• Gravitational Force: This is an attractive force. The force of gravity acts on all objects.
• Pressure: The force acting on a unit area of a surface is called pressure.