ET CLASS MATERIAL

ECE A &B

GV Raja sekhar
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ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY
LECTURE NOTES
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VOLTAGE
According to the structure of an atom, we know that there are two types of charges: positive and
negative. A force of attraction exists between these positive and negative charges. A certain amount of
energy (work) is required to overcome the force and move the charges through a specific distance. All
opposite charges possess a certain amount of potential energy because of the separation between them.
The difference in potential energy of the charges is called the potential difference. Potential difference
in electrical terminology is known as voltage, and is denoted either by V or v. It is expressed in terms
of energy (W) per unit charge (Q), i.e.

dw is the small change in energy, and dq is the small change in charge. where energy (W ) is expressed
in joules (J), charge (Q) in coulombs (C), and voltage (V) in volts (V).

“One volt is the potential difference between two points when one joule of energy is used to
pass one coulomb of charge from one point to the other.”

CURRENT
There are free electrons available in all semiconductive and conductive materials. These free electrons
move at random in all directions within the structure in the absence of external pressure or voltage. If a
certain amount of voltage is applied across the material, all the free electrons move in one direction
depending on the polarity of the applied voltage.
This movement of electrons from one end of the material to the other end constitutes an electric current,
denoted by either I or i. The conventional direction of current flow is opposite to the flow of -ve charges,
i.e. the electrons.

where I is the current, Q is the charge of electrons, and t is the time, or

the unit ampere is used to measure current, denoted by A. One ampere is equal to one coulomb per
second. One coulomb is the charge carried by 6.25X1018 electrons. For example, an ordinary 80
W domestic ceiling fan on 230 V supply takes a current of approximately 0.35 A. This means that
electricity is passing through the fan at the rate of 0.35 coulomb every second, i.e. 2.187 X 1018 electrons
are passing through the fan in every second; or simply, the current is 0.35 A

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE ENERGY SOURCES (voltage or current sources) are active elements,
capable of delivering power to some external device. PASSIVE ELEMENTS ARE THOSE WHICH ARE CAPABLE
ONLY OF RECEIVING POWER . Some passive elements like inductors and capacitors are capable of storing a
finite amount of energy, and return it later to an external element.

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More specifically, an active element is capable of delivering an average power greater than zero to some
external device over an infinite time interval. For example, ideal sources are active elements. A passive
element is defined as one that cannot supply average power that is greater than zero over an infinite
time interval. Resistors, capacitors, and inductors fall into this category.
BILATERAL AND UNILATERAL
In the bilateral element, the VOLTAGE-CURRENT RELATION IS THE SAME FOR CURRENT FLOWING IN EITHER
DIRECTION. In contrast, a unilateral element has different relations between voltage and current for the
two possible directions of current. Examples of bilateral elements are elements made of high
conductivity materials in general. Vacuum diodes, silicon diodes, and metal rectifiers are examples of
unilateral elements. 1.
LINEAR AND NONLINEAR ELEMENTS
An element is said to be linear, IF ITS VOLTAGE -CURRENT CHARACTERISTIC IS AT ALL TIMES A STRAIGHT LINE
THROUGH THE ORIGIN . For example, the current passing through a resistor is proportional to the voltage
applied through it, and the relation is expressed as V and I or V & IR. A linear element or network is
one which satisfies the principle of superposition, i.e., the principle of homogeneity and additivity. An
element which does not satisfy the above principle is called a nonlinear element.
LUMPED AND DISTRIBUTED
LUMPED ELEMENTS ARE THOSE ELEMENTS WHICH ARE VERY SMALL IN SIZE AND IN WHICH SIM ULTANEOUS
ACTIONS TAKE PLACE FOR ANY GIVEN CAUSE AT THE SAME INSTANT OF TIME . Typical lumped elements are
capacitors, resistors, inductors and transformers. Generally, the elements are considered as lumped
when their size is very small compared to the wave length of the applied signal. DISTRIBUTED ELEMENTS ,
ON THE OTHER HAND , ARE THOSE WHICH ARE NOT ELECTRICALLY SEPARABLE FOR ANALYTICAL PURPOSES . For
example, a transmission line which has distributed resistance, inductance and capacitance along its
length may extend for hundreds of miles.

RESISTANCE
When a current flows in a material, the free electrons move through the material and collide with other
atoms. These collisions cause the electrons to lose some of their energy. This loss of energy per unit
charge is the drop in potential across the material. The amount of energy lost by the electrons is
related to the physical property of the material. These collisions restrict the movement of
electrons. The property of a material to restrict the flow of electrons is called resistance, denoted by R.
The symbol for the resistor is shown in Fig

The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω). Ohm is defined as the resistance offered by the material when a
current of one ampere flows between two terminals with one volt applied across it.

According to Ohm’s law, the current is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely
proportional to the total resistance of the circuit, i.e.

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We can write the above equation in terms of charge as follows.

where G is the conductance of a conductor. The units of resistance and conductance are ohm (V) and
mho (Ʊ) respectively
When current flows through any resistive material, heat is generated by the collision of electrons with
other atomic particles. The power absorbed by the resistor is converted to heat. The power absorbed by
the resistor is given by

where i is the current in the resistor in amps, and v is the voltage across the resistor in volts.
Energy lost in a resistance in time t is given by

A 10 V resistor is connected across a 12 V battery. How much current flows

through the resistor?

INDUCTANCE
A wire of certain length, when twisted into a coil becomes a basic inductor. If current is made to pass
through an inductor, an electromagnetic field is formed. A change in the magnitude of the current
changes the electromagnetic field. Increase in current expands the fields, and decrease in current
reduces it. Therefore, a change in current produces change in the electromagnetic field, which induces
a voltage across the coil according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. The unit of
inductance is henry, denoted by H. By definition, the inductance is one henry when current through
the coil, changing at the rate of one ampere per second, induces one volt across the coil. The
symbol for inductance is shown in Fig.

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ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY
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The current-voltage relation is given by

where v is the voltage across inductor in volts, and i is the current through inductor in amps. We can
rewrite the above equations as

From the above equation, we note that the current in an inductor is dependent upon the integral
of the voltage across its terminals and the initial current in the coil, i(0).

1. The induced voltage across an inductor is zero if the current through it is

constant. That means an inductor acts as short circuit to dc.

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2. A small change in current within zero time through an inductor gives an

infinite voltage across the inductor, which is physically impossible. In a fixed
inductor, the current cannot change abruptly.
3. The inductor can store finite amount of energy, even if the voltage across the
inductor is zero, and
4. A pure inductor never dissipates energy, only stores it. That is why it is also
called a non-dissipative passive element. However, physical inductors dissipate
power due to internal resistance
The current in a 2 H inductor varies at a rate of 2 A/s. Find the voltage across the
inductor and the energy stored in the magnetic field after 2 s

CAPACITANCE
Any two conducting surfaces separated by an insulating medium exhibit the property of a capacitor.
The conducting surfaces are called electrodes, and the insulating medium is called dielectric. A
capacitor stores energy in the form of an electric field that is established by the opposite charges on
the two electrodes. The electric field is represented by lines of force between the positive and negative
charges, and is concentrated within the dielectric. The amount of charge per unit voltage that is
capacitor can store is its capacitance, denoted by C. The unit of capacitance is Farad denoted by F. By
definition, one Farad is the amount of capacitance when one coulomb of charge is stored with one volt
across the plates. The symbol for capacitance is shown in Fig.

A capacitor is said to have greater capacitance if it can store more charge per unit voltage and the
capacitance is given by

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Integrating both sides, we have

where v (0) indicates the initial voltage across the capacitor. From the above equation, the voltage in a
capacitor is dependent upon the integral of the current through it, and the initial voltage across it.
The power absorbed by the capacitor is given by

From the above discussion, we can conclude the following:

1. The current in a capacitor is zero if the voltage across it is constant; that means, the capacitor
acts as an open circuit to dc
2. A small change in voltage across a capacitance within zero time gives an infinite current
through the capacitor, which is physically impossible. In a fixed capacitance the voltage
cannot change abruptly.
3. The capacitor can store a finite amount of energy, even if the current through it is zero,
and
4. A pure capacitor never dissipates energy, but only stores it; that is why it is called non-
dissipative passive element. However, physical capacitors dissipate power due to internal
resistance

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 DEPARTMWENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY
LECTURE NOTES
Compiled for the students of RGUKT

ENERGY SOURCES
According to their terminal voltage–current characteristics, electrical energy sources are
categorised into ideal voltage sources and ideal current sources. Further they can be divided
into independent and dependent sources
An ideal voltage source is a two-terminal element in which the voltage vs is completely
independent of the current is through its terminals. The representation of ideal constant voltage
source is shown in Fig.

voltage sources need not have constant magnitude; in many cases the specified voltage may be
time-dependent like a sinusoidal waveform. this may be represented as shown in fig

In many practical voltage sources, the internal resistance is represented in series

with the source as shown in Fig.

An ideal constant current source is a two-terminal element in which the current i s completely
independent of the voltage vs across its terminals.

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 DEPARTMWENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY
LECTURE NOTES
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Dependent or controlled sources are of the following types:

1. voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)
2. current controlled voltage source (CCVS)
3. voltage controlled current source (VCCS)
4. current controlled current source (CCCS)

SUMMARY
The unit of current is the ampere, abbreviated as A, and corresponds to charge q moving at the
rate of one coulomb per second.
In a two-terminal device the current entering one terminal is the same as the current leaving
the other terminal.
The voltage (potential difference) across a two-terminal device is defined as the work required
to move a positive charge of one coulomb from one terminal of the device to the other terminal.

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An ideal independent voltage source maintains the same voltage regardless of the amount of
current that flows through it.
An ideal independent current source maintains the same current regardless of the amount of
voltage that appears across its terminals.
The value of an dependent voltage source depends on another voltage or current elsewhere in
the circuit.
The value of an dependent current source depends on another current or voltage elsewhere in
the circuit
Independent and Dependent voltage and current sources are active devices; they normally (but
not always) deliver power to some external device.
Resistors, inductors, and capacitors are passive devices; they normally receive (absorb) power
from an active device.
A network is the interconnection of two or more simple devices.
A circuit is a network which contains at least one closed path. Thus every circuit is a network
but not all networks are circuits.
An active network is a network which contains at least one active device (voltage or current
source).
A passive network is a network which does not contain any active device.

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Kirchhoff ’s Current Law (KCL)

KCL states that the algebraic sum of all currents leaving (or entering) a node is equal to zero.
For example, in Figure 2.9, if we assign a plus (+) sign to the currents leaving the node, we
must assign a minus (−) sign to the currents entering the node. Then by KCL,

Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law (KVL)

KVL states that the algebraic sum of the voltage drops (voltages from + to −) or voltage rises
(voltages from − to +) around any closed path (mesh or loop) in a circuit is equal to zero.

Step 1: We do not know which voltage source(s) deliver power to the other
sources, so let us assume that the current flows in the clockwise direction* as
shown in Figure

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Step 2: We assign (+) and (−) polarities at each resistor’s terminal in accordance
with the established passive sign convention.
Step 3: By application of KVL and the adopted conventions, starting at node and
going clockwise, we get:

Then, by substitution of given values into

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SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTED SOURCES

RESISTORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

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VOLTAGE AND CURRENT DIVISION

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Determine the current through each resistor in the circuit shown in Fig.

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From fig(e), 4 ohms, 3 ohms and 3 ohms are in series . Hence Req = 4+ 3+ 3 =10 ohms

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 DEPARTMWENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
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the total current drawn from a 6 V source connected from A to B, and the current through 4.7
kV; voltage across 3 kV.

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Determine the value of the resistance R and current in each branch when the total
current taken by the circuit shown in Fig. is 6 A.

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Determine the current delivered by the source in the circuit shown in Fig.

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What is the voltage across A and B in the circuit shown in Fig

ANSWER:

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Determine the total current in the circuit shown in Fig

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MESH ANALYSIS
Step-1: identify no of loops
Step-2: assume current in each loop
Step-3: write KVL in each loop to get one equation for
each loop.
Step-4: solve the equations to get loop currents

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1. Find the voltage in the circuit shown in Fig.

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Use nodal analysis to find Vo in the circuit of Fig.

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Find the power delivered by 1A current source.

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SUPERNODE
In order to understand the concept of a super node, let us consider an electrical circuit as shown in Fig

To account for the fact that the source voltage is known, we consider both Va and Vb as part of one
larger node represented by the dotted ellipse as shown in Fig.

Procedure for using super node:

1. Use it when a branch between non-reference nodes is connected by an independent or a dependent
voltage source.
2. Enclose the voltage source and the two connecting nodes inside a dotted ellipse to form the super
node.
3. Write the constraint equation that defines the voltage relationship between the two non-reference
node as a result of the presence of the voltage source.
4. Write the KCL equation at the super node.
5. If the voltage source is dependent, then the constraint equation for the dependent source is also
needed

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