UNIT V: Solid and Hazardous Waste

I. Solid waste management: Sources and classification

Solid waste refers to non-soluble material such as agricultural refuse, industrial waste, mining
residues, demolition waste, municipal garbage or even sewage sludge. Most of these kind of
wastes cannot be recycled or rehabilitated for further use. Solid waste management is the
entire process involved in the recycling process. Solid waste management starts with the
trucks picking up recyclables, delivering them to the recycling. Solid waste management
(SWM) is associated with the control of waste generation, its storage, collection, transfer and
transport, processing and disposal in a manner that is in accordance with the best principles of
public health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics, publically attitude and other
environmental considerations.

The problems relating to disposal of industrial solid waste are associated with lack of
infrastructural facilities and negligence of industries to take proper safeguards. The large and
medium industries located in identified (conforming) industrial areas still have some
arrangements to dispose solid waste. However, the problem persist with small scale
industries. In number of cities and towns, small scale industries find it easy to dispose waste
here and there and it makes difficult for local bodies to collect such waste though it is not
their responsibility. In some cities, industrial, residential and commercial areas are mixed and
thus all waste gets intermingled. Therefore, it becomes necessary that the local bodies along
with State Pollution Control Board (SPCB) work out requisite strategy for organising proper
collection and disposal of industrial solid waste.

Industries generating solid waste have to manage such waste by themselves and are required
to seek authorisations from respective State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) under relevant
rules. However, through joint efforts of SPCBs, local bodies and the industries, a mechanism
could be evolved for better management.

Assessment of industrial solid waste management problem greatly varies depending on the
nature of the industry, their location and mode of disposal of waste. Further, for arriving at an
appropriate solution for better management of industrial solid waste, assessment of nature of
waste generated is also essential.
Industries are required to collect and dispose of their waste at specific disposal sites and such
collection, treatment and disposal is required to be monitored by the concerned State
Pollution Control Board (SPCB) or Pollution Control Committee (PCC) in Union Territory.

The following problems are generally encountered in cities and towns while dealing with
industrial solid waste:

 There are no specific disposal sites where industries can dispose their waste;
 Mostly, industries generating solid waste in city and town limits are of small scale
nature and even do not seek consents of SPCBs/PCCs ;
 Industries are located in non-conforming areas and as a result they cause water and air
pollution problems besides disposing solid waste.
 Industrial estates located in city limits do not have adequate facilities so that
industries can organise their collection, treatment and disposal of liquid and solid
waste;
 There is no regular interaction between urban local bodies and SPCBs/PCCs to deal
such issues relating to treatment and disposal of waste and issuance of licenses in non-
conforming areas.

The major generators of industrial solid wastes are the thermal power plants producing coal
ash, the integrated Iron and Steel mills producing blast furnace slag and steel melting slag,
non-ferrous industries like aluminum, zinc and copper producing red mud and tailings, sugar
industries generating press mud, pulp and paper industries producing lime and fertilizer and
allied industries producing gypsum.

Description of Important Industrial Solid Waste

(a). Coal ash: In general, a 1,000 MW station using coal of 3,500 kilo calories per kg and ash
content in the range of 40-50 per cent would need about 500 hectares for disposal of fly ash
for about 30 years’ operation. It is, therefore, necessary that fly ash should be utilised
wherever possible to minimize environmental degradation. The research and development
carried out in India for utilisation of fly ash for making building materials has proved that fly
ash can be successfully utilised for production of bricks, cement and other building materials.
Indigenous technology for construction of building materials utilising fly ash is available and
are being practised in a few industries.
(b). Integrated Iron & Steel Plant Slag: The Blast Furnace (BF) and Steel Melting Shop
(SMS) slags in integrated iron and steel plants are at present dumped in the surrounding areas
of the steel plants making hillocks encroaching on the agricultural land. Although, the BF
slag has potential for conversion into granulated slag, which is a useful raw material in
cement manufacturing, it is yet to be practised in a big way.

(c). Phosphogypsum: Phosphogypsum is the waste generated from the phosphoric acid,
ammonium phospate and hydrofluoric acid plants. This is very useful as a building material.
At present very little attention has been paid to its utilisation in making cement, gypsum
board, partition panel, ceiling tiles, artificial marble, fiber boards etc.

(d). Red Mud: Red mud as solid waste is generated in non-ferrous metal extraction
industries like aluminum and copper. The red mud at present is disposed in tailing ponds for
settling, which more often than not finds its course into the rivers, especially during
monsoon. However, red mud has recently been successfully tried and a plant has been set up
in the country for making corrugated sheets. Demand for such sheet should be popularised
and encouraged for use. This may replace asbestos which is imported and also banned in
developed countries for its hazardous effect. Attempts are also made to manufacture polymer
and natural fibres composite panel doors from red mud.

(e). Lime Mud: Lime sludge, also known as lime mud, is generated in pulp & paper mills
which is not recovered for reclamation of calcium oxide for use except in the large mills. The
lime mud disposal by dumping into low-lying areas or into water courses directly or as run-
off during monsoon is not only creating serious pollution problem but also wasting the
valuable non- renewable resources. The reasons for not reclaiming the calcium oxide in the
sludge after recalcination is that it contains high 75 amount of silica. Although a few
technologies have been developed to desilicate black liquor before burning, none of the mills
in the country are adopting desilication technology.

(f).Waste Sludge and Residues: Treatment of industrial wastes/effluents results in

generation of waste sludge/residues which, if not properly disposed, may cause ground and
surface water pollution.

(g). Potential Reuse of Solid Wastes: Research and Development (R&D) studies conducted
by the R&D Institutions like Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee (CBRI) and the
National Council for Building Research, Ballabgarh (NCBR) reveal that the aforesaid solid
wastes has a very good potential to be utilised in the manufacture of various building
materials.

II. Public health aspects

There are a number of health effects that can occur from improper solid waste management.
The most common are environmental health concerns, such as air and water quality issues, as
well as public health concerns, such as the spread of diseases.

Environmental Health Concerns: One of the primary environmental health concerns related to
solid waste management is air quality. When waste is burned or processed in an incinerator, it
produces toxic particles, including carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide.
These particles can cause respiratory problems in people who are nearby and can also lead to
chronic lung diseases such as asthma. In addition, these particles can contribute to climate
change by absorbing sunlight and contributing to global warming.

Water quality is also affected by solid waste management. When wastes are disposed of in
landfills or dumped in rivers and lakes, they can contaminate the water with hazardous
chemicals and heavy metals. This pollution can lead to health problems such as cancer and
birth defects. Moreover, it can damage ecosystems and disrupt the natural cycles that sustains
life.

Poor waste handling and disposal can lead to environmental pollution, encourage the
breeding of disease-vector insects, animal scavengers and rodents, and result in a range of
diseases through different routes of exposure such as faeco-oral and soil transmitted
mechanisms.

III. Methods of collection and Disposal Methods

Solid waste disposal and management involve a variety of methods to handle and dispose of
waste materials generated by human activities. These methods aim to minimize the
environmental impact of solid waste and promote sustainable waste management practices.
Here are some common methods of solid waste management:

Landfilling
Landfills are engineered sites where solid waste is deposited and compacted. The waste is
then covered with soil to reduce odours, prevent the spread of disease, and minimize
environmental contamination. Landfills should meet certain design and regulatory
requirements to prevent pollution of soil, groundwater, and air.

Incineration

Incineration, or combustion, involves the controlled burning of solid waste at high

temperatures. This method reduces the volume of waste and generates energy through
combustion. Proper air pollution control systems are crucial to minimising harmful emissions
into the atmosphere.

Recycling

Recycling involves separating, processing, and reusing materials from solid waste. Paper,
plastics, glass, metals, and some types of organic waste are typical recyclable materials. This
methods lessens the need for raw materials, mitigates energy usage, and lessens greenhouse
gas emissions.

Composting

Compost connotes the biological decomposition of organic waste. This method is

environmentally friendly and results in a valuable soil amendment that can be used in
agriculture and landscaping. Composting reduces the volume of waste going to landfills and
helps divert organic waste from the waste stream.

Waste-to-Energy

Waste-to-energy methods include turning solid waste into energy, frequently by means of
anaerobic digestion or incineration. These methods generate heat or electricity from the
combustion or breakdown of waste materials. Waste-to-energy facilities can help reduce
reliance on fossil fuels and minimize waste volume.

Hazardous Waste Treatment

Due to the potential harm it could cause to both the environment and human health,
hazardous waste needs specific handling. Treatment methods include physical, chemical, or
biological processes that neutralize, detoxify, or remove hazardous components from the
waste before disposal.

Source Reduction

The objective of source reduction is to cut back on waste production at the source. This
includes measures such as product redesign, material substitution, and promoting practices
like reusing, repairing, and reducing packaging. Source reduction helps conserve resources
and minimize the need for waste disposal.

Biogas Generation

Biogas generation is an environmentally friendly solid waste disposal method that involves
the decomposition of organic waste in an anaerobic environment, producing methane-
rich biogas and nutrient-rich digestate.

IV. Hazardous waste management: Definition and sources

Types of industrial wastes: Industrial waste can be divided into following two types:

 Biodegradable industrial waste

 Non – biodegradable industrial waste

Biodegradable wastes – Those waste materials which can be decomposed into simpler un-
harmful substances by the action of microorganisms are called biodegradable wastes. Some
industries such as the paper industry, food industry, sugar industry, wool industry etc. mostly
produce biodegradable industrial wastes. Management of these wastes can be done at low
cost and easily.

Non-biodegradable wastes – Non-biodegradable waste cannot be further decomposed via

the action of the microorganisms. Such waste is the major source of toxins in the landfills.
Chemicals, metals, plastics, paints, rubber etc. are examples of non-biodegradable wastes.
These materials can remain as landfills for thousands of years without any damage. Toxins
from metals and plastics get soaked into the earth and pollute the soil and water sources.
Cleaning materials such detergent, phenols etc. producing industries, coal industries, dying
industries etc. produce a large amount of non-biodegradable industrial waste. These types of
wastes are difficult to manage and very toxic in nature.

Classification of industrial wastes: Industrial waste, generally, can be categorized into two
types, i.e., non-hazardous and hazardous. Non-hazardous industrial waste is the waste from
industrial activity, which does not pose a threat to public health or environment, e.g., carton,
plastic, metals, glass, rock, and organic waste. In contrast, hazardous waste is a residue from
industrial activity that can harm public health or environment, e.g., flammable, corrosive,
active, and toxic materials. Hazardous waste is generated from many sources, ranging from
industrial manufacturing process wastes to batteries and may come in many forms, including
liquids, solids gases, and sludges. The characteristics of waste produced by different sectors
of industry is shown in the Table. Regarding the amount, typically non-hazardous waste is
tremendously higher than the hazardous one, despite there being a distinct classification of
hazardous waste for different countries.

It is widely known that more industrialized countries will produce a higher amount of
industrial waste. The production of industrial waste changes from time to time. Mineral waste
contributes to more than 50% of the total waste generated. Manufacturing (including
chemical production) displays a linear decrease, whereas construction exhibits the opposite.
For energy and mining, typically a more or less constant generation of waste is observed.

V. Hazardous waste management: classification, Treatment methods, Disposal methods

Classification: Toxic Waste (T), Acute Hazardous Waste (H), Ignitable Waste (I), Corrosive
Waste (C ), Reactive Waste (R ), Toxicity Characteristic Waste (E).
Treatment: Hazardous waste can be treated by chemical, thermal, biological, and physical
methods. Chemical methods include ion exchange, precipitation, oxidation and reduction, and
neutralization. Among thermal methods is high-temperature incineration, which not only can
detoxify certain organic wastes but also can destroy them. Special types of thermal equipment
are used for burning waste in either solid, liquid, or sludge form. These include the fluidized-
bed incinerator, multiple-hearth furnace, rotary kiln, and liquid-injection incinerator. One
problem posed by hazardous-waste incineration is the potential for air pollution.

Biological treatment of certain organic wastes, such as those from the petroleum industry, is
also an option. One method used to treat hazardous waste biologically is called land farming.
In this technique the waste is carefully mixed with surface soil on a suitable tract of land.
Microbes that can metabolize the waste may be added, along with nutrients. In some cases a
genetically engineered species of bacteria is used. Food or forage crops are not grown on the
same site. Microbes can also be used for stabilizing hazardous wastes on previously
contaminated sites; in that case the process is called bioremediation.

The chemical, thermal, and biological treatment methods outlined above change the
molecular form of the waste material. Physical treatment, on the other hand, concentrates,
solidifies, or reduces the volume of the waste. Physical processes include evaporation,
sedimentation, flotation, and filtration. Yet another process is solidification, which is
achieved by encapsulating the waste in concrete, asphalt, or plastic. Encapsulation produces a
solid mass of material that is resistant to leaching. Waste can also be mixed with lime, fly
ash, and water to form a solid, cement like product.

Disposal: Hazardous wastes that are not destroyed by incineration or other chemical
processes need to be disposed of properly. For most such wastes, land disposal is the ultimate
destination, although it is not an attractive practice, because of the inherent environmental
risks involved. Two basic methods of land disposal include landfilling and underground
injection. Prior to land disposal, surface storage or containment systems are often employed
as a temporary method.

Temporary on-site waste storage facilities include open waste piles and ponds or lagoons.
New waste piles must be carefully constructed over an impervious base and must comply
with regulatory requirements similar to those for landfills. The piles must be protected from
wind dispersion or erosion. If leachate is generated, monitoring and control systems must be
provided. Only non-containerized solid, non-flowing waste material can be stored in a new
waste pile, and the material must be landfilled when the size of the pile becomes
unmanageable.

A common type of temporary storage impoundment for hazardous liquid waste is an open pit
or holding pond, called a lagoon. New lagoons must be lined with impervious clay soils and
flexible membrane liners in order to protect groundwater. Leachate collection systems must
be installed between the liners, and groundwater monitoring wells are required. Except for
some sedimentation, evaporation of volatile organics, and possibly some surface aeration,
open lagoons provide no treatment of the waste. Accumulated sludge must be removed
periodically and subjected to further handling as a hazardous waste.

Many older, unlined waste piles and lagoons are located above aquifers used for public water
supply, thus posing significant risks to public health and environmental quality. A large
number of these old sites have been identified and scheduled for clean-up, or remediation,
around the world.

Landfilling of hazardous solid or containerized waste is regulated more stringently than

landfilling of municipal solid waste. Hazardous wastes must be deposited in so-called secure
landfills, which provide at least 3 metres (10 feet) of separation between the bottom of the
landfill and the underlying bedrock or groundwater table. A secure hazardous-waste landfill
must have two impermeable liners and leachate collection systems. The double leachate
collection system consists of a network of perforated pipes placed above each liner. The
upper system prevents the accumulation of leachate trapped in the fill, and the lower serves as
a backup. Collected leachate is pumped to a treatment plant. In order to reduce the amount of
leachate in the fill and minimize the potential for environmental damage, an impermeable cap
or cover is placed over a finished landfill.

A groundwater monitoring system that includes a series of deep wells drilled in and around
the site is also required. The wells allow a routine program of sampling and testing to detect
any leaks or groundwater contamination. If a leak does occur, the wells can be pumped to
intercept the polluted water and bring it to the surface for treatment.

One option for the disposal of liquid hazardous waste is deep-well injection, a procedure that
involves pumping liquid waste through a steel casing into a porous layer of limestone or
sandstone. High pressures are applied to force the liquid into the pores and fissures of the
rock, where it is to be permanently stored. The injection zone must lie below a layer of
impervious rock or clay, and it may extend more than 0.8 km (0.5 mile) below the surface.
 Deep-well injection is relatively inexpensive and requires little or no pre-treatment of the
waste, but it poses a danger of leaking hazardous waste and eventually polluting subsurface
water supplies.

VI. E-Waste: Sources, environmental and social issues, management practices.

It is a hard fact that with the voluminous increase in use of ICT devices to bridge the digital divide, there
is also an alarming growth of e-waste worldwide. E-waste is defined as “waste electrical and electronic
equipment, whole or in part or rejects from their manufacturing and repair process, which are intended to
be discarded” whereas electrical and electronic equipment has been defined as ‘equipment which is
dependent on electrical currents or electro-magnetic fields to be fully functional’. There is a need for e-
waste management as e-waste components may cause severe health risks and environmental damage,
when crude, unscientific methods are applied for recovery of useful components. There is a need to
encourage recycling of all useful and valuable material from e-wastes to preserve the natural resources.
Most of the developing countries are suffering with the rapidly growing problems of e-waste and have to
have sound e-waste management systems for end of life ICT products to avoid the threat on environment
and mankind. The rapid growth of ICT, frequent innovations and technological changes are resulting in
shorter life span of ICT equipment. Moreover in developing countries the quantity of imported disused
Electrical and Electronic equipment (EEE) is uncontrolled .So the volume of e-waste has also increased
drastically in developing and developed nations. At the same time, it is encouraging that every nation,
along with going for the development in the ICT sector, is also working for ‘going green’ by taking care
of issues like efficient use of natural resources, minimization of e-waste, sustainable recycling of e-waste
and development of products with minimum use of hazardous substances.

Effects of e-waste on human health and environment: e-waste is highly complex to handle because of
its composition. It is made up of multiple components some of which contain toxic substances that have
an adverse impact on human health and environment if not handled properly that is if improper recycling
and disposal methods are deployed. So there is a need for appropriate technology for handling and
disposal of these chemicals. Basel Convention characterizes e-waste as hazardous when they contain and
are contaminated with mercury, lead, cadmium, polychlorinated biphenyl etc. Wastes containing
insulation or metal cables coated with plastics contaminated with or containing lead, coal tar, cadmium,
Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) etc are also characterized as 5 hazardous wastes. Also precious metal
ash from printed circuit boards, glass waste from cathode-ray tubes, LCD screens and other activated
glasses are classified as hazardous wastes. Effects of some of the prime hazardous components in of e-
waste are mentioned below:

Management of e-waste: There is no unique or ideal model for e-waste management in

developing countries, each of which has its own specific environmental, social, technological,
economic and cultural conditions. Environmentally sound management of WEEE recognizes
three Rs i.e. reduce, reuse and recycle. The aim would be to reduce the generation of e-waste
through smart manufacturing and maintenance, reuse till functioning of electronic equipment by
someone else and recycle those components that cannot be repaired. A smart e-waste
management system for developing countries have to assess the e-waste situation, recognize that
e-wastes are a complex mixture of hazardous and nonhazardous substances and materials and
need to define the integral e-waste management system taking into consideration the EEE
market penetration , life cycle of ICT equipment, financing mechanisms etc. The main aspects to
be taken into account when framing ICT waste management guidelines for developing countries
are:

 Policy and regulations covering import and export of EEE and WEEE in accordance with the
rules of each country and with international legislation

 Defining responsibilities of prime stake holders at the level of government, supply chain,
consumers of ICT equipment and entities for disposal of waste

 Extended producer responsibility (EPR) where the manufacturer's responsibility for its ICT
equipment extends throughout the various stages of that equipment's life cycle with internalizing
the cost of managing the equipment at end of life

 Responsible information system to have data on ICT equipment in market, disused EEE
management and WEEE management and to have control on the monitoring and future planning

 Promoting employment and training for the informal sector engaged in recycling and recovery
of the materials.